文化鬥爭
文化鬥爭（德語：Kulturkampf）是指普魯士王國與羅馬天主教會在1870年代的政治角力[1]。 當時普魯士王國首相卑斯麥於1871年到1878年所頒佈的政策，旨在減少羅馬天主教會對普魯士的影響和權力。該政策最終失敗告吹。
歷史[編輯]
俾斯麥作為堅定的新教徒，從未完全相信羅馬天主教徒對德意志帝國的忠誠度[2]。此前，教宗無誤論在第一次梵蒂岡大公會議中由教宗庇護九世正式頒佈為天主教教義，使得德國天主教徒內部產生分裂，也引來的普魯士政府的干涉[2]。德國政府認為羅馬天主教會在德國東方激起波蘭民族主義情緒。德國天主教徒支持教廷的行為也使俾斯麥對天主教徒產生了懷疑。天主教徒此前在 1870 年成立了德國中央黨，不信任新教為主體的普魯士在德國內的主導地位，也經常反對俾斯麥的政策[2]。
由1871年至1876年，普魯士政府頒佈了一系列政策，旨在削弱天主教會的勢力。政策包括對神職人員的教育背景提出要求並進行考核、禁止耶穌會的工作、將教育和婚姻世俗化（即取消教會主導的制度）等[3]。一部分沒有遵守此些政策的天主教神父和主教被驅逐出境或監禁。但文化鬥爭反而使天主教徒更加團結[3]。在 1874 年的選舉中，中央黨的得票數反而增加了一倍[3]。至1870年代後期，俾斯麥開始傾向於保守主義和貿易保護主義而非自由主義，並逐漸結束了文化鬥爭、修改了部分針對天主教會的法律[3]。
有學者認為，文化鬥爭造就了德國中央黨，並使其成為了此後數十年在德國政壇上不可輕視的勢力[3]。甚至二戰後的德國基督教民主聯盟也深受德國中央黨影響[3]。
另見[編輯]
資料來源[編輯]
- ^ David Blackbourn. The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780-1918. Oxford University Press. 1997: 262.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Kulturkampf". Encyclopedia Britannica, 25 Feb. 2013, https://www.britannica.com/event/Kulturkampf. Accessed 30 April 2021.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Fulbrook, Mary. A concise history of Germany. Cambridge University Press, 2019.
參考文獻[編輯]
- Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. Windthorst: A Political Biography (1981), the leader pf the Catholic Center Party
- Bennette, Rebecca Ayako. Fighting for the Soul of Germany: The Catholic Struggle for Inclusion After Unification (Harvard University Press; 2012) 368 pages; examines Catholics' promotion of an alternative national identity after 1871.
- Blackbourn, David. Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Oxford, 1993)
- Gross, Michael B. The War against Catholicism: Liberalism and the Anti-Catholic Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Germany (2005)
- Hollyday, FBM, Bismarck, Great Lives Observed, Prentice-Hall, 1970.
- Hope, Nicholas, "Prussian Protestantism," in Philip G. Dwyer, ed. Modern Prussian History: 1830–1947 (2001) pp. 188–208
- Lamberti, Marjorie. "Religious conflicts and German national identity in Prussia, 1866–1914," in Philip G. Dwyer, ed. Modern Prussian History: 1830–1947 (2001) pp. 169–187
- Ross, Ronald J. The failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf: Catholicism and state power in imperial Germany, 1871–1887, (Washington, D.C., 1998)
- Ross, Ronald J. "Enforcing the Kulturkampf in the Bismarckian state and the limits of coercion in imperial Germany." Journal of Modern History (1984): 456-482. in JSTOR
- Ross, Ronald J. "The Kulturkampf: Restrictions and Controls on the Practice of Religion in Bismarck’s Germany." in by Richard Helmstadter, ed. Freedom and Religion in the Nineteenth Century (1997) pp: 172-195.
- Trzeciakowski, Lech. The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland (East European Monographs, 1990) 223 pp
- Zeender, John. "Ludwig Windthorst, 1812-1891" History (1992) 77#250 pp 237-54, the leader pf the Catholic Center Party
外部連結[編輯]
Kulturkampf. 天主教百科全書. 1913., detailed article by Martin Spahn, written in 1910.- Kulturkampf. 新國際百科全書. 1905.
- 「Bismarck’s Failure: the Kulturkampf」 （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） long description
- Founding Manifesto of the Protestant League (1887); Statistics on Membership (1887-1913) (English trasnslation) （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） a German anti-Catholic propaganda organization that became active after the Kulturkampf
- Bismarck’s Domestic Polices 1871 -1890 （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） Kulturkampf in the context of Bismarck's entire domestic policies, by a head of history at Catholic University School in Dublin
- Kulturkampf Now and Then 13-paged essay in pdf by a Professor of the United States Air Force Academy
- Ludwig Windthorst Speaks in the Prussian Parliament (1873) （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） speech of Ludwig Windthorst following its analysis
- Bismarck on the purpose of the Kulturkampf （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） Speech in the Prussian House of Lords, March 10, 1873
- Kulturkampf: Bibliography by （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） LitDok East-Central Europe Herder-Institut (Marburg)
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