柏金遜綜合症

柏金遜綜合症; Parkinsonism
肇因	柏金遜症; 路易氏體認知障礙症; 柏金遜症性認知障礙症（英語：Parkinson's disease dementia）; 其他神經退化障礙，包括多發性系統退化症（英語：multiple system atrophy）、進行性上眼神經核麻痺症（英語：progressive supranuclear palsy）及皮質基底核退化症（英語：corticobasal degeneration）; 藥物; 毒素; 代謝疾病;
分類和外部資源
醫學專科	神經學
ICD-11	8A00
ICD-10	G21、G22
DiseasesDB	24212
MedlinePlus	000759
Orphanet	68402
	[編輯此條目的維基數據]

柏金遜綜合症（Parkinsonism）是和運動機能相關的臨床綜合症，其特徵是顫抖、運動功能減退、僵硬（英語：Rigidity (neurology)）及平衡障礙（英語：balance disorder）^[1]^[2]。在柏金遜症（PD）患者身上會有類似徵狀（此綜合症因此而得名），而路易氏體認知障礙症（DLB）、柏金遜症性認知障礙症（英語：Parkinson's disease dementia）（PDD）等疾病也會有此徵狀。這類綜合症的病因範圍很廣，包括神經退化障礙疾病、藥物、毒素、代謝疾病，或是柏金遜症以外的神經性疾病^[3]。

病因[編輯]

藥物引起[編輯]

有柏金遜綜合症的人當中，約有7%是因為藥物的副作用而造成的，主要是因為抗精神病藥，特別是吩噻嗪（例如perphenazine及氯丙嗪）、噻噸（英語：thioxanthene）（例如三氟噻噸（英語：flupenthixol）及珠氯噻醇（英語：zuclopenthixol））及丁酰苯（例如氟哌啶醇），偶爾也有因為抗憂鬱藥物而造成。藥物引起柏金遜綜合症的盛行率會隨年齡而上昇。藥物引起的柏金遜綜合症一但出現，多半會維持原有的程度，不像柏金遜症會漸漸惡化^[4]。

毒素[編輯]

有發現殺蟲劑或除草劑暴露程度和柏金遜症之間的關聯性。若暴露在百草枯或錳乃浦（英語：Maneb）/鋅錳乃浦（英語：Mancozeb）下，風險是原來的兩倍^[5]。

已證實慢性錳（Mn）暴露會造成類似柏金遜綜合症的疾病，其特徵是運動障礙，此徵狀無法用典型的柏金遜症治療方式（英語：Management of Parkinson's disease）來治療，因此推測除了典型黑質內多巴胺能損失外，包括有其他的致病途徑^[6]。錳會在基底核內累積，因此造成運動障礙^[7]有一種和SLC30A10基因（錳外流轉運蛋白，減少細胞內錳所必需的蛋白）有關的變異和這種類似柏金遜綜合症疾病有關^[8]。在這疾病中看不到柏金遜症中典型的路易體（英語：Lewy body）^[7]。

診斷[編輯]

許多疾病會造成柏金遜綜合症。

神經退化障礙及巴金森附加綜合症（英語：Parkinson plus syndrome）^[9]

皮質基底核退化症（英語：Corticobasal degeneration）^[9]
路易氏體認知障礙症^[9]
額顳認知障礙症（英語：Frontotemporal dementia）（匹克氏病）^[10]
格斯特曼–斯特勞斯勒–申克綜合症^[9]
亨丁頓舞蹈症^[9]
Lytico-bodig症（英語：Lytico-bodig disease）（ALS complex of Guam）^[9]
多系統萎縮（英語：Multiple system atrophy）（Shy–Drager綜合症）^[9]
神經吞噬作用（英語：Neuroacanthocytosis）^[9]
神經元蠟樣脂褐質儲積症（英語：Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis）^[9]
少腦橋小腦萎縮（英語：Olivopontocerebellar atrophy）^[9]
泛酸鹽激活酵素關聯之神經退化性疾病（英語：Pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration），也稱為具有腦部鐵質積聚的神經變性（neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation）^[9]
帕金突變（遺傳性青少年肌張力障礙）^[9]
柏金遜症^[9]
柏金遜症性認知障礙症（英語：arkinson's disease dementia）^[11]
進行性上眼神經核麻痺症（英語：Progressive supranuclear palsy）^[9]
肝豆狀核變性^[9]
X連鎖性肌張力障礙柏金遜症（英語：X-linked dystonia parkinsonism）（Lubag綜合症）^[9]

