草稿:艾伦·图灵
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艾伦·图灵 Alan Turing OBE FRS | |
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![]() 16岁的图灵,摄于1928年前后 | |
出生 | ![]() | 1912年6月23日
逝世 | 1954年6月7日![]() | (41岁)
死因 | 氰化物中毒自杀[a] |
墓地 | 骨灰撒在沃金火葬场 |
教育程度 | 舍伯恩学校 |
母校 | |
知名于 | |
伴侣 | 琼·克拉克 (1941年订婚,未结) |
奖项 | 史密斯奖(1936) |
科学生涯 | |
研究领域 | 数学、逻辑学、密码分析、计算机科学、数理生物学[1] |
机构 | |
论文 | Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals(1938) |
博士导师 | 阿隆佐·邱奇[2] |
博士生 | 罗宾·甘迪[2][3] 比阿特丽斯·沃斯利[4] |
受影响自 | 马克斯·纽曼[5] |
签名 | |
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艾伦·马西森·图灵 OBE FRS(英语:Alan Mathison Turing[b];1912年6月23日—1954年6月7日),英国数学家、电脑科学家、逻辑学家、密码分析师、哲学家和数理生物学家[6][7]。他深刻影响理论计算机科学的发展,将算法及运算等概念形式化为普遍认为是通用计算机的图灵机[8][9][10],因此被普遍认为是理论计算机科学及人工智能之父[11]。
图灵出生于伦敦麦达维尔,在南英格兰成长。凭数学学位在剑桥大学国王学院毕业后,图灵留校担任院士,期间证明部分纯数学的对错问题无法通过运算解答、定义了图灵机、继续证明图灵机的停机问题无法决定。1938年,图灵取得普林斯顿大学数学系哲学博士学位。第二次世界大战期间,图灵来到政府通信总部的密码破译中心布莱切利园,为Ultra情报部门工作。他率领8号营房分部,专门负责破译德国海军的密码,期间设计多种技术加快密码破解速度,包括改良波兰在大战前推出的电动密码机炸弹法,找出恩尼格玛密码机的设定。图灵破译了大量从敌军截获的加密信息,推动同盟国在大西洋海战等重大战役中击败轴心国[12][13]。
战后,图灵在英国国家物理实验室设计出自动运算引擎,属于第一批能够储存程序的计算机。1948年,图灵加入马克斯·纽曼在曼彻斯特维多利亚大学的计算机实验室,开发出曼彻斯特大学计算机组,同时进军数理生物学界。他撰写论文研究形态发生的化学基础[1],预言了摆动式的化学反应,例如最开始于1960年代被发现的别洛乌索夫-扎博廷斯基反应。由于大部分研究成果依照《官方保密法》封存,图灵在世时从未获得祖国完全认可[14]。
1952年,图灵因同性恋行为被起诉,随后接受代替刑罚的己烯雌酚化学阉割。1954年,在离42岁还有16天的时候,图灵氰化物中毒死亡。死因裁决宣布他的死乃属自杀,不过现存证据亦支持其死于意外中毒。[15][16][17]
图灵为后世带来深远的影响。出于纪念,后人为他设立雕像,用他的名字命名了许多事物,包括表彰计算机科学发明的年度奖项,而在他寿辰前发布的英格兰银行50英镑纸币印有他的肖像。根据观众投票结果,2019年BBC电视节目《偶像:20世纪伟人巡礼》将艾伦提名为20世纪最伟大的人。
早年及教育
[编辑]家庭
[编辑]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Alan_Turing_%285025990183%29.jpg/170px-Alan_Turing_%285025990183%29.jpg)
1912年6月23日,图灵生于英国伦敦麦达维尔[7],父亲朱利叶斯·马西森·图灵(Julius Mathison Turing,1873—1947)在英属印度马德拉斯省(今奥里萨邦)恰特拉普尔政府任公务员[18][19],祖父约翰·罗伯特·图灵牧师(Rev. John Robert Turing)出生在荷兰的一个苏格兰商业世家,家里有位从男爵。图灵母亲埃塞尔·萨拉·图灵[c](Ethel Sara Turing,1881—1976)是马德拉斯铁路首席工程师爱德华·沃勒·斯托尼(Edward Waller Stoney)之女。斯托尼一家是盎格鲁爱尔兰人,信奉新教,在蒂珀雷里郡和朗福德郡属于绅士阶级,不过埃塞尔的童年多数在克莱尔郡度过[20]。
朱利叶斯在印度公务员局的工作让他家人来到印度,当时他的父亲在孟加拉军队当将军。不过朱利叶斯和埃塞尔希望孩子们能在英国长大,于是搬到了伦敦的麦达维尔[21]。原为图灵故居的柱廊酒店[18][22]外有一块蓝色牌匾,上面记载艾伦·图灵于1912年6月23日出生[23][24]。图灵有一个哥哥,叫约翰,是图灵男爵世家第12代男爵约翰·德莫特·图灵爵士的父亲[25]。
图灵少年时代,父亲仍有公务员职责在身,他与妻子在英国黑斯廷斯[26]和印度两地奔波,将两个儿子托付给英国陆军的一对退伍夫妇。图灵在黑斯廷斯期间住在海边的圣伦纳兹上迷宫山(Upper Maze Hill)的巴斯顿旅馆。旅馆外有一块蓝色牌匾[27],在2012年6月23日图灵百岁诞辰纪念日揭幕[28]。
图灵儿时天赋异禀,铸就了他日后天才的人生[29]。1927年,父母在吉尔福德买下一栋房子,学校放假的时候,图灵就会在那边。房子外也有一块蓝色牌匾[30]。
教育
[编辑]图灵6岁到9岁在海边的圣伦纳兹查尔斯路20号(20 Charles Road)圣迈克尔斯小学(St Michael's)就读。校长非常认可图灵的才华,说自己见过很多聪明、刻苦用功的男孩,但“图灵完全是天才”[31]。
1922年至1926年,图灵来到萨塞克斯郡(今东萨塞克斯郡)法兰特村私立学校黑兹赫斯特预科学校(Hazelhurst Preparatory School)读书[32],之后在1926年以13岁之龄转学到多塞特郡商业重镇谢尔本寄宿私立学校谢尔本学校[33],借住韦斯科特之家(Westcott House)。图灵上学第一天恰逢1926年英国大罢工,但他毅然决定上学,独自踩着自行车,从南安普顿骑了60英里(97千米)的路程,去谢尔本上学,中途在一家客栈过夜[34]。
图灵天生喜欢数学和科学,但谢尔本的学校更看重古典学的教学,所以那里的老师看不起他。校长曾写信给他的父母:“我希望他将来不会落到两头不到岸的境地。如果他要留在公立学校,就必须要用‘知识渊博’的模样。如果他只想成为‘科学专家’,那他待在公立学校就是浪费时间[35]。”尽管如此,图灵还是在自己喜欢的研究领域大放异彩:1927年,没接触初级的微积分学知识的他,已经可以解决高级的难题。1928年,16岁的图灵接触到阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦的著作,不仅掌握到书中的内容,而且还从意义含糊的文字中,推测到爱因斯坦对牛顿运动定律有所质疑[36]。
克里斯托弗·莫科姆
[编辑]图灵在谢尔本结识到同窗好友克里斯托弗·科兰·莫科姆(Christopher Collan Morcom,1911年7月13日—1930年2月13日)[37],他是图灵的“初恋”。两人的浪漫关系鼓励图灵过好之后的人生,但最终因莫科姆于1930年2月去世而告终。几年前,莫科姆饮用受污染的牛奶,患上牛结核病,最终因该病并发症病逝[38][39][40]。
图灵陷入莫大的悲伤,需要更加努力研究和莫科姆一起提出的科学和数学课题,才能分散注意力。图灵在写给莫科姆母亲的信中说:
我敢肯定,这么聪明、有魅力、不自负的伴侣,我在别的地方不可能找到。我对自己研究及天文学(他带我进去的)的兴趣,可以和他分享。他对我的感觉,我认为也有点是这样的......我必须将更多的精力投入到自己的研究中,就好像他还在世一样,因为这是他希望我去做的事情[41]。
莫科姆死后,图灵和他母亲一直保持联系。到了莫科姆忌日,图灵一般会写信给对方,对方则给他寄礼物[42]。莫科姆第三个忌日的前一天(1933年2月13日),图灵写信给他母亲:
希望您收到这封信的时候,能想起克里斯。我也会想起他。之所以给您写这封信,是想告诉您,明天我和您一样会想起克里斯。我敢相信,如果他还在,一定会很开心。您深情的艾伦[43]。
部分人推测莫科姆的死让图灵不信教,成为唯物主义者[44]。显然,到了这个时候,他仍然认为精神独立于肉体,肉体死亡,精神永存。后来他在写给莫科姆母亲的信中说:
在我看来,精神确实永远跟物质联系在一起,但肯定不会和肉体那样的物质串连......至于精神和肉体间的实际关联,我认为肉体可以保存‘精神’,但肉体是活着的、醒着的,两者紧密联系。肉体沉睡的时候,我猜不出肉体会发生什么。但肉体消亡的时候,肉体的‘机制’,保存中的‘精神’消失了,精神迟早或者马上去找一副新的肉体[45][46]。
大学生涯与可计算性的研究工作
[编辑]离开谢尔本,图灵于1931年到1934年在剑桥大学国王学院读本科[7],取得数学系一等荣誉。1935年,22岁的图灵凭借证明中心极限定理的毕业论文,成为国王学院院士[47]。不过委员会不知道该定理早在1922年就被贾尔·瓦尔德马·林德伯格证明[48]。
1936年,图灵发表论文《论可计算数与其在可判定性中的应用》[49]。文章于11月30日和12月23日分两篇在《伦敦数学学会会刊》(Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society)发表[50]。在该论之前,库尔特·哥德尔已于1931年发表了证明与计算的极限相关的结果,后来被称作哥德尔不完备定理,而图灵则修改哥德尔文章中的部分设定,将哥德尔的泛算术基础的形式语言修改成一个简单而形式的理想装置,也就是众所周知的图灵机。1928年,德国数学家大卫·希尔伯特首次提出问题的可判定性这一概念,并且,图灵证明他的“泛计算装置”有能力执行所有可以用算法表示出来的数学计算。
