時間知覺：修订间差异

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[[文件:Swatch Irony angle below.jpg|thumb|right|一把当代的[[石英钟|石英表]]]]
{{unreferenced|time=2010-07-25T07:08:49+00:00}}
'''時間知覺'''是[[心理學]]、[[認知語言學]]<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Evans | first1 = Vyvyan | name-list-format = vanc | title = Language and time: a cognitive linguistics approach | date = 2013 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-1-107-04380-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books/about/Language_and_Time.html?id=2deaAAAAQBAJ }}</ref>和[[神经科学]]中的一個重要概念，也稱為'''時間感'''。它指人在不使用任何計時工具的情況下,對客觀現象的延續性和順序性的感知。這種感知來源於內部或者外部，外部感知可來源於晝夜長短、[[節氣]]、[[太陽]]高度等等。內部感知可來源於我們的[[心跳]]、[[呼吸]]等等。在實驗心理學中，有“復制刺激”的實驗。即給被試一個刺激，燈光或是聲音，刺激出現的時間不等，被試接受刺激後，以被試所感覺的刺激出現時間復制這個刺激。實驗證明，被試在刺激出現3S的情況下復制比較准確。
{{expand|time=2010-7-25}}

'''時間知覺'''是[[心理學]]中的一個重要概念，也稱為[[時間感]]。它指人在不使用任何計時工具的情況下,對客觀現象的延續性和順序性的感知。這種感知來源於內部或者外部，外部感知可來源於晝夜長短、[[節氣]]、[[太陽]]高度等等。內部感知可來源於我們的[[心跳]]、[[呼吸]]等等。在實驗心理學中，有“復制刺激”的實驗。即給被試一個刺激，燈光或是聲音，刺激出現的時間不等，被試接受刺激後，以被試所感覺的刺激出現時間復制這個刺激。實驗證明，被試在刺激出現3S的情況下復制比較准確。
两个事件之间的时间感知被称为感觉时间。我们无法直接感知或者体验别人的感觉时间，但是可以使用一系列科学实验客观地研究它。时间知觉是一种大脑的构造。在不同情况下它可以被影响或者改变。这样的时间错感可以帮助研究时间知觉下的神经原理。

<!--
Pioneering work, emphasizing species-specific differences, was conducted by [[Karl Ernst von Baer]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} Experimental work began under the influence of the psycho-physical notions of [[Gustav Theodor Fechner]] with studies of the relationship between perceived and measured time.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

== Theories ==

[[William J. Friedman]] (1993) also contrasted two theories for a sense of time:<ref name="plato"/><ref name="Friedman_1990">{{cite book| vauthors = Friedman W | title = About time: inventing the fourth dimension| year = 1990 | publisher = MIT Press | location = Cambridge, Mass. | isbn = 978-0-262-06133-9 }}</ref><ref name = "Friedman_1993">{{cite journal | vauthors = Friedman WJ | title = Memory for the time of past events | journal = Psychological Bulletin | year = 1993 | volume = 113 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–66 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.113.1.44 }}</ref>

*''The strength model'' of time memory. This posits a ''memory trace'' that persists over time, by which one might judge the age of a memory (and therefore how long ago the event remembered occurred) from the strength of the trace. This conflicts with the fact that memories of recent events may fade more quickly than more distant memories.
*''The inference model'' suggests the time of an event is inferred from information about relations between the event in question and other events whose date or time is known.

Another theory involves the brain's subconscious tallying of "pulses" during a specific interval, forming a biological stopwatch. This theory alleges that the brain can run multiple biological stopwatches at one time depending on the type of task one is involved in. The location of these pulses and what these pulses actually consist of is unclear.<ref name = "Falk_2014">{{cite journal | last = Falk | first = Dan | name-list-format = vanc | title = Do Humans Have a Biological Stopwatch? | journal = [[Smithsonian Magazine]] | url = http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/do-humans-have-a-biological-stopwatch-164710819/?no-ist | date = Jan 2013 | accessdate = May 1, 2014 }}</ref> This model is only a metaphor and does not stand up in terms of brain physiology or anatomy.<ref name=Guardian />

== Philosophical perspectives ==
{{main article|Specious present}}
The ''[[wiktionary:specious|specious]] present'' is the time duration wherein a state of [[consciousness]] is experienced as being in the [[present]].<ref name=james /> The term was first introduced by the philosopher E. R. Clay in 1882 ([[E. Robert Kelly]]),<ref name=kelly/><ref name=andersen /> and was further developed by [[William James]].<ref name=andersen /> James defined the specious present to be "the prototype of all conceived times... the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible". In "Scientific Thought" (1930), [[C. D. Broad]] further elaborated on the concept of the specious present, and considered that the specious present may be considered as the temporal equivalent of a sensory datum.<ref name=andersen /> A version of the concept was used by [[Edmund Husserl]] in his works and discussed further by [[Francisco Varela]] based on the writings of Husserl, [[Heidegger]], and [[Merleau-Ponty]].<ref name=petitot />