藥物引發（偽柏金遜綜合症）

抗精神病藥^[9]
鋰^[9]
MDMA成癮且經常使用^[12]^[13]
四苯那嗪（英語：Tetrabenazine）^[9]

感染

毒素

創傷

慢性創傷性腦病變^[9]

血管的

Binswanger病（英語：Binswanger's disease）（皮質下白質腦病（英語：leukoencephalopathy））^[9]
血管性痴呆（多發梗塞性）^[9]

其他

腦幹受損（特別是黑質的多巴胺能核）^[22]^[23]或是基底核（特別是蒼白球（英語：globus pallidus））^[24]或丘腦的受損^[25]
甲狀腺機能低下症^[9]
站立性顫抖症^[26]
腫瘤伴隨綜合症：因為癌症產生的抗體引發的神經性徵狀^[27]
快速發作的肌張力障礙性柏金遜症^[28]
常染色體隱性遺傳性少年柏金遜症^[29]

原發性震顫[編輯]

根據2018年的回顧性研究，還不確定柏金遜綜合症和原發性震顫（英語：essential tremor）是否有關^[30]。

參考資料[編輯]

^ ^1.0 ^1.1 Aminoff MJ, Greenberg DA, Simon RP. Chapter 7: Movement disorders. Clinical Neurology 6th. Lange: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2005: 241–45. ISBN 978-0-07-142360-1.
^ Tobottom BJ, Weiner WJ, Shulman LM. Chapter 42: Parkinsonism. Lisak RP, Truong DD, Carroll W, Bhidayasiri R (編). International Neurology: A Clinical Approach. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2009-09-28: 152–58. ISBN 978-1-405-15738-4.
^ Christine, Chadwick W.; Aminoff, Michael J. Clinical differentiation of parkinsonian syndromes: Prognostic and therapeutic relevance. The American Journal of Medicine. 2004-09-15, 117 (6). ISSN 0002-9343. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.03.032 （英語）.
^ Information Sheet: Drug-induced Parkinsonism (PDF). Parkinson’s Disease and Society. [2013-04-15]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2013-06-26）.
^ ^5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 Pezzoli, Gianni; Cereda, Emanuele. Exposure to pesticides or solvents and risk of Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2013-05-28, 80 (22) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 0028-3878. PMID 23713084. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318294b3c8. （原始內容存檔於2023-03-03）（英語）.
^ ^6.0 ^6.1 Guilarte, Tomás R.; Gonzales, Kalynda K. Manganese-Induced Parkinsonism Is Not Idiopathic Parkinson’s Disease: Environmental and Genetic Evidence. Toxicological Sciences. 2015-08, 146 (2) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 1096-6080. PMC 4607750 . PMID 26220508. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfv099. （原始內容存檔於2022-12-19）（英語）.
^ ^7.0 ^7.1 Kwakye, Gunnar; Paoliello, Monica; Mukhopadhyay, Somshuvra; Bowman, Aaron; Aschner, Michael. Manganese-Induced Parkinsonism and Parkinson’s Disease: Shared and Distinguishable Features. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015-07-06, 12 (7) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 4515672 . PMID 26154659. doi:10.3390/ijerph120707519. （原始內容存檔於2023-01-30）（英語）.
^ Peres, Tanara V.; Schettinger, Maria Rosa C.; Chen, Pan; Carvalho, Fabiano; Avila, Daiana S.; Bowman, Aaron B.; Aschner, Michael. “Manganese-induced neurotoxicity: a review of its behavioral consequences and neuroprotective strategies”. BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology. 2016-12, 17 (1) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 2050-6511. PMC 5097420 . PMID 27814772. doi:10.1186/s40360-016-0099-0. （原始內容存檔於2023-02-02）（英語）.