他之后继续证明决定性问题无解,一开始是提出停机问题是图灵机的决定性问题,不可能通过算法判断图灵机会不会停止。这篇论文被认为“很容易成为历史上最有影响力的数学论文”[51]。
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/20130808_Kings_College_Front_Court_Fountain_Crop_03.jpg/220px-20130808_Kings_College_Front_Court_Fountain_Crop_03.jpg)
图灵证明发表前不久,阿隆佐·邱奇才自己的Λ算法提出等价的证据[52],但图灵的方法比邱奇更简单、更直观[53]。图灵在证明中构思一种了“通用机”,也就是现在的通用图灵机,认为这种机器能执行其他计算机器的任务(这一点邱奇的Λ算法确实能做到)。根据邱奇-图灵论题,图灵机和Λ算法能够计算一切可计算的事物。约翰·冯·诺伊曼认为现代计算机的中央思想源于图灵的论文[54]。时至今日,图灵机仍是计算理论研究领域的重点课题。
1936年9月到1938年7月,图灵大部分时间都在普林斯顿大学师从邱奇[4],第二年出任简·伊丽莎·普罗克特访问学者。除了单纯研究数学,图灵还钻研密码学,完成了电动乘法器四个建造阶段的前三个[55]。1938年6月,获普林斯顿大学数学系博士学位[56],其论文《基于序数的逻辑系统》[57][58]介绍了序数逻辑概念及相对的计算方法。约翰·冯·诺伊曼想请他当博士后助理,但他回到了英国[59]。
研究
[编辑]当图灵回到剑桥时,他参加了1939年路德维希·维特根斯坦关于数学基础的讲座。[60]讲座已根据学生的笔记逐字重建,包括图灵和其他学生的感叹词。[61]图灵和维特根斯坦争论不休,图灵为数学形式辩护,而维特根斯坦提出他的观点,即数学不发现任何绝对真理,而是发明它们。[62]
密码分析
[编辑]在第二次世界大战期间,图灵是在布莱切利园破解德国密码的主要参与者。历史学家和战时密码破译者Asa Briggs曾说过:“你需要非凡的才能,你需要布莱切利的天才,而图灵就是那个天才。”[63]
1938年9月起,图灵在英国密码破译机构政府密码学校兼职,与高级密码破解员第利·诺克斯专责对纳粹德国的恩尼格玛机进行密码解析[64]。1939年7月,波兰密码局在华沙附近召集会议,向英国和法国提供了恩尼格玛机转子的接线,以及他们解码恩尼格玛密码机信息的方法。图灵和诺克斯依照这些信息,开发出更为广泛的方案[65]。波兰的方法依赖并不安全的分析仪手段,这个环节德国人很容易更改,实际上他们在1940年5月改过一次。图灵的方法更加通用,用的是基于婴儿床的破解方法(“婴儿床”为布莱切利园对任何已知明文或可疑明文的代称),并以此开发出炸弹机(波兰炸弹机的改良版)的功能参数[66]。
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Turing_flat.jpg/220px-Turing_flat.jpg)
1939年9月4日,英国对德国宣战的第二天,图灵来到政府密码学校的战时站点布莱切利园报道[67]。和其他来报道的人一样,他需要签署《官方保密法》,同意不透露布莱切利园的工作内容,否则因违反法律而面临严重的法律处罚[68]。
指明炸弹机是图灵在战时为密码分析学取得的其中一项重大进展,另外四项为推导德国海军使用的分析仪程序、开发代号班布里莫斯的统计程序提供密码机运作效率、开发代号图灵里的程序找出洛伦兹 SZ 40/42密码机凸轮的设置,以及在战争快结束的时候为汉斯洛普园开发代号“大丽花”的加密语音加扰器。
图灵在解密过程中,利用统计技术优化对不同概率的试验,为这一课题作出突出贡献。他在《概率在密码学中的应用》(The Applications of Probability to Cryptography)[69]和《关于重复的统计论文》(Paper on Statistics of Repetitions)[70]两篇文章中讨论的数学方法,受到密码学校和后来的政府通信总部重视,相关内容直到图灵百岁诞辰2012年4月前才由英国国家档案馆公开。仅自称“理查德”(Richard)的政府通信总部数学家当时曾说,这些内容按照《官方保密法》被保密约70年,足以证明其重要性及对战后密码分析学的关联性[71]:
他表示,这些内容一直被限制,‘证明它对我们学科的基础有着非常大的重要性’......这些论文详细记述用‘数学分析找出最有可能的设定,方便破译人员尽可能迅速地进行尝试’的方法......理查德说政治通信总部现在已经‘榨干了(两篇论文)的果汁’,‘愿意把他们放上公有领域’。
图灵在布莱切利园是出了名的古怪,同事一般叫他‘教授’,把他对恩尼格玛机的内容称为“教授的著作”[72]。根据历史学家罗纳德·勒温,曾和图灵共事的密码分析师杰克·古德回忆道:
每年六月第一个礼拜,他都会患上严重的花粉症。他骑自行车去办公室的时候,都会戴上军用防毒面具,防止吸入花粉。他的自行车有个毛病,就是链条会定期松脱,但他不拿去修理,而是依照踏板转动次数算出它什么时候会掉下来,那到时候,他就会亲手换链条了。他还有个毛病,就是把马克杯用铁链拴在暖气管上,防止别人偷走[73]。
彼得·希尔顿在《美国百年数学史》一书的文章《布莱切利园的回忆》中,提到自己和图灵共事的经历[74]:
遇见真正的天才是一种很罕见的体验。我们这些生活在学术世界的人,都很熟悉被才华横溢的同事醍醐灌顶的体验。我们可以欣赏他们的想法,一般也能理解他们的想法从何而来。我们甚至经常以为自己也能提出这样的概念,诞生这样的想法。但是,和天才头脑碰撞的体验是完全不同的,就像一个人意识到自己站在天才的面前,对方又有着深度和独创性非常高的敏感性,会变得讶异和兴奋,而艾伦·图灵就是那样的天才。而像我一样,因为第二次世界大战的诡异紧张兴奋得到惊人且意想不到的机会,和图灵做同事和朋友的人们,永远不会忘记那段经历,永远不会丢失他给我们带来的深厚影响。
希尔顿在公共广播电视公司Nova纪录片《解码纳粹秘密》(Decoding Nazi Secrets)也提到类似的想法[75]。
在布莱切利园工作期间,身为长跑健将的图灵经常跑40英里(64千米)的路去伦敦开会[76],跑步水平达到世界级马拉松标准[77][78]图灵参加1948年英国奥运代表队试训,但因为受伤退出。他的马拉松试训成绩只比凭借2小时35分钟获得银牌的英国选手托马斯·理查德(Thomas Richards)慢了11分钟。图灵是沃尔顿竞技俱乐部(Walton Athletic Club)的最佳跑手,这个事实是他在超越大部队独自奔跑时发现的[79][80][81]。
被问到为什么这么努力地练跑步,他说:
我的工作很紧张,只有在努力跑步的时候才能忘掉,这是我释放压力的唯一方式[82]。
由于一些反事实历史的问题,Ultra情报部门在二战期间发挥的确切作用很难估计[83]。但是,官方战争历史学家哈里·欣斯利估计这项研究将欧洲的战事缩短了两年多,拯救了1400万人[84]。
战争结束时,布莱切利园的员工都收到一份备忘录,提醒他们《官方保密法》的效力并不会随着战争结束而失效,而是一直持续下去[68]。正因为如此,图灵1946年因战时的工作获国王乔治六世颁发大英帝国勋章后,其研究成果仍被保密许多年[85][86]。
解码器“炸弹”
[编辑]在到达布莱切利园的几周内[67],图灵优化波兰解码器“炸弹”,成功加速破解纳粹德国的恩尼格玛密码机,从而设计出自己的同名机电装置“炸弹”,不过波兰的解码器名是波兰语的炸弹 bomba,而图灵则是以法语将他的解码器命名为 bombe。接受了数家Gordon Welchman的建议而做出修正之后,图灵的“炸弹”成为了冲击恩尼格玛密码机加密资讯最重要的手段之一,也成为最主要的所有自动化工具。[87]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Bombe-rebuild.jpg/220px-Bombe-rebuild.jpg)
The bombe searched for possible correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor settings and plugboard settings) using a suitable crib: a fragment of probable plaintext. For each possible setting of the rotors (which had on the order of 1019 states, or 1022 states for the four-rotor U-boat variant),[88] the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib, implemented electromechanically.[89]
The bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting, moving on to the next. Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. A contradiction would occur when an enciphered letter would be turned back into the same plaintext letter, which was impossible with the Enigma. The first bombe was installed on 18 March 1940.[90]