== Neuroscientific perspectives ==

Although the perception of time is not associated with a specific sensory system, [[psychologist]]s and [[neuroscientist]]s suggest that humans do have a system, or several complementary systems, governing the [[perception]] of [[time]].<ref name=unisci>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rao SM, Mayer AR, Harrington DL | title = The evolution of brain activation during temporal processing | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 317–23 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11224550 | doi = 10.1038/85191 | laydate = 27 February 2001 | laysource = UniSci: Daily University Science News | layurl = http://www.unisci.com/stories/20011/0227013.htm }}</ref> Time perception is handled by a highly distributed system involving the [[cerebral cortex]], [[cerebellum]] and [[basal ganglia]].<ref name=natneuro /> One particular component, the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]], is responsible for the [[circadian rhythm|circadian (or daily) rhythm]], while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter-range ([[ultradian]]) timekeeping. There is some evidence that very short (millisecond) durations are processed by dedicated neurons in early sensory parts of the brain.<ref name="Heron2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Heron J, Aaen-Stockdale C, Hotchkiss J, Roach NW, McGraw PV, Whitaker D | title = Duration channels mediate human time perception | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 279 | issue = 1729 | pages = 690–8 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 21831897 | pmc = 3248727 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2011.1131 | url = http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/279/1729/690.short }}</ref>

[[Professor Warren Meck]] devised a physiological model for measuring the passage of time. He found the representation of time to be generated by the oscillatory activity of cells in the upper cortex. The frequency of these cells' activity is detected by cells in the dorsal striatum at the base of the forebrain. His model separated explicit timing and implicit timing. Explicit timing is used in estimating the duration of a stimulus. Implicit timing is used to gauge the amount of time separating one from an impending event that is expected to occur in the near future. These two estimations of time do not involve the same neuroanatomical areas. For example, implicit timing often occurs to achieve a motor task, involving the cerebellum, left parietal cortex, and left premotor cortex. Explicit timing often involves the supplementary motor area and the right prefrontal cortex.<ref name=Guardian />

Two visual stimuli, inside someone's field of view, can be successfully regarded as simultaneous down to five milliseconds.<ref name = "Eagleman_2009">{{cite web | last1 = Eagleman | first1 = David M. | name-list-format = vanc | title = Brain Time | url = http://www.edge.org/conversation/brain-time | website = Edge | publisher = Edge Foundation | date = 23 June 2009 }}</ref><ref name = "Macey_1994">{{cite book | last= Macey | first = Samuel L. | name-list-format =vanc | year = 1994 | title = Encyclopedia of Time | edition = 1st | publisher = Routledge Publishing | isbn = 978-0-8153-0615-3 | page=555 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Brockman | first = Max | name-list-format = vanc | year = 2009 | title = What's Next?: Dispatches on the Future of Science | publisher = Vintage Books | location = United States | isbn = 978-0-307-38931-2 | page = 162 }}</ref>

In the popular essay "Brain Time", by [[David Eagleman]], he explains that different types of sensory information (auditory, tactile, visual, etc.) are processed at different speeds by different neural architectures. The brain must learn how to overcome these speed disparities if it is to create a temporally unified representation of the external world: "if the visual brain wants to get events correct timewise, it may have only one choice: wait for the slowest information to arrive. To accomplish this, it must wait about a tenth of a second. In the early days of television broadcasting, engineers worried about the problem of keeping audio and video signals synchronized. Then they accidentally discovered that they had around a hundred milliseconds of slop: As long as the signals arrived within this window, viewers' brains would automatically resynchronize the signals". He goes on to say that "This brief waiting period allows the visual system to discount the various delays imposed by the early stages; however, it has the disadvantage of pushing perception into the past. There is a distinct survival advantage to operating as close to the present as possible; an animal does not want to live too far in the past. Therefore, the tenth-of- a-second window may be the smallest delay that allows higher areas of the brain to account for the delays created in the first stages of the system while still operating near the border of the present. This window of delay means that awareness is postdictive, incorporating data from a window of time after an event and delivering a retrospective interpretation of what happened."<ref name="urlBRAIN TIME | Edge.org">{{cite web | url = http://edge.org/conversation/brain-time | title = Brain Time | author = Eagleman DM | authorlink = David Eagleman | date = 2009-06-23 | work = | publisher = Edge Foundation }}</ref>

Experiments have shown that rats can successfully estimate a time interval of approximately 40 seconds, despite having their [[Cerebral cortex|cortex]] entirely removed.<ref name="jaldow" /> This suggests that time estimation may be a low level (subcortical) process.<ref name="mackintosh" />

== Types of temporal illusions ==

A ''temporal illusion'' is a distortion in the perception of time, which occurs when the [[time]] interval between two or more events is very narrow (typically less than a second). In such cases, a person may momentarily perceive time as slowing down, stopping, speeding up, or running backwards. Additionally, a person may misperceive the temporal order of these events.