^ ^9.00 ^9.01 ^9.02 ^9.03 ^9.04 ^9.05 ^9.06 ^9.07 ^9.08 ^9.09 ^9.10 ^9.11 ^9.12 ^9.13 ^9.14 ^9.15 ^9.16 ^9.17 ^9.18 ^9.19 ^9.20 ^9.21 ^9.22 ^9.23 ^9.24 ^9.25 ^9.26 ^9.27 ^9.28 ^9.29 ^9.30 ^9.31 ^9.32 Jankovic J, Lang AE. Diagnosis and Assessment. Bradley, Walter George (編). Neurology in Clinical Practice: Principles of diagnosis and management. Volume 1. Taylor & Francis. 2004: 295–96. ISBN 9789997625885.
^ Finger EC. Frontotemporal Dementias. Continuum (Review). April 2016, 22 (2 Dementia): 464–89. PMC 5390934 . PMID 27042904. doi:10.1212/CON.0000000000000300.
^ McKeith, Ian G.; Boeve, Bradley F.; Dickson, Dennis W.; Halliday, Glenda; Taylor, John-Paul; Weintraub, Daniel; Aarsland, Dag; Galvin, James; Attems, Johannes; Ballard, Clive G.; Bayston, Ashley. Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: Fourth consensus report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology. 2017-07-04, 89 (1). ISSN 0028-3878. PMC 5496518 . PMID 28592453. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000004058 （英語）.
^ Louis, E. D.; Ottman, R. Is there a one-way street from essential tremor to Parkinson's disease? Possible biological ramifications. European Journal of Neurology. 2013-11, 20 (11) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 1468-1331. PMC 3801177 . PMID 24033795. doi:10.1111/ene.12256. （原始內容存檔於2022-10-20）.
^ Fabrizi, Monaco, Dalla Libera. Parkinsonian syndrome following MDMA (Ecstasy) addiction. Movement Disorders. 2004, 19: S73–S74.
^ Maltête, David; Guyant-Maréchal, Lucie; Mihout, Bruno; Hannequin, Didier. Movement disorders and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: A review. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 2006-03-01, 12 (2). ISSN 1353-8020. PMID 16364674. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.10.004 （英語）.
^ Tse W, Cersosimo MG, Gracies JM, Morgello S, Olanow CW, Koller W. Movement disorders and AIDS: a review. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. August 2004, 10 (6): 323–34. PMID 15261874. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2004.03.001.
^ Carod-Artal, F. J. [Neurological syndromes linked with the intake of plants and fungi containing a toxic component (I). Neurotoxic syndromes caused by the ingestion of plants, seeds and fruits]. Revista De Neurologia. 2003-05, 36 (9) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 0210-0010. PMID 12717675. （原始內容存檔於2022-10-16）.
^ Kim EA, Kang SK. Occupational neurological disorders in Korea. Journal of Korean Medical Science (Review). December 2010, 25 (Suppl): S26–35. PMC 3023358 . PMID 21258587. doi:10.3346/jkms.2010.25.S.S26.
^ Watanabe Y, Himeda T, Araki T. Mechanisms of MPTP toxicity and their implications for therapy of Parkinson's disease (PDF). Medical Science Monitor. January 2005, 11 (1): RA17–23 [2019-12-08]. PMID 15614202. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2016-03-04）.