By late 1941, Turing and his fellow cryptanalysts Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry were frustrated. Building on the work of the Poles, they had set up a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals, but their limited staff and bombes meant they could not translate all the signals. In the summer, they had considerable success, and shipping losses had fallen to under 100,000 tons a month; however, they badly needed more resources to keep abreast of German adjustments. They had tried to get more people and fund more bombes through the proper channels, but had failed.[91]
On 28 October they wrote directly to Winston Churchill explaining their difficulties, with Turing as the first named. They emphasised how small their need was compared with the vast expenditure of men and money by the forces and compared with the level of assistance they could offer to the forces.[91] As Andrew Hodges, biographer of Turing, later wrote, "This letter had an electric effect."[92] Churchill wrote a memo to General Ismay, which read: "ACTION THIS DAY. Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done." On 18 November, the chief of the secret service reported that every possible measure was being taken.[92] The cryptographers at Bletchley Park did not know of the Prime Minister's response, but as Milner-Barry recalled, "All that we did notice was that almost from that day the rough ways began miraculously to be made smooth."[93] More than two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war.[94]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Turing-statue-Bletchley_14.jpg/170px-Turing-statue-Bletchley_14.jpg)
8号营房与海军恩尼格玛机
[编辑]图灵决定解决德国海军谜团这一困难问题,"因为没有人在做这方面的工作,我可以自己来做。"”。[96] 1939年12月,图灵解决了海军指示系统的基本部分,它比其他部门使用的指示系统更复杂。[96][97]
同一天晚上,他还构思了 Banburismus的想法,这是一种顺序统计技术(沃德·亚伯拉罕后来称之为顺序分析),以协助破解海军英格玛,"尽管我不确定它在实践中是否可行,事实上,直到有些日子真的破解了才确定。[96] 为此,他发明了一种衡量证据重要性的标准,他称之为禁令 (单位)。禁令可以排除恩尼格玛机转子的某些序列,大大减少了在炸弹上测试设置所需的时间。[98] 后来,这种用分班(禁令的十分之一)积累足够的证据重量的顺序过程被用于洛伦兹密码的加密分析。[99]
1942年11月,图灵前往美国[100],在华盛顿与美国海军的密码学家一起研究海军的英尼码和轰炸机的构造;他还参观了他们在俄亥俄州代顿的电脑实验室。
图灵对美国轰炸机设计算不上有兴趣:
美国的轰炸机计划是要生产336架轰炸机,每个轮子都有一个。我曾经对这一方案所隐含的炸弹人小屋程序的概念暗自发笑,但认为指出我们不会真正以这种方式使用它们,并没有什么特别的目的。 他们的测试(换向器)很难被认为是完成品,因为他们没有用电子止动器来测试反弹。似乎没有人被告知 rods or offiziers or banburismus ,除非有意改进。[101]
在这次旅行中,他还在贝尔实验室协助开发安全语音设备[102] 他于1943年3月返回布莱切利庄园。在他离开期间,Hugh Alexander正式担任了8号小屋的负责人,尽管亚历山大在一段时间内一直是事实上的负责人(图灵对该部门的日常运作兴趣不大)。图灵成为布莱切利庄园密码分析的一般顾问。[103]
亚历山大在谈到图灵的贡献时写道。:
任何人都不应该怀疑,图灵的工作是Hut 8成功的最大因素。在早期,他是唯一认为这个问题值得解决的密码学家,他不仅主要负责小屋内的主要理论工作,而且他还与韦尔奇曼和基恩分享了发明炸弹的主要功劳。要说谁是 "绝对不可缺少的 "总是很困难的,但如果说谁是第八小屋不可缺少的,那就是图灵。当经验和例行公事后来使一切看起来都很容易时,先驱者的工作总是倾向于被遗忘,而我们第8小屋的许多人认为,图灵的贡献之大从未被外部世界充分认识。[104]
图灵方法
[编辑]1942年7月,图灵设计了一种被称为 Turingery(或开玩笑说是Turingismus)[105]的技术,用于对付德国人新的秘密作家(德语:Geheimschreiber)机器产生的 洛伦兹密码 密码信息。这是在布莱切利庄园的一个teleprinter rotor cipher attachment的密码附件,代号为Tunny。Turingery是一种wheel-breaking的方法 i.e., a procedure for working out the cam settings of Tunny's wheels.[106]他还将Tunny团队介绍给了Tommy Flowers即是在Max Newman的指导下,Max Newman,建造巨人计算机的学者,巨人计算机是世界上第一台可编程的数字电子计算机,它取代了之前更简单的机器(the Heath Robinson),其卓越的速度使统计解密技术能够有效地应用于信息。[107]有些人错误地认为图灵是巨人计算机计算机设计中的关键人物。图灵里和班伯里斯的统计方法无疑为洛伦兹密码的密码分析提供了思路,cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher,[108][109]但他没有直接参与Colossus的开发。[110]
黛利拉
[编辑]图灵在贝尔实验室工作后,[111] 致力于对电话系统中的语音进行加密。战争后期,他转到汉斯洛普公园的特勤局无线电安全处 (即后来的HMGCC)。 在工程师Donald Bayley的协助下,他进一步学习了电子方面的知识,并一起设计制造了一个代号为Delilah的便携式安全语音通讯机。[112] 这台机器适应于多种不同的用途,但它缺乏长距离无线电传输的能力。 无论如何,Delilah都发明得太迟,无法在战争期间使用。 尽管该系统完全可以运作,图灵也向官员展示过——用它来加密和解密丘吉尔的演讲录音,Delilah仍然并未被采用。[113]图灵也与贝尔实验室协商开发 SIGSALY,这是一种在战争末期使用的安全语音系统。
雏形计算机与图灵测试
[编辑]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Alan_Turing_78_High_Street_Hampton_blue_plaque.jpg/220px-Alan_Turing_78_High_Street_Hampton_blue_plaque.jpg)
在1945和1947年间,图灵在汉普顿 (伦敦)居住,[114] 其时他在英国国家物理实验室研究自动计算机(Automatic Computing Engine)的设计。 他在1946年2月19日发表了一片论文,它是存储程序计算机的第一个细节的设计。[115]冯·诺伊曼 不完整的“EDVAC报告书的第一份草案”比图灵的论文早,但它的细节少很多,并且,根据NPL 数学部主管John R. Womersley,它“包含一些图灵自己的想法”。[116]
虽然ACE是一个可行的设计,但是围绕布莱切利园战时工作的Official Secrets Act使得图灵不可能解释他分析包括人类操作者的计算机安装的基础。.[117] 这导致了项目开始的延迟,他的幻想破灭了。在1947年末,他返回了剑桥,度过了一个休假年。在此期间,他创作了一部关于智能机械的开创性工作,它在图灵的有生之年里没有出版。[118] 当他在剑桥时,没有他的情况下建造了Pilot ACE。它在1950年5月10日运行了第一个程序,世界各地的许多后来的计算机都归功于它,包括English Electric DEUCE 和美国的 Bendix G-15。图灵的ACE的完整版本直到他去世也没有被建造。[119]
根据Genscher, Düsseldorf发表的德国计算机先驱者,马克斯·普朗克物理学研究所的Heinz Billing回忆录,图灵和康拉德·楚泽曾经有过一次见面。[120] 它在1947年哥廷根发生。审问采用座谈会的形式。 参与者是来自英格兰的 Womersley、Turing、Porter 和一些德国研究人员,如 Zuse、Walther 和 Billing(更多详细信息请参见 Herbert Bruderer、Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz)。
