痛苦

痛苦（suffering）是構成情感現象負面效價（Valence）的基本要素。痛苦的反面是快樂或幸福等。與個人對傷害或傷害威脅的感知有關。^[1]

痛苦通常被歸類為身體上的^[2]或心智上的。^[3] 它可能有各種程度的強度，從輕微到無法忍受。持續時間長度和發生頻率的因素通常與強度因素相結合。受苦者或其他人對痛苦的態度可能有很大差異，這取決於它被認為是可以避免或不可避免、有用或無用、值得或不值得的。

苦在各種生物的生命中以多種方式發生，經常是戲劇性的。因此，人類活動的許多領域都與痛苦的某些方面有關。這些方面可能包括痛苦的性質、過程、起源和原因和意義、相關的個人、社會和文化行為^[4]、治療、管理和使用。

痛苦與人類的意識有關，而且經常伴隨着過去的經驗。

造成痛苦的常見示例有：

需求和期望未滿足
失去摯愛、親友、寵物等重要人物
與社會群體的分離
來自外部的約束和限制
面對老化、疾病和疼痛等

字源[編輯]

在漢語中，痛，是指肉體上的疼痛，而苦，則是來自於味覺上的苦澀感覺，將這兩種感覺結合，就形成痛苦這個詞。痛苦是一個概括性的形容語，肉體上產生的疼痛感受，可以稱為痛苦，而心靈上的煩惱掙扎，也可以稱為痛苦。

宗教對「苦」的詮釋[編輯]

參考資料[編輯]

^ For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."
^ Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. IASP Pain Terminology. [September 11, 2008]. （原始內容存檔於September 26, 2008）. UAB – School of Medicine – Center for Palliative and Supportive Care. [2008-09-11]. （原始內容存檔於2007-10-28）. Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."
^ Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.
^ Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. Suffering, hope, and entrapment: Resilience and cultural values in Afghanistan. Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115 . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.

[1] For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."

[2] Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. IASP Pain Terminology. [September 11, 2008]. （原始內容存檔於September 26, 2008）. UAB – School of Medicine – Center for Palliative and Supportive Care. [2008-09-11]. （原始內容存檔於2007-10-28）. Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."

[3] Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.

[4] Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. Suffering, hope, and entrapment: Resilience and cultural values in Afghanistan. Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115 . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.

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