^ ^19.0 ^19.1 Nandipati S, Litvan I. Environmental Exposures and Parkinson's Disease. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Review). September 2016, 13 (9): 881. PMC 5036714 . PMID 27598189. doi:10.3390/ijerph13090881.
^ Weiss, Janet. Chapter 151. Toluene and Xylene. Olson, Kent R. (編). Poisoning & Drug Overdose 6. New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies. 2012.
^ Uitti RJ, Snow BJ, Shinotoh H, Vingerhoets FJ, Hayward M, Hashimoto S, Richmond J, Markey SP, Markey CJ, Calne DB. Parkinsonism induced by solvent abuse. Annals of Neurology. May 1994, 35 (5): 616–9. PMID 8179306. doi:10.1002/ana.410350516.
^ Jubault T, Brambati SM, Degroot C, Kullmann B, Strafella AP, Lafontaine AL, Chouinard S, Monchi O. Gendelman HE , 編. Regional brain stem atrophy in idiopathic Parkinson's disease detected by anatomical MRI. PLOS ONE. December 2009, 4 (12): e8247. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.8247J. PMC 2784293 . PMID 20011063. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008247.
^ Port, Dr Beckie. What brain areas are affected by Parkinson's?. Medium. 2018-06-04 [2019-03-28]. （原始內容存檔於2021-07-21）.
^ Kuoppamäki M, Rothwell JC, Brown RG, Quinn N, Bhatia KP, Jahanshahi M. Parkinsonism following bilateral lesions of the globus pallidus: performance on a variety of motor tasks shows similarities with Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. April 2005, 76 (4): 482–90. PMC 1739601 . PMID 15774432. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2003.020800.
^ Halliday, Glenda M. Thalamic changes in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 2009-12-15, 15: S152–S155. PMID 20082979. doi:10.1016/S1353-8020(09)70804-1 （英語）.
^ Apartis E, Tison F, Arné P, Jedynak CP, Vidailhet M. Fast orthostatic tremor in Parkinson's disease mimicking primary orthostatic tremor. Movement Disorders. November 2001, 16 (6): 1133–6. PMID 11748748. doi:10.1002/mds.1218.
^ Panzer J, Dalmau J. Movement disorders in paraneoplastic and autoimmune disease. Current Opinion in Neurology. August 2011, 24 (4): 346–53. PMC 3705177 . PMID 21577108. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e328347b307.
^ Liu Y, Lu Y, Zhang X, Xie S, Wang T, Wu T, Wang C. A case of rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism accompanied by pyramidal tract impairment. BMC Neurology. November 2016, 16 (1): 218. PMC 5105251 . PMID 27835968. doi:10.1186/s12883-016-0743-8.
^ Saito M, Maruyama M, Ikeuchi K, Kondo H, Ishikawa A, Yuasa T, Tsuji S. Autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Brain & Development. September 2000,. 22 Suppl 1: S115–7. PMID 10984671.
^ Algarni M, Fasano A. The overlap between Essential tremor and Parkinson disease. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. January 2018,. 46 Suppl 1: S101–S104. PMID 28729090. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2017.07.006.