1948年,图灵被任命为曼彻斯特维多利亚大学数学系reader。一年后,他成为了计算机器实验室副主任,他在其研究最早的冯·诺伊曼结构计算机之一,曼切斯特1型的软件。图灵撰写了这台机器的第一版程序员手册,并被 Ferranti 聘为他们商业化机器 Ferranti Mark 1 开发的顾问。直到他去世,Ferranti 仍然继续向他支付咨询费。.[121]在这段时间,他继续做更加抽象的数学工作, [122] 在“Computing Machinery and Intelligence”(Mind,1950 年 10 月)中,图灵解决了人工智能的问题,并提出了一个后来被称为图灵测试的实验,试图为称为“智能”的机器定义一个标准。想法是一台计算机可以被认为“思考”,如果一个人类审问者不能通过谈话将其与一个人类分开。[123]论文中,图灵建议与其建立一个模拟成年人意识的程序,不如先建立一个模拟孩童思想的程序,然后让它接受教育。一个图灵测试的反向形式在因特网上被广泛地使用;验证码测试是为了确定用户是人类还是机器人。
在1948年,图灵与他的前本科同事 D.G. Champernowne 工作,开始为一个尚不存在的电脑编写一个国际象棋程序。到了1950年,程序已经完成,并被称为Turochamp。[124]在1952年,他尝试在Ferranti Mark 1上实现它,但是计算机由于缺乏足够功率,无法运行程序。替代地,图灵通过在棋盘上执行算法的指令,每次移动大约半小时,“运行”了程序。这场棋局被记录下来。[125] 根据加里·基莫维奇·卡斯帕罗夫,图灵的程序“下了一盘有辨识度的国际象棋。”[126]程序输给了图灵的同事Alick Glennie,虽然说它跟Champernowne的妻子Isabel赢了一局。[127]
他的图灵测试对关于人工智能的辩论做出了重要的、典型的、刺激的和持久的贡献,这场辩论在半个多世纪后仍在继续。[128]
图灵斑图与数理生物学
[编辑]1951年,图灵39岁,他转向数理生物学,终于在1952年1月,发表名篇《形态发生的化学基础》。图灵有志研究形态发生,即生物体的形态、图案如何产生。他提出,一个反应-扩散系统,即若干种化学物质一边互相反应,一边扩散而形成的系统,可以解释“形态发生的主要现象”("the main phenomena of morphogenesis")。[129]他探用偏微分方程组,为有催化的化学反应建模。例如,若某化学反应需要催化剂甲才发生,但该反应本身亦产生催化剂甲,则称该反应自催化,是个正回馈系统,可以用非线性微分方程描述。图灵发现,若反应不仅产生催化剂甲,还同时产生抑制剂乙,抑剂甲的产生,而两者以不同的速率在容器中扩散,则可以有某些区域由甲占主导,另一些区域由乙主导,从而产生图案。若要准确模拟此现象,需要强大的电脑,但在1951年不易取用,所以图灵仅能考虑方程的线性近似,以纸笔解出。其计算给出正确的定性结论,例如推断出由某种均匀混合物开始,可以出奇地产生固定间距的红点。俄国生化学家鲍里斯·别洛乌索夫曾得出类似的实验结果,但未能发表论文,因为当时的成见认为,任何此种现象必然违反热力学第二定律。别氏未曾知道图灵在《自然科学会报》发表了论文。[130]:126
虽然图灵发表论文的时间,尚早于学界明白DNA结构和功用的时间,但图灵对形态发生的研究,至21世纪仍具意义,在数理生物领域被视为具开创性。[131]作为该论文的早期应用,詹姆士·莫瑞解释了大小猫科动物的毛如何形成斑点与条纹。[132]:80[133][130]:134后续研究指出,生物之所以长出“羽毛、毛囊、肺的分枝结构”,甚至为何有“将心脏置于左胸的左右不对称性”,皆可由图灵的论文部分解释。[134]2012年,舍思等人发现,移除鼠的同源异形基因,会增加指头的数目,而不改变肢体的整体大小,推论该种基因控制指头生长的机制,是借由调校某个图灵斑图的波长(即前段机制中,图案的间距)。[135]此后图灵的论文,要待1992年《图灵文集》(Collected Works of A. M. Turing)出版,才见诸市面。[136]
个人生活
[编辑]订婚
[编辑]1941年,图灵向Hut 8的同事、数学家和密码分析师Joan Clarke求婚,然而他们的订婚很短暂。在向未婚妻承认了自己的同性恋身份后,图灵决定不再继续这段婚姻,据报道其未婚妻对这一消息“泰然自若”。[137]
猥亵罪
[编辑]1952年1月,39岁的图灵与19岁无业男子阿诺德·穆雷(Arnold Murray)相恋。在上一年圣诞节前夕,图灵走在曼彻斯特的牛津路,在富豪电影院门外遇到穆雷,遂请他共进午餐。1月23日,图灵家遭窃,穆雷说自己和盗窃犯是熟人,图灵则向警方报告案件。调查期间,图灵承认自己爱上穆雷。然而同性恋当时在英国属于刑事犯罪[138],两人最终按照《1885年刑法修正案》第11条被控“严重猥亵罪”[139]。案件预审于同年2月27日举行,期间图灵律师“保留辩护权利”,即没有就相关指控提出证据或进行辩护。
后来在哥哥及辩护律师的说服下,图灵选择认罪[140]。案件最终以“女王诉图灵及穆雷案”的名义于1952年3月31日正式开审[141]。图灵选择认罪,可以在服刑及缓刑之间做出选择,而缓刑的条件是同意进行激素的治疗,以降低性冲动。图灵选择注射当时叫做芪雌酚(也就是现在的己烯雌酚)的合成雌性激素,身体会在之后一年产生雌性反应,包括出现勃起功能障碍、乳房组织发育[142]。这种感受直接和图灵的预测相吻合:“毫无疑问我会变成一个完全不同的男人,还没有遇到过的那种[143][144]。”与此同时,穆雷获得有条件假释[145]。
被判刑后,图灵从事安全工作的资格被撤销,无法在英国信号情报机构政府通信总部担任密码学顾问,但他可以继续从事学术工作。除此之外,图灵也无法进入美国,但可以自由前往其他欧洲国家[146]。
死亡
[编辑]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Turing_Plaque.jpg/220px-Turing_Plaque.jpg)
1954年6月8日,图灵于威姆斯洛艾灵顿路43号的家中[147]被其管家发现已经身亡,时年41岁。他的死被判定为是由氰化物中毒导致[148]。当他的尸体被发现时,其床边有一个吃了一半的苹果。虽然苹果本身没有验出氰化物[149],仍然有猜测认为图灵通过进食这个苹果吸取了致命剂量的氰化物。随后进行的死因研讯断定图灵是自杀。霍奇斯及另一名传记作者大卫·莱维特皆推测图灵是在重演华特·迪士尼在1937年制作的《白雪公主》电影的一幕,因为该故事是图灵最喜爱的童话。莱维特在著作中提到他与霍奇斯皆认为图灵“特别为故事中坏王后把苹果浸进毒药的一幕着迷”[150]。
图灵的遗体在1954年6月12日[151]于沃金火葬场火化。与其父一样,图灵的骨灰被散到火葬场花园内的每一角落[152]。
哲学家杰克·科普兰对有关当局的结论感到质疑,并对提出了另一个解释:图灵可能是意外吸入电镀装置释出的氰化物气体而死。当时图灵在一个小房间里设置了一个在餐匙上镀金的实验装置,而氰化钾因为能溶解金而成为这个实验的必需品。科普兰指出,图灵的验尸报告显示他较可能是吸入毒气而非服用毒物。此外,图灵睡前有进食苹果的习惯,而他没吃完苹果就把它放下也是很正常的事[15]。与此同时,从已知的纪录显示,图灵本人对他被定罪和被迫服食荷尔蒙的事“一笑置之”(而且在他去世时,他已经停止服药达一年),而他去世前亦没有任何抑郁迹象。他甚至写下了一个在度假后打算完成的事项清单,显示他十分期待自己恢复工作[15]。图灵的母亲亦相信儿子是意外身亡,因为他并不谨慎处理实验用的化学物品[16]。为图灵作传的安德鲁·霍奇斯则认为图灵故意在母亲面前安排运送实验器材,让她得知人们指称他是自杀而死时,可加以否认[17]。
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Alan_Turing_OBE.jpg/220px-Alan_Turing_OBE.jpg)
It has been suggested that Turing's belief in fortune-telling may have caused his depressed mood.[152] As a youth, Turing had been told by a fortune-teller that he would be a genius. In mid-May 1954, shortly before his death, Turing again decided to consult a fortune-teller during a day-trip to St Annes-on-Sea with the Greenbaum family.[152] According to the Greenbaums' daughter, Barbara:[153]
But it was a lovely sunny day and Alan was in a cheerful mood and off we went... Then he thought it would be a good idea to go to the Pleasure Beach at Blackpool. We found a fortune-teller's tent[,] and Alan said he'd like to go in[,] so we waited around for him to come back... And this sunny, cheerful visage had shrunk into a pale, shaking, horror-stricken face. Something had happened. We don't know what the fortune-teller said[,] but he obviously was deeply unhappy. I think that was probably the last time we saw him before we heard of his suicide.