'''Short list of types of temporal illusions''':
*[[Telescoping effect]]: People tend to recall recent events as occurring further back in time than they actually did (backward telescoping) and distant events as occurring more recently than they actually did (forward telescoping).<ref name=jcp />
*[[Vierordt's law]]: Shorter intervals tend to be overestimated while longer intervals tend to be underestimated
*Time intervals associated with more changes may be perceived as longer than intervals with fewer changes
*Perceived temporal length of a given task may shorten with greater motivation
*Perceived temporal length of a given task may stretch when broken up or interrupted
*Auditory stimuli may appear to last longer than visual stimuli<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wearden JH, Todd NP, Jones LA | title = When do auditory/visual differences in duration judgements occur? | journal = Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 59 | issue = 10 | pages = 1709–24 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 16945856 | doi = 10.1080/17470210500314729 | url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17470210500314729#.U0XwvOZdUww }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Goldstone S, Lhamon WT | title = Studies of auditory-visual differences in human time judgment. 1. Sounds are judged longer than lights | journal = Perceptual and Motor Skills | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 63–82 | date = August 1974 | pmid = 4415924 | doi = 10.2466/pms.1974.39.1.63 | url = http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2466/pms.1974.39.1.63 | format = PDF }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Penney TB |chapter=Modality differences in interval timing: Attention, clock speed, and memory |pages=209–233 |doi=10.1201/9780203009574.ch8 |title=Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing |editor-last=Meck | editor-first = Warren H. | name-list-format = vanc | date = 2003 | publisher = CRC Press |place=Boca Raton, FL |chapter-url=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-00556-008 |series=Frontiers in Neuroscience | isbn = 978-0-8493-1109-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wearden JH, Edwards H, Fakhri M, Percival A | title = Why "sounds are judged longer than lights": application of a model of the internal clock in humans | journal = The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. B, Comparative and Physiological Psychology | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–120 | date = May 1998 | pmid = 9621837 | doi = 10.1080/713932672 | url = http://www.keele.ac.uk/media/keeleuniversity/facnatsci/schpsych/weardenpublications/weardenetal1998.pdf | format = PDF }}</ref>
*Time durations may appear longer with greater stimulus intensity (e.g., auditory loudness or pitch)
*Simultaneity judgments can be manipulated by repeated exposure to non-simultaneous stimuli

=== Kappa effect ===

The [[Kappa effect]] is a form of temporal illusion verifiable by experiment,<ref name=wada /> wherein the temporal duration between a sequence of consecutive stimuli is thought to be relatively longer or shorter than its actual elapsed time, due to the spatial/auditory/tactile separation between each consecutive stimuli. The kappa effect can be displayed when considering a journey made in two parts that take an equal amount of time. Between these two parts, the journey that covers more distance may appear to take longer than the journey covering less distance, even though they take an equal amount of time.

=== Chronostasis ===

[[Chronostasis]] is a type of temporal illusion in which the first impression following the introduction of a new event or task demand to the brain appears to be extended in time.<ref name=yarrow /> For example, Chronostasis temporarily occurs when fixating on a target stimulus, immediately following a [[saccade]] (e.g., quick [[Eye movement (sensory)|eye movement]]). This elicits an overestimation in the temporal duration for which that target stimulus (i.e., postsaccadic stimulus) was perceived. This effect can extend apparent durations by up to 500 ms and is consistent with the idea that the visual system models events prior to perception.<ref name="Yarrow, Whiteley">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yarrow K, Whiteley L, Rothwell JC, Haggard P | title = Spatial consequences of bridging the saccadic gap | journal = Vision Research | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 545–55 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16005489 | doi = 10.1016/j.visres.2005.04.019 | pmc=1343538}}</ref> The most well-known version of this illusion is known as the '''stopped-clock illusion''', wherein a subject's first impression of the second-hand movement of an analog clock, subsequent to one's directed attention (i.e., saccade) to the clock, is the perception of a slower-than-normal second-hand movement rate (the seconds hand of the clock may seemingly temporarily freeze in place after initially looking at it).<ref name=Knoll2>{{cite journal | vauthors = Knöll J, Morrone MC, Bremmer F | title = Spatio-temporal topography of saccadic overestimation of time | journal = Vision Research | volume = 83 | pages = 56–65 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 23458677 | doi = 10.1016/j.visres.2013.02.013 }}</ref><ref name="Yarrow, Rothwell">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yarrow K, Rothwell JC | title = Manual chronostasis: tactile perception precedes physical contact | journal = Current Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 13 | pages = 1134–9 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12842013 | doi = 10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00413-5 }}</ref><ref name=Yarrow>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yarrow K, Johnson H, Haggard P, Rothwell JC | title = Consistent chronostasis effects across saccade categories imply a subcortical efferent trigger | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 839–47 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15200711 | doi = 10.1162/089892904970780 | pmc=1266050}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120827-how-to-make-time-stand-still | title=The mystery of the stopped clock illusion | work=[[BBC]] - Future - Health - | date=2012-08-27 | accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref>