外部連結[編輯]

[Aminoff_2005-1] 1.0 ^1.1 Aminoff MJ, Greenberg DA, Simon RP. Chapter 7: Movement disorders. Clinical Neurology 6th. Lange: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2005: 241–45. ISBN 978-0-07-142360-1.

[2] Tobottom BJ, Weiner WJ, Shulman LM. Chapter 42: Parkinsonism. Lisak RP, Truong DD, Carroll W, Bhidayasiri R (編). International Neurology: A Clinical Approach. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2009-09-28: 152–58. ISBN 978-1-405-15738-4.

[3] Christine, Chadwick W.; Aminoff, Michael J. Clinical differentiation of parkinsonian syndromes: Prognostic and therapeutic relevance. The American Journal of Medicine. 2004-09-15, 117 (6). ISSN 0002-9343. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.03.032 （英語）.

[4] Information Sheet: Drug-induced Parkinsonism (PDF). Parkinson’s Disease and Society. [2013-04-15]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2013-06-26）.

[Pezzoli2013-5] 5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 Pezzoli, Gianni; Cereda, Emanuele. Exposure to pesticides or solvents and risk of Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2013-05-28, 80 (22) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 0028-3878. PMID 23713084. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318294b3c8. （原始內容存檔於2023-03-03）（英語）.

[Guilarte2015-6] 6.0 ^6.1 Guilarte, Tomás R.; Gonzales, Kalynda K. Manganese-Induced Parkinsonism Is Not Idiopathic Parkinson’s Disease: Environmental and Genetic Evidence. Toxicological Sciences. 2015-08, 146 (2) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 1096-6080. PMC 4607750 . PMID 26220508. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfv099. （原始內容存檔於2022-12-19）（英語）.

[Kwakye2015-7] 7.0 ^7.1 Kwakye, Gunnar; Paoliello, Monica; Mukhopadhyay, Somshuvra; Bowman, Aaron; Aschner, Michael. Manganese-Induced Parkinsonism and Parkinson’s Disease: Shared and Distinguishable Features. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015-07-06, 12 (7) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 4515672 . PMID 26154659. doi:10.3390/ijerph120707519. （原始內容存檔於2023-01-30）（英語）.

[Peres2016-8] Peres, Tanara V.; Schettinger, Maria Rosa C.; Chen, Pan; Carvalho, Fabiano; Avila, Daiana S.; Bowman, Aaron B.; Aschner, Michael. “Manganese-induced neurotoxicity: a review of its behavioral consequences and neuroprotective strategies”. BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology. 2016-12, 17 (1) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 2050-6511. PMC 5097420 . PMID 27814772. doi:10.1186/s40360-016-0099-0. （原始內容存檔於2023-02-02）（英語）.

[Bradley2004-9] 9.00 ^9.01 ^9.02 ^9.03 ^9.04 ^9.05 ^9.06 ^9.07 ^9.08 ^9.09 ^9.10 ^9.11 ^9.12 ^9.13 ^9.14 ^9.15 ^9.16 ^9.17 ^9.18 ^9.19 ^9.20 ^9.21 ^9.22 ^9.23 ^9.24 ^9.25 ^9.26 ^9.27 ^9.28 ^9.29 ^9.30 ^9.31 ^9.32 Jankovic J, Lang AE. Diagnosis and Assessment. Bradley, Walter George (編). Neurology in Clinical Practice: Principles of diagnosis and management. Volume 1. Taylor & Francis. 2004: 295–96. ISBN 9789997625885.

[Finger2016-10] Finger EC. Frontotemporal Dementias. Continuum (Review). April 2016, 22 (2 Dementia): 464–89. PMC 5390934 . PMID 27042904. doi:10.1212/CON.0000000000000300.

[McKeithConsensus2017-11] McKeith, Ian G.; Boeve, Bradley F.; Dickson, Dennis W.; Halliday, Glenda; Taylor, John-Paul; Weintraub, Daniel; Aarsland, Dag; Galvin, James; Attems, Johannes; Ballard, Clive G.; Bayston, Ashley. Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: Fourth consensus report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology. 2017-07-04, 89 (1). ISSN 0028-3878. PMC 5496518 . PMID 28592453. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000004058 （英語）.

[12] Louis, E. D.; Ottman, R. Is there a one-way street from essential tremor to Parkinson's disease? Possible biological ramifications. European Journal of Neurology. 2013-11, 20 (11) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 1468-1331. PMC 3801177 . PMID 24033795. doi:10.1111/ene.12256. （原始內容存檔於2022-10-20）.

[13] Fabrizi, Monaco, Dalla Libera. Parkinsonian syndrome following MDMA (Ecstasy) addiction. Movement Disorders. 2004, 19: S73–S74.

[14] Maltête, David; Guyant-Maréchal, Lucie; Mihout, Bruno; Hannequin, Didier. Movement disorders and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: A review. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 2006-03-01, 12 (2). ISSN 1353-8020. PMID 16364674. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.10.004 （英語）.

