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线虫的分类:修订间差异

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[[File:Eophasma jurasicum.JPG|thumb|''Eophasma jurasicum'', a fossilized nematode]]
'''线虫的分类'''系统由於[[线虫动物门]]的种类繁多,至今尚有不同意见。以下列举数位学者的分类表:
'''线虫的分类'''系统由於[[线虫动物门]]的种类繁多,至今尚有不同意见。以下列举数位学者的分类表:

本分類最初由[[Karl Rudolphi]]於1808年定義為「'''Nematoidea'''」<ref name="phylumname">{{cite journal | author = Chitwood BG | title = The English word "Nema" Revised | journal = Systematic Zoology in Nematology Newsletter | volume = 4 | issue = 45 | pages = 1619 |date=1957 | pmid = | doi = 10.2307/sysbio/6.4.184 | url = http://plpnemweb.ucdavis.edu/Nemaplex/General/Phylumname.htm }}</ref>,取名於古希臘文的{{lang|grc|νῆμα}}(''nêma, nêmatos'',線的意思)及後綴{{lang|grc|-eiδἠς}}(''-eidēs'',物種。本分類後來被[[:en:Hermann Burmeister|Burmeister]]於1837年被重新分類,取名為「'''Nematodes'''[[科 (生物)|科]]」<ref name="phylumname" />;到1861年再由[[:en:Karl Moriz Diesing|K. M. Diesing]]升格成為「'''Nematoda'''目」<ref name="phylumname" />。

At its origin, the "Nematoidea" included both roundworms and horsehair worms. Along with [[Acanthocephala]], [[Trematoda]] and [[Cestoidea]], it formed the group [[Entozoa]].<ref name="isbn0-85199-202-1">{{cite book | author = Siddiqi MR | title = Tylenchida: parasites of plants and insects | publisher = CABI Pub | location = Wallingford, Oxon, UK | year = 2000 | pages = | isbn = 0-85199-202-1 }}</ref> The first differentiation of roundworms from [[nematomorpha|horsehair worms]], though erroneous, is due to von Siebold (1843) with orders Nematoidea and Gordiacei ([[Gordiacea]]). They were classed along with Acanthocephala in the new [[phylum]] [[Aschelminth|Nemathelminthes]] (today obsolete) by Gegenbaur (1859). The [[taxon]] Nematoidea, including the family Gordiidae (horsehair worms), was then promoted to the rank of phylum by [[Ray Lankester]] (1877). In 1919, [[Nathan Cobb]] proposed that roundworms should be recognized alone as a phylum. He argued they should be called '''nema'''(s) in English rather than "nematodes"{{efn|Note that words as nematologist, nematosis, nematocide, etc. are based on ''nema, nematos'' and not on "nematode".}} and defined the taxon '''Nemates''' (Latin plural of ''nema''). Since Cobb was the first to exclude all but nematodes from the group, some sources consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata, rather than Nematoda.<ref name="ITIS Nematoda" />

=== Phylogeny ===
The relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the [[protostome|protostomia]]n [[Animal|Metazoa]] are unresolved. Traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group [[Ecdysozoa]] together with [[moulting]] animals, such as [[arthropod]]s. The identity of the closest living relatives of the Nematoda has always been considered to be well resolved. Morphological characters and molecular phylogenies agree with placement of the roundworms as a [[sister taxon]] to the parasitic [[horsehair worm]]s (Nematomorpha); together they make up the [[Nematoida]]. Together with the [[Scalidophora]] (formerly Cephalorhyncha), the Nematoida form the [[Introverta]]. It is entirely unclear whether the Introverta are, in turn, the closest living relatives of the enigmatic [[Gastrotricha]]; if so, they are considered a clade [[Cycloneuralia]], but much disagreement occurs both between and among the available morphological and molecular data. The Cycloneuralia or the Introverta—depending on the validity of the former—are often ranked as a [[superphylum]].<ref name = "ToL_2002_Bilateria">{{cite web | publisher = [[Tree of Life Web Project]] (ToL) | title = Bilateria | date = January 1, 2002 | url = http://tolweb.org/Bilateria/2459/2002.01.01 | accessdate = 2008-11-02 }}</ref>