The occurrence of chronostasis extends beyond the visual domain into the [[Auditory system|auditory]] and [[tactile]] domains.<ref name=Nijhawan>{{cite book | last = Nijhawan | first = Romi | name-list-format = vanc | title=Space and Time in Perception and Action|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0-521-86318-6}}</ref> In the auditory domain, chronostasis and duration overestimation occur when observing auditory stimuli. One common example is a frequent occurrence when making telephone calls. If, while listening to the phone's dial tone, research subjects move the phone from one ear to the other, the length of time between rings appears longer.<ref name="Hodinott">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hodinott-Hill I, Thilo KV, Cowey A, Walsh V | title = Auditory chronostasis: hanging on the telephone | journal = Current Biology | volume = 12 | issue = 20 | pages = 1779–81 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12401174 | doi = 10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01219-8 }}</ref> In the tactile domain, chronostasis has persisted in research subjects as they reach for and grasp objects. After grasping a new object, subjects overestimate the time in which their hand has been in contact with this object.<ref name="Yarrow, Rothwell" /> In other experiments, subjects turning a light on with a button were conditioned to experience the light before the button press.

===Oddball effect===
The perception of the duration of an event seems to be modulated by our recent experiences. Humans typically overestimate the perceived duration of the initial event in a stream of identical events<ref name=Rose1995>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rose D, Summers J | title = Duration illusions in a train of visual stimuli | journal = Perception | volume = 24 | issue = 10 | pages = 1177–87 | year = 1995 | pmid = 8577576 | doi = 10.1068/p241177 }}</ref> and unexpected “oddball” stimuli seem to be perceived as longer in duration, relative to expected or frequently presented “standard” stimuli.<ref name=Tse2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tse PU, Intriligator J, Rivest J, Cavanagh P | title = Attention and the subjective expansion of time | journal = Perception & Psychophysics | volume = 66 | issue = 7 | pages = 1171–89 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15751474 | doi = 10.3758/BF03196844 }}</ref>

The oddball effect may serve an evolutionarily adapted “alerting” function and is consistent with reports of time slowing down in threatening situations. The effect seems to be strongest for images that are expanding in size on the retina, in other words, that are "looming" or approaching the viewer,<ref name=Tse2004/><ref name=New2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = New JJ, Scholl BJ | title = Subjective time dilation: spatially local, object-based, or a global visual experience? | journal = Journal of Vision | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 4.1–11 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19271914 | doi = 10.1167/9.2.4 }}</ref><ref name=vanWassenhove2008>{{cite journal | vauthors = van Wassenhove V, Buonomano DV, Shimojo S, Shams L | title = Distortions of subjective time perception within and across senses | journal = PloS One | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = e1437 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18197248 | pmc = 2174530 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0001437 }}</ref> and the effect can be eradicated for oddballs that are contracting or perceived to be receding from the viewer.<ref name=New2009/> The effect is also reduced<ref name=Tse2004/> or reversed<ref name=vanWassenhove2008/> with a static oddball presented amongst a stream of expanding stimuli.

Initial studies suggested that this oddball-induced “subjective time dilation” expanded the perceived duration of oddball stimuli by 30–50%<ref name=Tse2004/> but subsequent research has reported more modest expansion of around 10%.<ref name=vanWassenhove2008/><ref name=Ulrich2006>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ulrich R, Nitschke J, Rammsayer T | title = Perceived duration of expected and unexpected stimuli | journal = Psychological Research | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 77–87 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 15609031 | doi = 10.1007/s00426-004-0195-4 }}</ref><ref name=Chen2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen KM, Yeh SL | title = Asymmetric cross-modal effects in time perception | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 130 | issue = 3 | pages = 225–34 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19195633 | doi = 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.12.008 }}</ref><ref name=Seifried2010>{{cite journal | vauthors = Seifried T, Ulrich R | title = Does the asymmetry effect inflate the temporal expansion of odd stimuli? | journal = Psychological Research | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 90–8 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19034503 | doi = 10.1007/s00426-008-0187-x }}</ref> or less.<ref name=AaenStockdale2011>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aaen-Stockdale C, Hotchkiss J, Heron J, Whitaker D | title = Perceived time is spatial frequency dependent | journal = Vision Research | volume = 51 | issue = 11 | pages = 1232–8 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21477613 | pmc = 3121949 | doi = 10.1016/j.visres.2011.03.019 }}</ref> The direction of the effect, whether the viewer perceives an increase or a decrease in duration, also seems to be dependent upon the stimulus used.<ref name=AaenStockdale2011/>