政府道歉与赦免
[编辑]In August 2009, British programmer John Graham-Cumming started a petition urging the British government to apologise for Turing's prosecution as a homosexual.[154][155] The petition received more than 30,000 signatures.[156][157] The Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, acknowledged the petition, releasing a statement on 10 September 2009 apologising and describing the treatment of Turing as "appalling":[156][158]
Thousands of people have come together to demand justice for Alan Turing and recognition of the appalling way he was treated. While Turing was dealt with under the law of the time and we can't put the clock back, his treatment was of course utterly unfair and I am pleased to have the chance to say how deeply sorry I and we all are for what happened to him ... So on behalf of the British government, and all those who live freely thanks to Alan's work I am very proud to say: we're sorry, you deserved so much better.[156][159]
In December 2011, William Jones and his Member of Parliament, John Leech, created an e-petition[160] requesting that the British government pardon Turing for his conviction of "gross indecency":[161]
We ask the HM Government to grant a pardon to Alan Turing for the conviction of "gross indecency". In 1952, he was convicted of "gross indecency" with another man and was forced to undergo so-called "organo-therapy"—chemical castration. Two years later, he killed himself with cyanide, aged just 41. Alan Turing was driven to a terrible despair and early death by the nation he'd done so much to save. This remains a shame on the British government and British history. A pardon can go some way to healing this damage. It may act as an apology to many of the other gay men, not as well-known as Alan Turing, who were subjected to these laws.[160]
The petition gathered over 37,000 signatures,[160][162] and was submitted to Parliament by the Manchester MP John Leech but the request was discouraged by Justice Minister Lord McNally, who said:[163]
A posthumous pardon was not considered appropriate as Alan Turing was properly convicted of what at the time was a criminal offence. He would have known that his offence was against the law and that he would be prosecuted. It is tragic that Alan Turing was convicted of an offence that now seems both cruel and absurd—particularly poignant given his outstanding contribution to the war effort. However, the law at the time required a prosecution and, as such, long-standing policy has been to accept that such convictions took place and, rather than trying to alter the historical context and to put right what cannot be put right, ensure instead that we never again return to those times.[164]
John Leech, the MP for Manchester Withington (2005–15), submitted several bills to Parliament[165] and led a high-profile campaign to secure the pardon. Leech made the case in the House of Commons that Turing's contribution to the war made him a national hero and that it was "ultimately just embarrassing" that the conviction still stood.[166] Leech continued to take the bill through Parliament and campaigned for several years, gaining the public support of numerous leading scientists, including Stephen Hawking.[167][168] At the British premiere of a film based on Turing's life, The Imitation Game, the producers thanked Leech for bringing the topic to public attention and securing Turing's pardon.[169] Leech is now regularly described as the "architect" of Turing's pardon and subsequently the Alan Turing Law which went on to secure pardons for 75,000 other men and women convicted of similar crimes.[170][171][172][173][174][175][176][177][178][179][180]
On 26 July 2012, a bill was introduced in the House of Lords to grant a statutory pardon to Turing for offences under section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, of which he was convicted on 31 March 1952.[181] Late in the year in a letter to The Daily Telegraph, the physicist Stephen Hawking and 10 other signatories including the Astronomer Royal Lord Rees, President of the Royal Society Sir Paul Nurse, Lady Trumpington (who worked for Turing during the war) and Lord Sharkey (the bill's sponsor) called on Prime Minister David Cameron to act on the pardon request.[182] The government indicated it would support the bill,[183][184][185] and it passed its third reading in the House of Lords in October.[186]
At the bill's second reading in the House of Commons on 29 November 2013, Conservative MP Christopher Chope objected to the bill, delaying its passage. The bill was due to return to the House of Commons on 28 February 2014,[187] but before the bill could be debated in the House of Commons,[188] the government elected to proceed under the royal prerogative of mercy. On 24 December 2013, Queen Elizabeth II signed a pardon for Turing's conviction for "gross indecency", with immediate effect.[189] Announcing the pardon, Lord Chancellor Chris Grayling said Turing deserved to be "remembered and recognised for his fantastic contribution to the war effort" and not for his later criminal conviction.[162][190] The Queen officially pronounced Turing pardoned in August 2014.[191] The Queen's action is only the fourth royal pardon granted since the conclusion of the Second World War.[192] Pardons are normally granted only when the person is technically innocent, and a request has been made by the family or other interested party; neither condition was met in regard to Turing's conviction.[193]
In September 2016, the government announced its intention to expand this retroactive exoneration to other men convicted of similar historical indecency offences, in what was described as an "Alan Turing law".[194][195] The Alan Turing law is now an informal term for the law in the United Kingdom, contained in the Policing and Crime Act 2017, which serves as an amnesty law to retroactively pardon men who were cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. The law applies in England and Wales.[196]
影响
[编辑]奖项与荣誉
[编辑]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Alan_Turing_Building_1.jpg/220px-Alan_Turing_Building_1.jpg)
图灵在1946年被授予大英帝国勋章官佐勋章[86],后在1951年当选为皇家学会院士[8]。 曼彻斯特作为图灵自工作直至离世所居住的城市,用了各种方式来纪念他。1994年,曼彻斯特中的一段环路以其名字命名,这条路所行经的桥拓宽后亦以他为名。在2001年6月23日,图灵雕像在曼彻斯特大学和运河街附近的公园落成,这位“计算机科学之父”坐在公园中心位置的一张长椅上,手中还拿着一个象征其自杀时使用的苹果,身后的长椅铸有据信为“计算机科学开创者”英文经恩尼格玛密码机加密后的字样:“IEKYF ROMSI ADXUO KVKZC GUBJ”[d][197]。
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Alan_Turing_Memorial.jpg/220px-Alan_Turing_Memorial.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sackville_Park_Turing_plaque.jpg/220px-Sackville_Park_Turing_plaque.jpg)
雕像脚下的牌匾上写着“计算机科学之父、数学家、逻辑学家、战时密码破译者、偏见的受害者”。以及伯特兰·罗素的名言:“数学,正确看待时,不仅具有真理,还具有至高的美—一种冷而严峻的美,一种如雕塑一般屹立不摇的美。”这位雕塑家将他自己的旧 Amstrad 计算机埋在了基座下,以此向“所有现代计算机的教父”致敬[198]。
1999年,《时代杂志》提名图灵为时代100人:本世纪最重要的人物,并评价道:“时至今日,现在每个人敲击键盘、打开电子表格或文字处理程序,都仍在使用所谓的图灵机。” [9] 2012 年 6 月 23 日,图灵诞辰一百周年之际,一块蓝色牌匾在国王学院揭幕,现在安装在该学院位于 King's Parade 的凯恩斯大楼 [199][200]。
2021 年 3 月 25 日,英格兰银行公布了新版 50 英镑纸币的设计,背面印有图灵的肖像,并在图灵诞辰 6 月 23 日正式发行。图灵于 2019 年经过公开提名被选为新肖像人选 [201]。
百年诞辰
[编辑]为纪念图灵诞辰 100 周年,图灵百年纪念咨询委员会 (TCAC) 协调了艾伦图灵年,这是一项为期一年的全球活动计划,旨在纪念图灵的生平和成就。 TCAC 由 S. Barry Cooper担任主席,图灵的侄子约翰·德莫特·图灵爵士担任名誉主席,合作者包括曼彻斯特大学的教职员工以及来自剑桥大学和布莱切利公园的人士。
钢雕塑争议
[编辑]2020年5月,据Gay Star News报道,为纪念图灵,英国雕塑家Antony Gormley设计了一座 12英尺(3.7米) 的钢制雕塑。Antony Gormley提案把雕塑建造在剑桥大学国王学院,但英格兰历史遗产保护局称一座19块钢板组成的抽象雕塑“…与学院现有的特征不符。这样对于景观和保护建筑,以及对保护区的扩展都会造成一些不那么具实质性的损害。”[202]
注释
[编辑]参考资料
[编辑]- ^ 1.0 1.1 由Google学术搜索索引的艾伦·图灵出版物。
- ^ 2.0 2.1 艾伦·图灵在数学谱系计划的资料。
- ^ Gandy, Robin Oliver. On axiomatic systems in mathematics and theories in physics (PhD论文). University of Cambridge. 1953 [2017-12-09]. doi:10.17863/CAM.16125. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.590164. (原始内容存档于2017-12-09).
- ^ 4.0 4.1 乔纳森·P·鲍文. The Impact of Alan Turing: Formal Methods and Beyond. 乔纳森·P·鲍文; 刘志明; 张自立 (编). Engineering Trustworthy Software Systems. SETSS 2018 (PDF). 计算机科学讲义 11430. Cham: Springer. 2019: 202–235. ISBN 978-3-030-17600-6. S2CID 121295850. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-17601-3_5. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2022-10-09) (英语).
- ^ Ivor Grattan-Guinness, Chapter 40, Turing's mentor, Max Newman. In Copeland, B. Jack; Bowen, Jonathan P.; Wilson, Robin; Sprevak, Mark. The Turing Guide. Oxford University Press. 2017. ISBN 978-0-19-874782-6.
- ^ Who was Alan Turing?. The British Library. [2019-07-29]. (原始内容存档于2019-07-23).
- ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Anon. Turing, Alan Mathison
. 英国名人录. ukwhoswho.com 牛津大学出版社在线版 (布卢姆斯伯里出版公司旗下A & C Black). 2017. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U243891. 需要订阅或英国公共图书馆会员资格
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Newman, M.H.A. Alan Mathison Turing. 1912–1954. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 1955, 1: 253–263. JSTOR 769256. S2CID 711366. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1955.0019
.
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Gray, Paul. Alan Turing – Time 100 People of the Century. Time. 1999-03-29 [2011-01-10]. (原始内容存档于2011-01-19) (英语).
Providing a blueprint for the electronic digital computer. The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine.
- ^ Sipser 2006,第137页
- ^ Beavers 2013,第481页
- ^ Copeland, Jack. Alan Turing: The codebreaker who saved 'millions of lives'. BBC News Technology. 2012-06-18 [2014-10-26]. (原始内容存档于2014-10-11).
- ^ A number of sources state that Winston Churchill said that Turing made the single biggest contribution to Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. However, both The Churchill Centre and Turing's biographer Andrew Hodges have stated they know of no documentary evidence to support this claim, nor of the date or context in which Churchill supposedly said it, and the Churchill Centre lists it among their Churchill 'Myths', see Schilling, Jonathan. Churchill Said Turing Made the Single Biggest Contribution to Allied Victory. The Churchill Centre: Myths. 2015-01-08 [2015-01-09]. (原始内容存档于2015-02-17). and Hodges, Andrew. Part 4: The Relay Race. Update to Alan Turing: The Enigma. [2015-01-09]. (原始内容存档于2015-01-20). A BBC News profile piece that repeated the Churchill claim has subsequently been amended to say there is no evidence for it. See Spencer, Clare. Profile: Alan Turing. BBC News. 2009-09-11 [2015-02-17]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-13).
Update 13 February 2015
Official war historian Harry Hinsley estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years but added the caveat that this did not account for the use of the atomic bomb and other eventualities.Hinsley, Harry, The Influence of ULTRA in the Second World War, 1996 [1993] Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University - ^ Olinick, M. (2021). Simply Turing. United States: Simply Charly, ch. 15.
- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Pease, Roland. Alan Turing: Inquest's suicide verdict 'not supportable'. BBC News. 2012-06-23 [2012-06-23]. (原始内容存档于2012-06-23).
We have ... been recreating the narrative of Turing's life, and we have recreated him as an unhappy young man who committed suicide. But the evidence is not there.
- ^ 16.0 16.1 TURING, Ethel Sara (1881–1976, mother of Alan Turing). Series of 11 autograph letters to Robin Gandy, Guilford, 28 July 1954 – 11 June 1971 (most before 1959), altogether 29 pages, 8vo (2 letters dated 17 May and 26 May 1955 incomplete, lacking continuation leaves, occasional light soiling). christies.com. [2019-02-06]. (原始内容存档于2019-02-07).
- ^ 17.0 17.1 Hodges 1983,第488, 489页
- ^ 18.0 18.1 Hodges 1983,第5页
- ^ The Alan Turing Internet Scrapbook. Alan Turing: The Enigma. [2012-01-02]. (原始内容存档于2012-10-14).
- ^ Phil Maguire, "An Irishman's Diary", p. 5. The Irish Times, 23 June 2012.
- ^ London Blue Plaques. English Heritage. [2007-02-10]. (原始内容存档于2009-09-03).
- ^ The Alan Turing Internet Scrapbook. [2006-09-26]. (原始内容存档于2011-07-20).
- ^ The Scientific Tourist In London: #17 Alan Turing's Birth Place 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2013-09-21., Nature. London Blog
- ^ Plaque #381 on Open Plaques.
- ^ Sir John Dermot Turing 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2017-10-18. on the Bletchley Park website.
- ^ Hodges 1983,第6页
- ^ Plaque unveiled at Turing's home in St Leonards. Hastings & St. Leonards Observer. 2012-06-29 [2017-07-03]. (原始内容存档于2017-09-12).
- ^ St Leonards plaque marks Alan Turing's early years. BBC News. 2012-06-25 [2017-07-03]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-03).
- ^ Jones, G. James. Alan Turing – Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1. System Toolbox. 2001-12-11 [2007-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2007-08-03).
- ^ Guildford Dragon NEWS. The Guildford Dragon. 2012-11-29 [2013-10-31]. (原始内容存档于2013-10-19).
- ^ Cawthorne, Nigel. Alan Turing : the enigma man. London. 2014: 18. ISBN 978-1-78404-535-7. OCLC 890938716.
- ^ Alan Mathison. Alan Turing Archive – Sherborne School (ARCHON CODE: GB1949) (PDF). Sherborne School, Dorset. April 2016 [2017-02-05]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-12-26).
- ^ Alan Turing OBE, PhD, FRS (1912–1954). The Old Shirburnian Society. 2016-09-01 [2020-10-10] (英国英语).
- ^ Hofstadter, Douglas R. Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern. Basic Books. 1985: 484. ISBN 978-0-465-04566-2. OCLC 230812136.
- ^ Hodges 1983,第26页
- ^ Hodges 1983,第34页
- ^ The Shirburnian
- ^ Caryl, Christian. Poor Imitation of Alan Turing. New York Review of Books. 2014-12-19 [2015-01-09]. (原始内容存档于2015-01-07). 参数
|newspaper=
与模板{{cite web}}
不匹配(建议改用{{cite news}}
或|website=
) (帮助) - ^ Rachel Hassall, 'The Sherborne Formula: The Making of Alan Turing' 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2014-04-15. 'Vivat!' 2012/13
- ^ Teuscher, Christof (编). Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker. Springer-Verlag. 2004. ISBN 978-3-540-20020-8. OCLC 53434737.
- ^ Hodges 1983,第61页
- ^ Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma
. Princeton University Press. 2012: 87. ISBN 978-0-691-15564-7.
- ^ Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma
. Princeton University Press. 2012: 90. ISBN 978-0-691-15564-7.
- ^ Paul Gray, Alan Turing 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2011-01-19. Time Magazine's Most Important People of the Century, p. 2
- ^ Hodges 1983,第82–83页
- ^ The Old Shirburnian Society
- ^ See Section 3 of John Aldrich, "England and Continental Probability in the Inter-War Years", Journal Electronique d'Histoire des Probabilités et de la Statistique, vol. 5/2 Decembre 2009 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2018-04-21. Journal Electronique d'Histoire des Probabilités et de la Statistique
- ^ Hodges 1983,第88, 94页
- ^ Turing 1937
- ^ B. Jack Copeland; Carl J. Posy; Oron Shagrir. Computability: Turing, Gödel, Church, and Beyond. MIT Press. 2013: 211. ISBN 978-0-262-01899-9.
- ^ Avi Wigderson. Mathematics and Computation. Princeton University Press. 2019: 15. ISBN 978-0-691-18913-0.
- ^ Church 1936
- ^ Grime, James. What Did Turing Do for Us?. NRICH. University of Cambridge. February 2012 [2016-02-28]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-04).
- ^ "von Neumann ... firmly emphasised to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—insofar as not anticipated by Babbage, Lovelace and others." Letter by Stanley Frankel to Brian Randell, 1972, quoted in Jack Copeland (2004) The Essential Turing, p. 22.
- ^ Hodges 1983,第138页
- ^ Turing, A.M. Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals. Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 1939, s2–45: 161–228. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-45.1.161. hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-91CE-3
.
- ^ Turing, Alan. Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals (PhD论文). Princeton University. 1938. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-45.1.161. hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-91CE-3
. ProQuest 301792588.
- ^ Turing, A.M. Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals (PDF). 1938 [2012-02-04]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2012-10-23).
- ^ John Von Neumann: The Scientific Genius Who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, Nuclear Deterrence, and Much More, Norman MacRae, 1999, American Mathematical Society, Chapter 8
- ^ Hodges 1983,第152页
- ^ Cora Diamond (ed.), Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics, University of Chicago Press, 1976
- ^ Hodges 1983,第153–154页
- ^ Briggs, Asa. Britain's Greatest Codebreaker (TV broadcast). UK Channel 4. 2011-11-21.
- ^ Copeland, Jack. Colossus and the Dawning of the Computer Age. Smith, Michael; Erskine, Ralph (编). Action This Day. Bantam. 2001: 352. ISBN 978-0-593-04910-5.
- ^ Copeland 2004a,第217页
- ^ Clark, Liat. Turing's achievements: codebreaking, AI and the birth of computer science (Wired UK). Wired. 2012-06-18 [2013-10-31]. (原始内容存档于2013-11-02).
- ^ 67.0 67.1 Copeland, 2006 p. 378.
- ^ 68.0 68.1 Collins, Jeremy. Alan Turing and the Hidden Heroes of Bletchley Park: A Conversation with Sir John Dermot Turing. nationalww2museum.org. New Orleans: The National WWII Museum. 2020-06-24 [2021-08-24].
- ^ Turing, Alan. The Applications of Probability to Cryptography. c. 1941 [2015-03-25]. The National Archives (United Kingdom): HW 25/37. (原始内容存档于2015-04-07).
- ^ Turing, Alan. Paper on Statistics of Repetitions. c. 1941 [2015-03-25]. The National Archives (United Kingdom): HW 25/38. (原始内容存档于2015-04-08).
- ^ Vallance, Chris. Alan Turing papers on code breaking released by GCHQ. BBC News. 2012-04-19 [2012-04-20]. (原始内容存档于2012-10-04).
- ^ Hodges 1983,第208页
- ^ Lewin 1978,第57页
- ^ Hilton, Peter. A Century of Mathematics in America, Part 1, Reminiscences of Bletchley Park (PDF). (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2019-08-29).
- ^ Hilton, Peter. NOVA | Transcripts | Decoding Nazi Secrets | PBS. (原始内容存档于2019-08-29).
- ^ Brown, Anthony Cave. Bodyguard of Lies: The Extraordinary True Story Behind D-Day. The Lyons Press. 1975. ISBN 978-1-59921-383-5.
- ^ Graham-Cumming, John. An Olympic honour for Alan Turing. The Guardian (London). 2010-03-10 [2016-12-10]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-01).
- ^ Butcher, Pat. In Praise of Great Men. Globe Runner. 2009-09-14 [2012-06-23]. (原始内容存档于2013-08-18).
- ^ Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: a short biography. Alan Turing: The Enigma. [2014-06-12]. (原始内容存档于2013-09-14).
- ^ Graham-Cumming, John. Alan Turing: a short biography. The Guardian. 2010-03-10 [2014-06-12]. (原始内容存档于2014-11-08).
- ^ Butcher, Pat. Turing as a runner. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. December 1999 [2014-06-12]. (原始内容存档于2014-11-13).
- ^ Kottke, Jason. Turing was an excellent runner. kottke.org.
- ^ See for example Richelson, Jeffery T. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford University Press. 1997: 296. and Hartcup, Guy. The Effect of Science on the Second World War. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press. 2000: 96–99.
- ^ Hinsley, Harry, The Influence of ULTRA in the Second World War, 1996 [1993] Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University
- ^ Alan Turing: Colleagues share their memories. BBC News. 2012-06-23 [2018-06-21]. (原始内容存档于2018-07-07).
- ^ 86.0 86.1 This month in history: Alan Turing and the Enigma code. thegazette.co.uk. [2019-02-06]. (原始内容存档于2019-06-26).
- ^ Welchman, Gordon, The Hut Six story: Breaking the Enigma codes, Cleobury Mortimer, England: M&M Baldwin: 81, 1997 [1982], ISBN 978-0-947712-34-1
- ^ Jack Good in "The Men Who Cracked Enigma", 2003: with his caveat: "if my memory is correct".