=== Nematode systematics ===
Due to the lack of knowledge regarding many nematodes, their systematics is contentious. An earliest and influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood<ref name="Chitwood1933">{{cite journal | author = Chitwood BG, Chitwood MB | title = The characters of a protonematode | journal = J Parasitol | volume = 20 | issue = | pages = 130 | year = 1933 }}</ref>—later revised by Chitwood<ref name="Chitwood1937">{{cite book | editor = | author = Chitwood BG | chapter = A revised classification of the ''Nematoda'' | title = Papers on helminthology, 30 year jubileum K.J. Skrjabin | pages = 67–79 | year = 1937 | location = Moscow | publisher = All-Union Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences}}</ref>—who divided the phylum into two—the [[Aphasmidia]] and the [[Phasmidia]]. These were later renamed [[Adenophorea]] (gland bearers) and [[Secernentea]] (secretors), respectively.<ref name="Chitwood1958">{{cite journal | author = Chitwood BG | title = The designation of official names for higher taxa of invertebrates | journal = Bull Zool Nomencl | volume = 15 | issue = | pages = 860–95 | year = 1958 }}</ref> The Secernentea share several characteristics, including the presence of [[phasmid (nematode)|phasmid]]s, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral posterior region, and this was used as the basis for this division. This scheme was adhered to in many later classifications, though the Adenophorea were not a uniform group.

Initial [[Nucleic acid sequence|DNA sequence]] studies{{Verify source|date=February 2009}}<!-- what sequences? --> suggested the existence of five [[clade]]s:<ref name = "Blaxter_1998">{{cite journal | author = Blaxter ML, De Ley P, Garey JR, Liu LX, Scheldeman P, Vierstraete A, Vanfleteren JR, Mackey LY, Dorris M, Frisse LM, Vida JT, Thomas WK | title = A molecular evolutionary framework for the phylum Nematoda | journal = Nature | volume = 392 | issue = 6671 | pages = 71–5 |date=March 1998 | pmid = 9510248 | doi = 10.1038/32160 }}</ref>

* [[Dorylaimia]]
* [[Enoplia]]
* [[Spirurina]]
* [[Tylenchina]]
* [[Rhabditina]]

As it seems, the [[Secernentea]] are indeed a natural group of closest relatives. But the "Adenophorea" appear to be a [[paraphyletic]] assemblage of roundworms simply retaining a good number of [[plesiomorph|ancestral traits]]. The old [[Enoplia]] do not seem to be monophyletic either, but to contain two distinct lineages. The old group "[[Chromadoria]]" seem to be another paraphyletic assemblage, with the [[Monhysterida]] representing a very ancient minor group of nematodes. Among the Secernentea, the [[Diplogasteria]] may need to be united with the [[Rhabditia]], while the Tylenchia might be paraphyletic with the Rhabditia.<ref name = "ToL:2002_Nematoda">{{cite web | publisher = [[Tree of Life Web Project]] (ToL) | title = Nematoda | date = 2002-01-01 | url = http://tolweb.org/Nematoda/2472/2002.01.01 | accessdate = 2008-11-02 }}</ref>

The understanding of roundworm systematics and [[phylogeny]] as of 2002 is summarised below:

'''Phylum Nematoda'''

* [[Basal (evolution)|Basal]] order [[Monhysterida]]
* Class [[Dorylaimea]]
* Class [[Enoplea]]
* Class [[Secernentea]]
** Subclass [[Diplogasteria]] (disputed)
** Subclass [[Rhabditia]] (paraphyletic?)
** Subclass [[Spiruria]]
** Subclass [[Tylenchia]] (disputed)
* "[[Chromadorea]]" assemblage

Later work has suggested the presence of 12 clades.<ref name="Holterman2006" /> The Secernentea—a group that includes virtually all major animal and plant 'nematode' parasites—apparently arose from within the Adenophorea.