=== Effects of emotional states ===

====Awe====
Research has suggested the feeling of [[awe]] has the ability to expand one's perceptions of time availability. Awe can be characterized as an experience of immense perceptual vastness that coincides with an increase in focus. Consequently, it is conceivable that one's temporal perception would slow down when experiencing awe.<ref name="pmid22886132">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rudd M, Vohs KD, Aaker J | title = Awe expands people's perception of time, alters decision making, and enhances well-being | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 23 | issue = 10 | pages = 1130–6 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22886132 | doi = 10.1177/0956797612438731 | url = http://www.carlsonschool.umn.edu/assets/lib/assets/AssetLibrary/2012/Rudd_Vohs_Aaker_2012_psych%20science.pdf }}</ref>

====Fear====
Another temporal illusion, possibly related to the [[Time perception#Oddball effect|oddball effect]], occurs when a person perceives a potential threat or mate (See [[Fight-or-flight response]]). For example, research suggests that time seems to slow down when a person skydives or bungee jumps,<ref name="just" /> or when a person suddenly and unexpectedly senses the presence of a potential predator or mate. This reported slowing in temporal perception may have been evolutionarily advantageous because it may have enhanced our ability to intelligibly make quick decisions in moments that were of critical importance to our survival. However, even though observers commonly report that time seems to have moved in slow motion during these events, it is unknown whether this is a function of increased time resolution during the event, or instead an illusion of remembering an emotionally salient event.

The slowing down of time during a life-threatening event seems to be a retrospective assessment. Perceptual abilities have been tested during free-fall, and by measuring their sensitivity to flickering stimuli during a frightening experience, it has been shown that the people's temporal resolution is not improved. Rather, their memories are more densely packed during the frightening situation, and therefore the event seems to have taken longer only in retrospect.<ref name="pmid18074019">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stetson C, Fiesta MP, Eagleman DM | title = Does time really slow down during a frightening event? | journal = PloS One | volume = 2 | issue = 12 | pages = e1295 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18074019 | pmc = 2110887 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0001295 }}</ref>

People shown extracts from films known to induce fear often overestimated the elapsed time of a subsequently presented visual stimulus, whereas people shown clips known to evoke feelings of sadness or emotionally-neutral clips from weather forecasts and stock market updates showed no difference. It is argued that fear prompts a state of arousal in the [[amygdala]], which increases the rate of a hypothesised "internal clock." This could be the result of an evolved defensive mechanism triggered by a threatening situation.<ref name="pmid21886610">{{cite journal | vauthors = Droit-Volet S, Fayolle SL, Gil S | title = Emotion and time perception: effects of film-induced mood | journal = Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience | volume = 5 | issue = | pages = 33 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21886610 | pmc = 3152725 | doi = 10.3389/fnint.2011.00033 }}</ref>

When exposed to a threat, three-year-old children were observed to exhibit a similar tendency to overestimate elapsed time.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite web |url= https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/01/psychology-time-perception-awareness-research |title= A stopwatch on the brain's perception of time |last1= Gozlan |first1= Marc |date= 2 Jan 2013 |website= theguardian.com |publisher= Guardian News and Media Limited |accessdate=4 January 2014 | name-list-format = vanc}}</ref><ref name = "pmid19073237">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gil S, Droit-Volet S | title = Time perception, depression and sadness | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 80 | issue = 2 | pages = 169–76 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19073237 | doi = 10.1016/j.beproc.2008.11.012 | url = http://cerca.labo.univ-poitiers.fr/IMG/pdf_BP09-GilColl.pdf }}</ref>

====Empathy====
The perception of another persons' emotions can also change our sense of time. The theory of embodied mind (or cognition), as caused by [[mirror neuron]]s, helps explain how the perception of other people's emotions have the ability to change one's own sense of time. Embodied cognition hinges on an internal process that mimics or simulates another's emotional state. For example, if person #1 spends time with person #2 who speaks and walks incredibly slowly, person #1's internal clock may slow down.