- ^ The Turing-Welchman Bombe. The National Museum of Computing. [2021-03-18].
- ^ Oakley 2006,第40/03B页
- ^ 91.0 91.1 Hodges 1983,第218页
- ^ 92.0 92.1 Hodges 1983,第221页
- ^ Copeland, The Essential Turing, pp. 336–337 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2015-02-18..
- ^ Copeland, Jack; Proudfoot, Diane. Alan Turing, Codebreaker and Computer Pioneer. alanturing.net. May 2004 [2007-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2007-07-09).
- ^ Bletchley Park Unveils Statue Commemorating Alan Turing. [2007-06-30]. (原始内容存档于2007-06-30).
- ^ 96.0 96.1 96.2 Mahon 1945,第14页
- ^ Leavitt 2007,第184–186页
- ^ Gladwin, Lee. Alan Turing, Enigma, and the Breaking of German Machine Ciphers in World War II (PDF). Prologue Magazine. Fall 1997,. Fall 1997: 202–217 [2019-04-13]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2019-06-26) –通过National Archives.
- ^ Good, Jack; Michie, Donald; Timms, Geoffrey, General Report on Tunny: With Emphasis on Statistical Methods, Part 3 Organisation: 38 Wheel-breaking from Key, Page 293, 1945 [2019-04-13], UK Public Record Office HW 25/4 and HW 25/5, (原始内容存档于2019-04-21)
- ^ Hodges 1983,第242–245页
- ^ Turing, Alan M. Visit to National Cash Register Corporation of Dayton, Ohio. Cryptologia. 2001, 25 (1): 1–10. S2CID 14207094. doi:10.1080/0161-110191889734.
- ^ Hodges 1983,第245–253页
- ^ Marshall Legacy Series: Codebreaking – Events. marshallfoundation.org. [2019-04-07]. (原始内容存档于2019-04-07).
- ^ Alexander & circa 1945,第42页
- ^ Copeland 2006,第380页
- ^ Copeland 2006,第381页
- ^ Copeland 2006,第72页
- ^ Gannon 2007,第230页
- ^ Hilton 2006,第197–199页
- ^ Copeland 2006,第382, 383页
- ^ Hodges 1983,第245–250页
- ^ Hodges 1983,第273页
- ^ Hodges 1983,第346页
- ^ Plaque #1619 on Open Plaques.
- ^ Copeland 2006,第108页
- ^ Randell, Brian. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: Colossus (PDF). 1980 [2012-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2012-01-27). citing Womersley, J.R. 'ACE' Machine Project. Executive Committee, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex. 1946-02-13.
- ^ Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma. Princeton University Press. 2014: 416. ISBN 978-0-691-16472-4.
- ^ See Copeland 2004b,第410–432页
- ^ Turing at NPL. [2015-07-03]. (原始内容存档于2015-07-05).
- ^ Bruderer, Herbert. Did Alan Turing interrogate Konrad Zuse in Göttingen in 1947? (PDF). [2013-02-07]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-05-21).
- ^ Swinton, Jonathan. Alan Turing's Manchester. Manchester: Infang Publishing. 2019 [2019-03-18]. ISBN 978-0-9931789-2-4. (原始内容存档于2019-02-17).
- ^ Turing, A.M. Rounding-Off Errors in Matrix Processes. The Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics. 1948, 1: 287–308. doi:10.1093/qjmam/1.1.287. hdl:10338.dmlcz/103139.
- ^ Harnad, Stevan (2008) The Annotation Game: On Turing (1950) on Computing, Machinery and Intelligence 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2017-10-18.. In: Epstein, Robert & Peters, Grace (Eds.) Parsing the Turing Test: Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer. Springer
- ^ Clark, Liat. Turing's achievements: codebreaking, AI and the birth of computer science. Wired. [2013-11-11]. (原始内容存档于2013-11-02).
- ^ Alan Turing vs Alick Glennie (1952) "Turing Test" 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2006-02-19. Chessgames.com
- ^ Kasparov, Garry, Smart machines will free us all, The Wall Street Journal, 15–16 April 2017, p. c3
- ^ O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. David Gawen Champernowne. MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. [2018-05-22]. (原始内容存档于2017-10-19).
- ^ Pinar Saygin, A.; Cicekli, I.; Akman, V. Turing Test: 50 Years Later. Minds and Machines. 2000, 10 (4): 463–518. S2CID 990084. doi:10.1023/A:1011288000451. hdl:11693/24987
.
- ^ Turing, Alan M. The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B. 1952-08-14, 237 (641): 37–72. Bibcode:1952RSPTB.237...37T. S2CID 120437796. doi:10.1098/rstb.1952.0012.
- ^ 130.0 130.1 Gribbin, John. Deep Simplicity. Random House. 2004.
- ^ Turing's Last, Lost work. [2011-11-28]. (原始内容存档于2003-08-23).
- ^ Murray, James. How the leopard gets its spots. Scientific American. 1988-03, 258 (3): 80–87. JSTOR 24989019.
- ^ Murray, James D. 6. Reaction Kinetics. Mathematical Biology. I: An Introduction. Springer Verlag. 2002. doi:10.1007/b98868.
- ^ Vogel, G. Turing Pattern Fingered for Digit Formation. Science. 2012, 338 (6113): 1406. Bibcode:2012Sci...338.1406V. PMID 23239707. doi:10.1126/science.338.6113.1406.
feathers, hair follicles, the branching pattern of lungs, and even the left-right asymmetry that puts the heart on the left side of the chest.
- ^ Sheth, R.; Marcon, L.; Bastida, M.F.; Junco, M.; Quintana, L.; Dahn, R.; Kmita, M.; Sharpe, J.; Ros, M.A. Hox Genes Regulate Digit Patterning by Controlling the Wavelength of a Turing-Type Mechanism. Science. 2012, 338 (6113): 1476–1480. Bibcode:2012Sci...338.1476S. PMC 4486416
. PMID 23239739. doi:10.1126/science.1226804.
- ^ Andrew Hodges. The Alan Turing Bibliography. turing.org.uk: morphogenesis. [2015-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2015-09-05).
- ^ Leavitt 2007,第176–178页
- ^ Hodges 1983,第458页
- ^ Leavitt 2007,第268页
- ^ Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma
. Princeton University Press. 2012: 463. ISBN 978-0-691-15564-7.
- ^ Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma
. Princeton University Press. 2012: 471. ISBN 978-0-691-15564-7.
- ^ Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma The Centenary Edition. Princeton University. 2012.
- ^ Turing, Alan. Letters of Note: Yours in distress, Alan. 1952 [2012-12-16]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-20).
- ^ Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma
. Princeton University Press. 2012: xxviii. ISBN 978-0-691-15564-7.
- ^ Hodges 1983,第473页
- ^ Copeland 2006,第143页
- ^ 147.0 147.1 Anon. Turing's House: Copper Folly, 43 Adlington Road, Wilmslow, Cheshire, SK9 2BJ (PDF). savills.com. 2021. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2021-07-03).
- ^ Alan Turing. Biography, Facts, & Education. Encyclopædia Britannica. [2017-10-11]. (原始内容存档于2017-10-11).
- ^ Hodges 1983,第488页
- ^ Leavitt 2007,第140页及Hodges 1983,第149, 489页
- ^ Hodges 1983,第529页
- ^ 152.0 152.1 152.2 Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma. Random House. 2012 [2019-01-16]. ISBN 978-1-4481-3781-7. (原始内容存档于2019-01-17).
- ^ Vincent Dowd. What was Alan Turing really like?. BBC. 2014-06-06 [2019-01-16]. (原始内容存档于2019-01-17).
- ^ Thousands call for Turing apology. BBC News. 2009-08-31 [2009-08-31]. (原始内容存档于2009-08-31).
- ^ Petition seeks apology for Enigma code-breaker Turing. CNN. 2009-09-01 [2009-09-01]. (原始内容存档于2009-10-05).
- ^ 156.0 156.1 156.2 Davies, Caroline. PM's apology to codebreaker Alan Turing: we were inhumane. The Guardian (UK). 2009-09-11 [2016-12-10]. (原始内容存档于2017-02-04).
- ^ The petition was only open to UK citizens.
- ^ PM apology after Turing petition. BBC News. 2009-09-11 [2009-09-11]. (原始内容存档于2012-05-27).
- ^ Full text of the Prime Minister's apology 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2012-11-09..
- ^ 160.0 160.1 160.2 Grant a pardon to Alan Turing. 2011-12-06. (原始内容存档于2012-01-10).
- ^ Petition to pardon computer pioneer Alan Turing started. BBC News. 2011-12-06 [2018-06-21]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-19).
- ^ 162.0 162.1 Wright, Oliver. Alan Turing gets his royal pardon for 'gross indecency' – 61 years after he poisoned himself. The Independent (London). 2013-12-23 [2017-08-21]. (原始内容存档于2013-12-24).
- ^ Wainwright, Martin. Government rejects a pardon for computer genius Alan Turing. The Guardian. 2012-02-07 [2016-12-10]. (原始内容存档于2017-02-04).
- ^ hansard. Parliament of the United Kingdom. 2012-02-02 [2017-08-29]. (原始内容存档于2017-07-06).
- ^ Stevenson, Alex. Better late than never, Alan Turing is finally pardoned. politics.co.uk. 2013-12-24 [2016-09-25]. (原始内容存档于2016-08-16).
