印度-太平洋語系

印度-太平洋语系
印度-太平洋语系
Indo-Pacific
谬误
地理分佈	大洋洲、东南亚、南亚、澳洲
谱系学分类	假设的语系
分支	安达曼语系巴布亚诸语言塔斯马尼亚诸语言库孙达语尼哈利语澳大利亚原住民语言(？) 维达语(？) 数种菲律宾尼格利陀语言(？)
	–
Glottolog	无

印度-太平洋语系是由约瑟·哈罗德·格林伯格于1971年提出的总语系，目前认为此说谬误。其将新几内亚、美拉尼西亚的巴布亚诸语言和安达曼语系(或至少大安达曼语系)、塔斯马尼亚诸语言结合到一起。格林伯格找到的同源词后来成了范围较小的跨新几内亚语系证据。一般被认为是孤立语言的库孙达语(可能还包括其他未分类语言)也被包括进来。^[1]^:5692–56951971年的原始假设中并未包含“澳大利亚原住民语言”。

假设

印度-太平洋语系假说将新几内亚的非南岛语言与新几内亚东边或西边的特定语言结合起来，首先由格林伯格于1971年作出。支持者Merritt Ruhlen认为印度-太平洋语系是一个内部多样性极大而十分古老的语系，甚至远比反映6000年前的民族迁徙的南岛语系古老。他注意到，新几内亚至少4万年前就已有现代人类居住，有一定冗余的估计还要再加1到1.5万年。^[2]路易吉·路卡·卡瓦利-斯福扎则认为印度-太平洋语系是非常多相的语系，内含700种语言，可能老于4万年。^[3]

接受程度

格林伯格的假说基于对词汇相似性的大致估计和形态相似性，尚未经过标准的比较法检验，也没有对祖语的构拟。塔斯马尼亚语言已经灭绝了，其证据如此稀少以至于许多历史语言学家都认为它们不可分类。罗杰·布伦奇以该理由反驳印度-太平洋语系假说，注意到它“标榜纯粹的语言学实践...它方便地将一大片地区所有卷毛人群的非南岛语言全放在一起。”他写道，如果不谈对巴布亚诸语言的更深入研究和史前史研究，印度-太平洋语系也是不可接受的，它“只存在于相信者的眼中”。^[4]无我(2001)^[5]如此回复：

种族观念仍被不加批判地用在语言分类上。晚至1971年，约瑟夫·格林伯格还试图重弹“自孟加拉湾西边的安达曼群岛直到塔斯马尼亚的大部分非南岛语言都属于一个单一的发生学语系”的老调。这个假说跟Finck1909年的“Sprachen der ozeanischen Neger”没什么不同，这个假说已经用了“印度-太平洋”的名字，其最终根植于体质人类学的“泛尼格利陀理论”。(参Skeat&Blagden 1906: 25–28)。格林伯格为证实印度-太平洋语系举出的语言证据没有说服力，相似的词汇和表面的类型学相似不能说明语言间存在亲缘关系，况且这些还是基于使用者的身体素质。

自格林伯格的工作以来，新几内亚语言主要由斯蒂芬·沃姆研究。沃姆提出的跨新几内亚语系包含格林伯格印度-太平洋语系假说70%的语言，^[2]不过其内部结构完全不同。沃姆还认为大安达曼语系、西巴布亚语系(不属于跨新几内亚)和帝汶的特定语言间的词汇相似性“相当地引人注目，近乎同形[...]例子也不算少”，但认为是底层的影响，而不是语言间直接的联系。^[6]

Pawley (2008)发现除塔斯马尼亚和安达曼语以外的所有印度-太平洋分支都包含跨新几内亚语系的语言，这可以解释比格林伯格提供的更坚实的同源词。但是因为这些跨新几内亚语言混合了其他语系的语言，连接起各个分支的同源词并不支持格林伯格“所有巴布亚语言都有亲缘关系”的论断。^[7]

词汇比较

下表比较了不同“印度-太平洋语系”语言和祖语的基础词汇.