A major effort to improve the systematics of this phylum is in progress and being organised by the 959 Nematode Genomes.<ref name="Nematodes.org Genomes" />

A complete checklist of the World's nematode species can be found in the World Species Index:Nematoda.<ref name="Catalogue_of_Nematode_Species_of_the_World" />

An analysis of the mitochondrial DNA suggests that the following groupings are valid<ref name=Liu2013>{{cite journal | last1 = Liu | first1 = GH | last2 = Shao | first2 = R | last3 = Li | first3 = JY | last4 = Zhou | first4 = DH | last5 = Li | first5 = H | last6 = Zhu | first6 = XQ | year = 2013 | title = The complete mitochondrial genomes of three parasitic nematodes of birds: a unique gene order and insights into nematode phylogeny | url = | journal = BMC Genomics | volume = 14 | issue = 1| page = 414 | doi=10.1186/1471-2164-14-414}}</ref>

*subclass [[Dorylaimia]]
*orders [[Rhabditida]], [[Trichinellida]] and [[Mermithida]]
*suborder [[Rhabditina]]
*infraorders [[Spiruromorpha]] and [[Oxyuridomorpha]]

The [[Ascaridomorpha]], [[Rhabditomorpha]] and [[Diplogasteromorpha]] appear to be related.

The suborders [[Spirurina]] and [[Tylenchina]] and the infraorders [[Rhabditomorpha]], [[Panagrolaimomorpha]] and [[Tylenchomorpha]] are paraphytic.

The monophyly of the [[Ascaridomorph]] is uncertain.


Yamaguti(1961)关于寄生在脊椎动物的线虫种类的分类系统
Yamaguti(1961)关于寄生在脊椎动物的线虫种类的分类系统

2015年6月23日 (二) 13:18的版本

Eophasma jurasicum, a fossilized nematode

线虫的分类系统由於线虫动物门的种类繁多,至今尚有不同意见。以下列举数位学者的分类表:

本分類最初由Karl Rudolphi於1808年定義為「Nematoidea[1],取名於古希臘文的νῆμαnêma, nêmatos,線的意思)及後綴-eiδἠς-eidēs,物種。本分類後來被Burmeister於1837年被重新分類,取名為「Nematodes[1];到1861年再由K. M. Diesing升格成為「Nematoda目」[1]

At its origin, the "Nematoidea" included both roundworms and horsehair worms. Along with Acanthocephala, Trematoda and Cestoidea, it formed the group Entozoa.[2] The first differentiation of roundworms from horsehair worms, though erroneous, is due to von Siebold (1843) with orders Nematoidea and Gordiacei (Gordiacea). They were classed along with Acanthocephala in the new phylum Nemathelminthes (today obsolete) by Gegenbaur (1859). The taxon Nematoidea, including the family Gordiidae (horsehair worms), was then promoted to the rank of phylum by Ray Lankester (1877). In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed that roundworms should be recognized alone as a phylum. He argued they should be called nema(s) in English rather than "nematodes"[a] and defined the taxon Nemates (Latin plural of nema). Since Cobb was the first to exclude all but nematodes from the group, some sources consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata, rather than Nematoda.[3]

Phylogeny

The relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the protostomian Metazoa are unresolved. Traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group Ecdysozoa together with moulting animals, such as arthropods. The identity of the closest living relatives of the Nematoda has always been considered to be well resolved. Morphological characters and molecular phylogenies agree with placement of the roundworms as a sister taxon to the parasitic horsehair worms (Nematomorpha); together they make up the Nematoida. Together with the Scalidophora (formerly Cephalorhyncha), the Nematoida form the Introverta. It is entirely unclear whether the Introverta are, in turn, the closest living relatives of the enigmatic Gastrotricha; if so, they are considered a clade Cycloneuralia, but much disagreement occurs both between and among the available morphological and molecular data. The Cycloneuralia or the Introverta—depending on the validity of the former—are often ranked as a superphylum.[4]

Nematode systematics

Due to the lack of knowledge regarding many nematodes, their systematics is contentious. An earliest and influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood[5]—later revised by Chitwood[6]—who divided the phylum into two—the Aphasmidia and the Phasmidia. These were later renamed Adenophorea (gland bearers) and Secernentea (secretors), respectively.[7] The Secernentea share several characteristics, including the presence of phasmids, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral posterior region, and this was used as the basis for this division. This scheme was adhered to in many later classifications, though the Adenophorea were not a uniform group.