====Depression====
Depression may increase one's ability to perceive time accurately. One study assessed this concept by asking subjects to estimate the amount of time that passed during intervals ranging from 3 seconds to 65 seconds.<ref name=DepressiveRealism>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kornbrot DE, Msetfi RM, Grimwood MJ | title = Time perception and depressive realism: judgment type, psychophysical functions and bias | journal = PloS One | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = e71585 | date = 21 August 2013 | pmid = 23990960 | pmc = 3749223 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0071585 | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0071585 | lay-url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/08/130822090326.htm | lay-date = 22 August 2013 | lay-source = Science Daily }}</ref> Results indicated that depressed subjects more accurately estimated the amount of time that had passed than non-depressed patients; non-depressed subjects overestimated the passing of time. This difference was hypothesized to be because depressed subjects focused less on external factors that may skew their judgement of time. The authors termed this hypothesized phenomenon "depressive realism."<ref name=DepressiveRealism/>

=== Changes with age ===

Psychologists have found that the subjective perception of the passing of time tends to speed up with increasing age in humans. This often causes people to increasingly underestimate a given interval of time as they age. This fact can likely be attributed to a variety of age-related changes in the [[aging brain]], such as the lowering in dopaminergic levels with older age; however, the details are still being debated.<ref name="pmid18794529">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dreher JC, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Kohn P, Berman KF | title = Age-related changes in midbrain dopaminergic regulation of the human reward system | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 105 | issue = 39 | pages = 15106–11 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18794529 | pmc = 2567500 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0802127105 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16901542">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bäckman L, Nyberg L, Lindenberger U, Li SC, Farde L | title = The correlative triad among aging, dopamine, and cognition: current status and future prospects | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 30 | issue = 6 | pages = 791–807 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16901542 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.005 }}</ref><ref name="pmid8806025">{{cite journal | vauthors = Meck WH | title = Neuropharmacology of timing and time perception | journal = Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research | volume = 3 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 227–42 | date = June 1996 | pmid = 8806025 | doi = 10.1016/0926-6410(96)00009-2 | url = http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homePage/Class/Psy355/Gilden/meck.pdf }}</ref> In an experimental study involving a group of subjects aged between 19 and 24 and a group between 60 and 80, the participants' abilities to estimate 3 minutes of time were compared. The study found that an average of 3 minutes and 3 seconds passed when participants in the younger group estimated that 3 minutes had passed, whereas the older group's estimate for when 3 minutes had passed came after an average of 3 minutes and 40 seconds.<ref name="newsci" /><ref name="urlRunning Late? Researchers Blame Aging Brain - New York Times">{{cite web | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/24/science/running-late-researchers-blame-aging-brain.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm | title = Running Late? Researchers Blame Aging Brain | author = Blakesell S | date = 1998-03-24 | work = | publisher = New York Times }}</ref>

Very young children literally "live in time" before gaining an awareness of its passing. A child will first experience the passing of time when he or she can subjectively perceive and reflect on the unfolding of a collection of events. A child's awareness of time develops during childhood when the child's attention and short-term memory capacities form—this developmental process is thought to be dependent on the slow maturation of the [[prefrontal cortex]] and [[hippocampus]].<ref name="Guardian" /><ref name="pmid23045653">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolb B, Mychasiuk R, Muhammad A, Li Y, Frost DO, Gibb R | title = Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 109 Suppl 2 | issue = | pages = 17186–93 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23045653 | pmc = 3477383 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1121251109 }}</ref>

One day to an 11-year-old would be approximately 1/4,000 of their life, while one day to a 55-year-old would be approximately 1/20,000 of their life. This helps to explain why a random, ordinary day may therefore appear longer for a young child than an adult.<ref name=alder>{{cite web | url = http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16422180.900-look-how-time-flies | title = Look how time flies . . . | author = Adler R | date = 1999-12-25 | publisher = New Scientist | accessdate = 2009-10-22 }}</ref> The short-term time appears to go faster by square root of their age.<ref name = "Jo_DiLonardo_1994">{{cite news | last1 = Jo DiLonardo | first1 = Mary | name-list-format = vanc |title=Time Does Fly As We Grow Older | url = http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-02-06/features/9402060210_1_psychology-professor-adult-school-year | work = [[Chicago Tribune]] | date = 1994-02-06 }}</ref> So a year experienced by a 55-year-old would pass approximately 2¼ times more quickly than a year experienced by an 11-year-old. If long-term time perception is based solely on the [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportionality]] of a person's age, then the following four periods in life would appear to be quantitatively equal: age 5 to 10 (1x), age 10 to 20 (2x), age 20 to 40 (4x), age 40 to 80 (8x).<ref name="alder" />

The common explanation is that most external and internal experiences are new for young children, while most experiences are repetitive for adults. Children have to be extremely engaged (i.e. dedicate many neural resources or significant brain power) in the present moment because they must constantly reconfigure their mental models of the world to assimilate it, and properly behave from within. On the contrary, adults may rarely step outside of their mental habits and external routines. When an adult frequently experiences the same stimuli, their brain renders them "invisible" because the brain has already sufficiently and effectively mapped those stimuli. This phenomenon is known as [[neural adaptation]]. Thus, the brain will record fewer densely rich memories during these frequent periods of disengagement from the present moment.<ref name="url_The_Buffer_Blog">{{cite web | url = http://blog.bufferapp.com/the-science-of-time-perception-how-to-make-your-days-longer | title = The science of time perception: stop it slipping away by doing new things | author = Cooper BB | date = 2013-07-02 | work = | publisher = The Buffer Blog }}</ref> Consequently, the subjective perception is often that time passes by at a faster rate with age.