词义	库孙达语^[8]	尼哈利语^[9]	原始翁甘语^[10]^:154-198	大安达曼语^[11]	克那博依语^[12]	恩加诺语^[13]	原始跨新几内亚语^[14]	原始帕马-恩永甘语^[15]	原始昆威库语^[16]	原始纽尔纽尔语^[17]
头	ipi	pe(ː)ñ	*-otab	ɛr-co	tahal	ɛyu, iur	kV(mb,p)utu; mVtVna		koc; -pam	-alma; marru
头发	gi	kuguso	*-ode	ot-bec	sûyut	pururu, yur	(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]; iti		*ngar
眼	iŋ / inəŋ	jikit	-ecebo < eca-ipo	er-ulu	laŋ	bak	(ŋg,k)iti [maŋgV]; ŋg(a,u)mu; *nVpV	*kuru	koq; -nganycurla; *-Tum	*-miny
耳	iyu	cigam	*-ikwag	er-buo	cʰəliòh	karih	*kand(i,e)k[V]		*-kanam	*-lababa
鼻	inu / inəu	coːn	*-iɲjan-ipo	er-kɔʈʰo	lîaŋ	pan	*mundu	*ngurru	*ce	*-mal(ul)
齿	uhu, u.u	menge	*-akwed	er-pʰile, ɸile	cʰəráh	ʔekaʔ, kaaʔ	*titi	rirra, lirra	yama/errk ; -retmV	*jarringk
舌	iŋdzũ, idziŋ / idzəŋ		*-adalaŋ	ɑ-tɑt	ɟelil	di	mbilaŋ; me(l,n)e	*calañ	thelng; -cen	*-yangala
口	ata, atta	kaggo	*-alaŋ	er-pʰoŋ	ɟəhòp	kaʔaʔ, kaʔ	*maŋgat[a]	*caː	-ngal/rrk; -thala	*-lirr
手	awi / awəi	bakko	*-ome	er-ʈoŋ	tʰã	ɛaʔ, ʔeap	sikal, sakil	*mara	*-kun	*-marla
足	yen		*uge	u-mɔʈo	ɟau	ɛʔaa, ʔea	*k(a,o)ond(a,o)C	cama; cina	*thenge	*-mbala
乳房	ambu / ambo		*-akak	er-me-tɛi	râpaŋ	kok, èămah	*amu	*ngamun	pippi; cikka	*ngamarna
肉	amba / əmba	kaːw		e-tʰomo		hiədh		p-Paman *miña	kany; wang; *thangku	*warli
血	ləpa, ləppa	corṭo	*-aceŋ	e-tei	cʰahâ	kyakh, kiak	*ke(nj,s)a		kurlpa; kurrac	kunbulu; kururr
骨	gu.u, guhu	paːkṭo	*daŋ	e-tɔe, o-ʈɔy	gus	ɛa, ʔea	*kondaC	*muku	*-mo	*kaanyji
人	nu, niu		eŋ, əŋ (< *en)		som	kakh, kak	*ambi		*Nal	*wamba
名	gidzi	jumu, jyumu	*-atiba	liu		ni	*imbi		*-ngey
狗	agəi		*wem(e)	cɑo	âmun	bɛɛ̄, be				*yila
鱼	nəsa	caːn	*napo	ʈɑjeo	râyap	yay, ʔeai		*kuya/u	ceny; cipak
虱子	ki	keːpe	*kuhi	kɔemo		h'ɛyup, hĩũk	niman, iman	*kulu/i	mic; Tort	*wirnka
树	yiː / ihi		*taŋ 'tree, log'	ɛʈ-ʈole 'wood'	sənɟéh		*inda		thantaq; Lany; *porloq
叶	haq / haχ		*bebe	tec	râpaŋ	pruru	iti; sasak		marla; mancarr
花	gipan		*okw	ʈɔl, ʈɔlo	kuntom	èpfoejĕ, kafèfo			*ngorro	*bubu
水	taŋ	joppo	*iŋ	ino	par	bə	ok[V]; nok	nguku ~ nguki	wak; kolk-	*wula
火	dza		*tuke	ɑʈ; luro	haŋoi	ɛəp, iɘb	k(a,o)nd(a,u)p; inda; *kambu			*jungku
石	yeŋgu / yiŋgu	caːgo, caːrgo	*uli	meo	buŋkal	iɛa, ʔe	kamb(a,u)na, [na]muna		cuntu; kVrrV
土	dum		*bela	buɑ		dowp		*taːku “地”
盐	huki / hukki	coːpo		sɑre	səmsam	kanam
路	un, uŋ	ḍãːy/ḍa(ː)y	*icala	ɲɔrtɔ		ɛko			*morlo	*makirr
吃	am	ṭ/tyeː-	*-ita	ɲɑ; iji	ɟáháp	no	*na-	*mungka-		*-rli
死
betto-be(ṭṭ)	*peca-me	em-pʰil		kaʔa	*kumV-