Initial DNA sequence studies[查证请求] suggested the existence of five clades:[8]

As it seems, the Secernentea are indeed a natural group of closest relatives. But the "Adenophorea" appear to be a paraphyletic assemblage of roundworms simply retaining a good number of ancestral traits. The old Enoplia do not seem to be monophyletic either, but to contain two distinct lineages. The old group "Chromadoria" seem to be another paraphyletic assemblage, with the Monhysterida representing a very ancient minor group of nematodes. Among the Secernentea, the Diplogasteria may need to be united with the Rhabditia, while the Tylenchia might be paraphyletic with the Rhabditia.[9]

The understanding of roundworm systematics and phylogeny as of 2002 is summarised below:

Phylum Nematoda

Later work has suggested the presence of 12 clades.[10] The Secernentea—a group that includes virtually all major animal and plant 'nematode' parasites—apparently arose from within the Adenophorea.

A major effort to improve the systematics of this phylum is in progress and being organised by the 959 Nematode Genomes.[11]

A complete checklist of the World's nematode species can be found in the World Species Index:Nematoda.[12]

An analysis of the mitochondrial DNA suggests that the following groupings are valid[13]

The Ascaridomorpha, Rhabditomorpha and Diplogasteromorpha appear to be related.

The suborders Spirurina and Tylenchina and the infraorders Rhabditomorpha, Panagrolaimomorpha and Tylenchomorpha are paraphytic.

The monophyly of the Ascaridomorph is uncertain.

Yamaguti(1961)关于寄生在脊椎动物的线虫种类的分类系统

陈心陶(1965)关于线虫的分类位置及其类群系统

Levin(1968)关于人畜寄生线虫的分类系统

孔繁瑶教授关于线虫分类的意见(按孔教授1980年讲演材料)

Maggenti(1981)线虫分类意见

Holterman, M; der Wurff, A; den Elsen, S; van Megen, H; Bongers, T; Holovachov, O; Bakker, J; Helder, J (2006)

參考文獻

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Chitwood BG. The English word "Nema" Revised. Systematic Zoology in Nematology Newsletter. 1957, 4 (45): 1619. doi:10.2307/sysbio/6.4.184. 
  2. ^ Siddiqi MR. Tylenchida: parasites of plants and insects. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. 2000. ISBN 0-85199-202-1. 
  3. ^ 引用错误:没有为名为ITIS Nematoda的参考文献提供内容
  4. ^ Bilateria. Tree of Life Web Project (ToL). January 1, 2002 [2008-11-02]. 
  5. ^ Chitwood BG, Chitwood MB. The characters of a protonematode. J Parasitol. 1933, 20: 130. 
  6. ^ Chitwood BG. A revised classification of the Nematoda. Papers on helminthology, 30 year jubileum K.J. Skrjabin. Moscow: All-Union Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences. 1937: 67–79. 
  7. ^ Chitwood BG. The designation of official names for higher taxa of invertebrates. Bull Zool Nomencl. 1958, 15: 860–95. 
  8. ^ Blaxter ML, De Ley P, Garey JR, Liu LX, Scheldeman P, Vierstraete A, Vanfleteren JR, Mackey LY, Dorris M, Frisse LM, Vida JT, Thomas WK. A molecular evolutionary framework for the phylum Nematoda. Nature. March 1998, 392 (6671): 71–5. PMID 9510248. doi:10.1038/32160. 
  9. ^ Nematoda. Tree of Life Web Project (ToL). 2002-01-01 [2008-11-02]. 
  10. ^ 引用错误:没有为名为Holterman2006的参考文献提供内容
  11. ^ 引用错误:没有为名为Nematodes.org Genomes的参考文献提供内容
  12. ^ 引用错误:没有为名为Catalogue_of_Nematode_Species_of_the_World的参考文献提供内容
  13. ^ Liu, GH; Shao, R; Li, JY; Zhou, DH; Li, H; Zhu, XQ. The complete mitochondrial genomes of three parasitic nematodes of birds: a unique gene order and insights into nematode phylogeny. BMC Genomics. 2013, 14 (1): 414. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-14-414. 


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