[15] Tse W, Cersosimo MG, Gracies JM, Morgello S, Olanow CW, Koller W. Movement disorders and AIDS: a review. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. August 2004, 10 (6): 323–34. PMID 15261874. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2004.03.001.

[16] Carod-Artal, F. J. [Neurological syndromes linked with the intake of plants and fungi containing a toxic component (I). Neurotoxic syndromes caused by the ingestion of plants, seeds and fruits]. Revista De Neurologia. 2003-05, 36 (9) [2022-10-15]. ISSN 0210-0010. PMID 12717675. （原始內容存檔於2022-10-16）.

[Kim2010-17] Kim EA, Kang SK. Occupational neurological disorders in Korea. Journal of Korean Medical Science (Review). December 2010, 25 (Suppl): S26–35. PMC 3023358 . PMID 21258587. doi:10.3346/jkms.2010.25.S.S26.

[Watanabe_2005-18] Watanabe Y, Himeda T, Araki T. Mechanisms of MPTP toxicity and their implications for therapy of Parkinson's disease (PDF). Medical Science Monitor. January 2005, 11 (1): RA17–23 [2019-12-08]. PMID 15614202. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2016-03-04）.

[Nandipati-19] 19.0 ^19.1 Nandipati S, Litvan I. Environmental Exposures and Parkinson's Disease. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Review). September 2016, 13 (9): 881. PMC 5036714 . PMID 27598189. doi:10.3390/ijerph13090881.

[20] Weiss, Janet. Chapter 151. Toluene and Xylene. Olson, Kent R. (編). Poisoning & Drug Overdose 6. New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies. 2012.

[21] Uitti RJ, Snow BJ, Shinotoh H, Vingerhoets FJ, Hayward M, Hashimoto S, Richmond J, Markey SP, Markey CJ, Calne DB. Parkinsonism induced by solvent abuse. Annals of Neurology. May 1994, 35 (5): 616–9. PMID 8179306. doi:10.1002/ana.410350516.

[22] Jubault T, Brambati SM, Degroot C, Kullmann B, Strafella AP, Lafontaine AL, Chouinard S, Monchi O. Gendelman HE , 編. Regional brain stem atrophy in idiopathic Parkinson's disease detected by anatomical MRI. PLOS ONE. December 2009, 4 (12): e8247. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.8247J. PMC 2784293 . PMID 20011063. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008247.

[23] Port, Dr Beckie. What brain areas are affected by Parkinson's?. Medium. 2018-06-04 [2019-03-28]. （原始內容存檔於2021-07-21）.

[24] Kuoppamäki M, Rothwell JC, Brown RG, Quinn N, Bhatia KP, Jahanshahi M. Parkinsonism following bilateral lesions of the globus pallidus: performance on a variety of motor tasks shows similarities with Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. April 2005, 76 (4): 482–90. PMC 1739601 . PMID 15774432. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2003.020800.

[25] Halliday, Glenda M. Thalamic changes in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 2009-12-15, 15: S152–S155. PMID 20082979. doi:10.1016/S1353-8020(09)70804-1 （英語）.

[26] Apartis E, Tison F, Arné P, Jedynak CP, Vidailhet M. Fast orthostatic tremor in Parkinson's disease mimicking primary orthostatic tremor. Movement Disorders. November 2001, 16 (6): 1133–6. PMID 11748748. doi:10.1002/mds.1218.

[27] Panzer J, Dalmau J. Movement disorders in paraneoplastic and autoimmune disease. Current Opinion in Neurology. August 2011, 24 (4): 346–53. PMC 3705177 . PMID 21577108. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e328347b307.

[28] Liu Y, Lu Y, Zhang X, Xie S, Wang T, Wu T, Wang C. A case of rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism accompanied by pyramidal tract impairment. BMC Neurology. November 2016, 16 (1): 218. PMC 5105251 . PMID 27835968. doi:10.1186/s12883-016-0743-8.

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