注释

^ Paul Whitehouse; Timothy Usher; Merritt Ruhlen; William S.-Y. Wang. Kusunda: An Indo-Pacific language in Nepal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2004-04-13, 101 (15). Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.5692W. PMC 397480 . PMID 15056764. doi:10.1073/pnas.0400233101 .
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 Ruhlen, Merritt.The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: New York, 1994
^ Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca.Genes, Peoples, and Languages. University of California Press: Berkeley, 2001
^ Blench, Roger; Post, Mark, The Languages Of The Tasmanians And Their Relation To The Peopling Of Australia: Sensible and Wild Theories, 2008 [2021-12-22], （原始内容存档于2021-12-22）
^ Languages of the Himalayas, vol. 1, pp 139–141
^ Wurm, S.A. (1977).New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Volume 1: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene. （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.
^ Andrew Pawley, 2008.assessment of Greenberg's Indo-Pacific hypothesis^{[失效連結]}(draft)
^ Watters, David E. 2006. Notes on Kusunda Grammar: A Language Isolate of Nepal.Himalayan Linguistics Archive3. (2006) 1-182.
^ Nagaraja, K.S. 2014.The Nihali language: grammar, texts and vocabulary. Manasagangotri, Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.ISBN 978-81-7343-144-9.
^ Blevins, Juliette. 2007. "A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian? Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands."Oceanic Linguistics, Volume 46, Number 1, June 2007.
^ Abbi, Anvita. 2011.Dictionary of the Great Andamanese language. Port Blair: Ratna Sagar.
^ Hajek, John. 1998. "An extinct unclassified language of the Malay Peninsula^{[失效連結]}."Mon–Khmer Studies28: 137–49.
^ Greenhill, S.J., Blust. R, & Gray, R.D. (2008).Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics^{[失效連結]}.Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4:271-283.
^ Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald. The Trans New Guinea family. Palmer, Bill (编). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. 2018: 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
^ Alpher, Barry. 2004. Pama-Nyungan: Phonological Reconstruction and Status as a Phylo-Genetic Group. In Claire Bowern and Harold Koch (eds.),Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method, 93-126, 387-574. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
^ Harvey, Mark. 2003. An initial reconstruction of Proto Gunwinyguan phonology. In Evans, Nicholas (ed.),The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 205-268. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
^ Stokes, Bronwyn and William McGregor. 2003. Classification and Subclassification of the Nyulnyulan Languages. In Nicholas Evans (ed.),The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 29-74. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.

参考

Greenberg, Joseph H. 1971. "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis." InCurrent Trends in Linguistics, Vol. 8: Linguistics in Oceania, edited by Thomas A. Sebeok, 808-71. The Hague: Mouton.[1] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）(Reprinted in Greenberg,Genetic Linguistics, 2005, 193–275.[2])
treeavailable at the Linguist List MultiTree Project [no longer functional as of 2014]
Greenberg, Joseph H. 2005.Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method, edited by William Croft. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
O'Grady, Dobrovolsky, Katamba. 1997.Contemporary Linguistics.
Usher, Timothy. "A comparison of Greenberg's and Wurm's classifications." In Greenberg,Genetic Linguistics, 2005, 261–269. (Systematic tabulation of the two sets of results.)
Wurm, Stephen A. 1982.The Papuan Languages of Oceania.Tübingen: Gunter Narr.

外部链接

印度-太平洋语系地图（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）

[1] Paul Whitehouse; Timothy Usher; Merritt Ruhlen; William S.-Y. Wang. Kusunda: An Indo-Pacific language in Nepal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2004-04-13, 101 (15). Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.5692W. PMC 397480 . PMID 15056764. doi:10.1073/pnas.0400233101 .

[Ruhlen-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Ruhlen, Merritt.The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: New York, 1994

[Cavalli-Sforza-3] Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca.Genes, Peoples, and Languages. University of California Press: Berkeley, 2001

[Blench-4] Blench, Roger; Post, Mark, The Languages Of The Tasmanians And Their Relation To The Peopling Of Australia: Sensible and Wild Theories, 2008 [2021-12-22], （原始内容存档于2021-12-22）

[5] Languages of the Himalayas, vol. 1, pp 139–141

[6] Wurm, S.A. (1977).New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Volume 1: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene. （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.

[7] Andrew Pawley, 2008.assessment of Greenberg's Indo-Pacific hypothesis^{[失效連結]}(draft)

[8] Watters, David E. 2006. Notes on Kusunda Grammar: A Language Isolate of Nepal.Himalayan Linguistics Archive3. (2006) 1-182.

[9] Nagaraja, K.S. 2014.The Nihali language: grammar, texts and vocabulary. Manasagangotri, Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.ISBN 978-81-7343-144-9.

[10] Blevins, Juliette. 2007. "A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian? Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands."Oceanic Linguistics, Volume 46, Number 1, June 2007.

[11] Abbi, Anvita. 2011.Dictionary of the Great Andamanese language. Port Blair: Ratna Sagar.

[12] Hajek, John. 1998. "An extinct unclassified language of the Malay Peninsula^{[失效連結]}."Mon–Khmer Studies28: 137–49.

[13] Greenhill, S.J., Blust. R, & Gray, R.D. (2008).Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics^{[失效連結]}.Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4:271-283.

[Pawley-TNG-14] Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald. The Trans New Guinea family. Palmer, Bill (编). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. 2018: 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.

[Alpher-2004-15] Alpher, Barry. 2004. Pama-Nyungan: Phonological Reconstruction and Status as a Phylo-Genetic Group. In Claire Bowern and Harold Koch (eds.),Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method, 93-126, 387-574. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

[16] Harvey, Mark. 2003. An initial reconstruction of Proto Gunwinyguan phonology. In Evans, Nicholas (ed.),The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 205-268. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.

[Stokes-McGregor-17] Stokes, Bronwyn and William McGregor. 2003. Classification and Subclassification of the Nyulnyulan Languages. In Nicholas Evans (ed.),The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 29-74. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.

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