- ^ Fitzgerald, Todd. Alan Turing's court convictions go on display for the first time. manchestereveningnews.co.uk. 2016-09-24 [2016-09-25]. (原始内容存档于2016-09-25).
- ^ Britton, Paul. Alan Turing pardoned by The Queen for his 'unjust and discriminatory' conviction for homosexuality. Manchester Evening News. 2013-12-24 [2018-06-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-24).
- ^ MP calls for pardon for computer pioneer Alan Turing. BBC News. 2012-02-01 [2016-09-25]. (原始内容存档于2016-07-02).
- ^ My proudest day as a Liberal Democrat. Liberal Democrat Voice. [2018-06-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-24).
- ^ Manchester computer pioneer Alan Turing announced as face of new £50 note. 2019-07-15 [2019-07-19]. (原始内容存档于2019-07-19).
- ^ Alan Turing announced as face of new £50 banknote. 2019-07-15 [2019-07-19]. (原始内容存档于2019-07-16).
- ^ John Leech secures historic deal with Government on 'Alan Turing Law'. outnewsglobal.com. 2016-10-20.
- ^ Barlow, Nigel. Turing on £50 note will be painful reminder of what we lost. 2018-11-03.
- ^ Alan Turing announced as face of new £50 banknote. 2019-07-15.
- ^ Elliott, Larry; Halliday, Josh (编). Alan Turing to feature on new £50 banknote. 2019-07-15 –通过www.theguardian.com.
- ^ This is who is on the new £50 note. www.thegayuk.com. 2019-07-15.
- ^ Bloom, Dan. Tory refuses to apologise for 'killing bad law' pardoning thousands of gay men. mirror. 2016-10-23.
- ^ Alan Turing's 'fearless approach to problems and intellectual curiosity' praised. Dunfermline Press.
- ^ The Alan Turing Law finally pardons thousands of unfairly convicted gay and bisexual men. University of Manchester. 2017-01-31.
- ^ Bank of England honours Alan Turing on £50 note. QNews. 2019-07-15.
- ^ Bill. Parliament of the United Kingdom. 2012-07-26 [2013-10-31]. (原始内容存档于2013-11-02).
- ^ Pearse, Damian, "Alan Turing should be pardoned, argue Stephen Hawking and top scientists" 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期2017-02-04., The Guardian, 13 December 2012. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
- ^ Watt, Nicholas. Enigma codebreaker Alan Turing to be given posthumous pardon. The Guardian (London). 2013-07-19 [2016-12-10]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-04).
- ^ Worth, Dan. Alan Turing pardon sails through House of Lords. V3. 2013-10-30 [2013-12-24]. (原始内容存档于2013-12-24).
- ^ Alan Turing (Statutory Pardon) Bill. [2013-07-20]. (原始内容存档于2013-07-05).
- ^ Roberts, Scott. Lib Dem MP John Leech disappointed at delay to Alan Turing pardon bill. Pink News. 2013-12-02 [2013-12-24]. (原始内容存档于2013-12-25).
- ^ Roberts, Scott. Lib Dem MP John Leech disappointed at delay to Alan Turing pardon bill. PinkNews. 2013-12-02 [2018-06-20]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-12).
- ^ Alan Turing (Statutory Pardon) Bill. [2013-12-24]. (原始内容存档于2013-11-02).
- ^ Swinford, Steven. Alan Turing granted Royal pardon by the Queen. The Daily Telegraph. 2013-12-23 [2018-04-05]. (原始内容存档于2018-05-02).
- ^ Royal pardon for codebreaker Alan Turing. BBC News. 2013-12-24 [2013-12-24]. (原始内容存档于2013-12-24).
- ^ With Queen's Decree, Alan Turing Is Now Officially Pardoned. Advocate.com. 2014-08-22 [2014-11-01]. (原始内容存档于2014-11-01).
- ^ Pardoned: Alan Turing, Computing patriarch. Time Magazine, vol. 183, no. 1, 13 January 2014, p. 14. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
- ^ Davies, Caroline. Codebreaker Turing is given posthumous royal pardon. The Guardian (London). 2013-12-24: 1, 6.
- ^ Government 'committed' to Alan Turing gay pardon law. BBC News. 2016-09-22 [2016-09-22]. (原始内容存档于2016-09-22).
- ^ Cowburn, Ashley. Theresa May committed to introducing the 'Alan Turing Law'. The Independent. 2016-09-21 [2016-09-22]. (原始内容存档于2016-09-22).
- ^ Participation, Expert. Policing and Crime Act 2017. Government of the United Kingdom. [2019-02-06]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-05).
- ^ What does the code on the Alan Turing Memorial actually say?. Random Hacks. 2010-09-23 [2018-06-28]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-28).
- ^ Computer buried in tribute to genius. Manchester Evening News. 2007-02-17 [2014-12-07]. (原始内容存档于2013-11-04) (英语).
- ^ Blue plaque to commemorate Alan Turing. King's College, Cambridge. [2018-12-08]. (原始内容存档于2018-12-07) (英语).
- ^ Turing plaque fixed in place. 剑桥大学国王学院. [2018-12-08]. (原始内容存档于2018-12-09) (英语).
- ^ Pylas, Pan. WWII codebreaker Alan Turing honored on new UK bank note. AP News. Associated Press. 2021-03-25 [2021-03-25] (英语).
- ^ Reid-Smith, Tris. Heritage watchdog objects to statue of gay hero Alan Turing at Kings College Cambridge. Gay Star News. 2020-05-01 [2020-05-08].
来源
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- Turing, Sara Stoney. Alan M Turing. W Heffer. 1959. Turing's mother, who survived him by many years, wrote this 157-page biography of her son, glorifying his life. It was published in 1959, and so could not cover his war work. Scarcely 300 copies were sold (Sara Turing to Lyn Newman, 1967, Library of St John's College, Cambridge). The six-page foreword by Lyn Irvine includes reminiscences and is more frequently quoted. It was re-published by Cambridge University Press in 2012, to honour the centenary of his birth, and included a new foreword by Martin Davis, as well as a never-before-published memoir by Turing's older brother John F. Turing.
- Whitemore, Hugh; Hodges, Andrew. Breaking the code. S. French. 1988. This 1986 Hugh Whitemore play tells the story of Turing's life and death. In the original West End and Broadway runs, Derek Jacobi played Turing and he recreated the role in a 1997 television film based on the play made jointly by the BBC and WGBH, Boston. The play is published by Amber Lane Press, Oxford, ASIN: B000B7TM0Q
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- Yates, David M. Turing's Legacy: A history of computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945–1995. London: London Science Museum. 1997. ISBN 978-0-901805-94-2. OCLC 123794619.
延伸阅读
[编辑]文章
[编辑]- Turing, Alan. Computing Machinery and Intelligence (PDF). Mind. 1950, 49 (236): 433–460. doi:10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433.
- Copeland, B. Jack (编). The Mind and the Computing Machine: Alan Turing and others. The Rutherford Journal.
- Copeland, B. Jack (编). Alan Turing: Father of the Modern Computer. The Rutherford Journal.
- Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing. 扎尔塔, 爱德华·N (编). 《斯坦福哲学百科全书》 2009年冬.
- Hodges, Andrew. Turing, Alan Mathison. 《牛津国家人物传记大辞典》 线上版. 牛津大学出版社. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/36578. 需要订阅或英国公共图书馆会员资格
- Gray, Paul. Computer Scientist: Alan Turing. Time. 1999-03-29. (原始内容存档于2007-10-16).
著作
[编辑]- Bernhardt, Chris, Turing's Vision: The Birth of Computer Science, MIT Press, 2017, ISBN 978-0-262-53351-5
- Copeland, B. Jack; Bowen, Jonathan P.; Wilson, Robin; Sprevak, Mark. The Turing Guide. Oxford University Press. 2017. ISBN 978-0-19-874783-3.
- Dyson, George. Turing's Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe. Vintage. 2012. ISBN 978-1-4000-7599-7.
- Gleick, James. The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York: Pantheon. 2011. ISBN 978-0-375-42372-7.
- Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma. Princeton University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-0-691-16472-4. (originally published in 1983); basis of the film The Imitation Game
- Turing, Sara. Alan M. Turing. Cambridge University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-1-107-02058-0. (originally published in 1959 by W. Heffer & Sons, Ltd)
外部链接
[编辑]- Oral history interview with Nicholas C. Metropolis, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Metropolis was the first director of computing services at Los Alamos National Laboratory; topics include the relationship between Turing and John von Neumann
- How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code Imperial War Museums
- Alan Turing RKBExplorer
- Alan Turing Year
- CiE 2012: Turing Centenary Conference
- Science in the Making Alan Turing's papers in the Royal Society's archives
- Alan Turing site maintained by Andrew Hodges including a short biography
- AlanTuring.net – Turing Archive for the History of Computing by Jack Copeland
- The Turing Archive – contains scans of some unpublished documents and material from the King's College, Cambridge archive
- Alan Turing Papers – University of Manchester Library, Manchester
- Jones, G. James. Alan Turing – Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1. System Toolbox (The Binary Freedom Project). 2001-12-11. (原始内容存档于2007-08-03).
- Sherborne School Archives – holds papers relating to Turing's time at Sherborne School
- Alan Turing plaques recorded on openplaques.org
- Alan Turing archive on New Scientist
- 在Find a Grave上的艾伦·图灵
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