=== Effects of drugs ===
{{Further information|Cannabis and time perception}}
[[Stimulants]] produce overestimates of time duration, whereas [[depressants]] and anesthetics produce underestimates of time duration.

Psychoactive drugs can alter the judgement of time. These include traditional psychedelics such as [[LSD]], [[psilocybin]], and [[mescaline]] as well as the dissociative class of psychedelics such as [[Phencyclidine|PCP]], [[ketamine]] and [[dextromethorphan]]. At higher doses time may appear to slow down, speed up or seem out of sequence. In a 2007 study, psilocybin was found to significantly impair the ability to reproduce interval durations longer than 2.5 seconds, significantly impair synchronizing motor actions (taps on a computer keyboard) to regularly occurring tones, and impair the ability to keep tempo when asked to tap on a key at a self-paced but consistent interval.<ref name=wittmann1 />{{Unreliable medical source|sure=y|date=January 2014}} In 1955, British MP [[Christopher Mayhew]] took [[Mescaline|mescaline hydrochloride]] in an experiment under the guidance of his friend, Dr [[Humphry Osmond]]. On the BBC documentary ''The Beyond Within'', he described that half a dozen times during the experiment, he had "a period of time that didn't end for [him]".

[[Stimulants]] can lead both humans and rats to overestimate time intervals,<ref name=wittmann2 /><ref name=cheng /> while [[depressants]] can have the opposite effect.<ref name=tinklenberg /> The level of activity in the brain of [[neurotransmitters]] such as [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]] may be the reason for this.<ref name=arzy /> Dopamine has a particularly strong connection with one's perception of time. Drugs that activate dopamine receptors speed up one's perception of time, while dopamine antagonists cause one to feel that time is passing slowly.<ref name=Guardian /><ref name="Rammsayer_1989">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rammsayer T | title = Is there a common dopaminergic basis of time perception and reaction time? | journal = Neuropsychobiology | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 37–42 | year = 1989 | pmid = 2573003 | doi = 10.1159/000118549 }}</ref>

=== Effects of body temperature ===

Time perception may speed up as body temperature rises, and slow down as body temperature lowers.<ref name=ncbi2 />

=== Reversal of temporal order judgement ===

Numerous experimental findings suggest that temporal order judgments of actions preceding effects can be reversed under special circumstances. Experiments have shown that sensory simultaneity judgments can be manipulated by repeated exposure to non-simultaneous stimuli. In an experiment conducted by [[David Eagleman]], a temporal order judgment reversal was induced in subjects by exposing them to delayed motor consequences. In the experiment, subjects played various forms of video games. Unknown to the subjects, the experimenters introduced a fixed delay between the mouse movements and the subsequent sensory feedback. For example, a subject may not see a movement register on the screen until 150 milliseconds after the mouse had moved. Participants playing the game quickly adapted to the delay and felt as though there was less delay between their mouse movement and the sensory feedback. Shortly after the experimenters removed the delay, the subjects commonly felt as though the effect on the screen happened just before they commanded it. This work addresses how the perceived timing of effects is modulated by expectations, and the extent to which such predictions are quickly modifiable.<ref name="pmid16950162">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stetson C, Cui X, Montague PR, Eagleman DM | title = Motor-sensory recalibration leads to an illusory reversal of action and sensation | journal = Neuron | volume = 51 | issue = 5 | pages = 651–9 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16950162 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.08.006 | url = http://www.eaglemanlab.net/papers/StetsonetalNeuron2006.pdf }}</ref> In an experiment conducted by Haggard and colleagues in 2002, participants pressed a button that triggered a flash of light - at a distance - after a slight delay of 100 milliseconds.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eagleman DM | title = Human time perception and its illusions | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–6 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18639634 | pmc = 2866156 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2008.06.002 }}</ref> By repeatedly engaging in this act, participants had adapted to the delay (i.e., they experienced a gradual shortening in the perceived time interval between pressing the button and seeing the flash of light). The experimenters then showed the flash of light instantly after the button was pressed. In response, subjects often thought that the flash (the effect) had occurred before the button was pressed (the cause). Additionally, when the experimenters slightly reduced the delay, and shortened the spatial distance between the button and the flash of light, participants had often claimed again to have experienced the effect before the cause.

Several experiments also suggest that temporal order judgement of a pair of [[tactile]] stimuli, delivered in rapid succession, one to each hand, is noticeably impaired (i.e., misreported) by crossing the hands over the midline. However, congenitally blind subjects showed no trace of temporal order judgement reversal after crossing the arms. These results suggest that tactile signals taken in by the congenitally blind are ordered in time without being referred to a visuo-spatial representation. Unlike the congenitally blind subjects, the temporal order judgements of the late-onset blind subjects were impaired when crossing the arms to a similar extent as non-blind subjects. These results suggest that the associations between tactile signals and visuo-spatial representation is maintained once it is accomplished during infancy. Some research studies have also found that the subjects showed reduced deficit in tactile temporal order judgements when the arms were crossed behind their back than when they were crossed in front.<ref name="pmid11426234">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yamamoto S, Kitazawa S | title = Reversal of subjective temporal order due to arm crossing | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 4 | issue = 7 | pages = 759–65 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11426234 | doi = 10.1038/89559 | url = http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/yamamoto%20(2001)%20reversal%20of%20subjective%20temporal%20order%20due%20to%20arm%20crossing.pdf }}</ref><ref name="pmid23200703">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sambo CF, Torta DM, Gallace A, Liang M, Moseley GL, Iannetti GD | title = The temporal order judgement of tactile and nociceptive stimuli is impaired by crossing the hands over the body midline | journal = Pain | volume = 154 | issue = 2 | pages = 242–7 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23200703 | doi = 10.1016/j.pain.2012.10.010 | url = http://www.bodyinmind.org/wp-content/uploads/1-s2.0-S0304395912005611-main.pdf }}</ref><ref name="pmid22761307">{{cite journal | vauthors = Takahashi T, Kansaku K, Wada M, Shibuya S, Kitazawa S | title = Neural correlates of tactile temporal-order judgment in humans: an fMRI study | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 23 | issue = 8 | pages = 1952–64 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 22761307 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhs179 }}</ref>

===Flash-lag effect===

{{Further information|Flash lag illusion}}

In an experiment, participants were told to stare at an "x" symbol on a computer screen whereby a moving blue doughnut-like ring repeatedly circled the fixed "x" point.<ref>{{cite web | last1 = Kotler | first1 = Steven | name-list-format = vanc | title = When Life Flashes Before Your Eyes: A 15-Story Drop to Study the Brain's Internal Timewarp | url = http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-03/how-time-flies|website=Popular Science|publisher=Bonnier Corporation|date=12 April 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last1 = Eagleman | first1 = DM | last2 = Sejnowski | first2 = TJ | name-list-format = vanc |title=Flash-Lag Effect|url=http://www.eaglemanlab.net/flashlag|website=Eagleman Laboratory for Perception and Action|date=2007 }}</ref><ref name="pmid11184992">{{cite journal | vauthors = Patel SS, Ogmen H, Bedell HE, Sampath V | title = Flash-lag effect: differential latency, not postdiction | journal = Science | volume = 290 | issue = 5494 | pages = 1051 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11184992 | doi = 10.1126/science.290.5494.1051a | url = http://eaglemanlab.net/papers/EagleSejScience3.pdf }}</ref> Occasionally, the ring would display a white flash - for a split second - that physically overlapped the ring's interior. However, when asked what was perceived, participants responded that they saw the white flash lagging behind the center of the moving ring. In other words, despite the reality that the two retinal images were actually spatially aligned, the flashed object was usually observed to trail a continuously moving object in space - a phenomenon referred to as the flash-lag effect.

The first proposed explanation, called the 'motion extrapolation' hypothesis, is that the visual system extrapolates the position of moving objects - but not flashing objects - when accounting for neural delays (i.e., the lag time between the retinal image and the observer's perception of the flashing object). The second proposed explanation by David Eagleman and Sejnowski, called the 'latency difference' hypothesis, is that the visual system processes moving objects at a faster rate than flashed objects. In the attempt to disprove the first hypothesis, David Eagleman conducted an experiment in which the moving ring suddenly reverses directions to spin in the other way as the flashed object briefly appears. If the first hypothesis were correct, we expect that, immediately following reversal, the moving object would be lagging behind the flashed object. However, the experiment reveals the opposite - immediately following reversal, the flashed object was lagging behind the moving object. This experimental result supports of the 'latency difference' hypothesis. A recent study tries to reconcile these different approaches by approaching perception as an inference mechanism aiming at describing what is happening at the present time.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Khoei MA, Masson GS, Perrinet LU | title = The flash-lag effect as a motion-based predictive shift | journal = PLoS Computational Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = e1005068 | date = January 2017 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005068| url = http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005068 }}</ref>

=== Effects of clinical disorders ===

[[Parkinson's disease]],<ref name=pastor /> [[schizophrenia]],<ref name=davalos /> and [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD)<ref name=levy /> have been linked to abnormalities in [[dopamine]] levels in the brain as well as to noticeable impairments in time perception. Neuropharmacological research indicates that the internal clock, used to time durations in the seconds-to-minutes range, is linked to dopamine function in the basal ganglia.<ref name="davalos" /> Studies in which children with ADHD are given time estimation tasks shows that time passes very slowly for them. Children with Tourette’s Syndrome, for example, who need to use the pre-frontal cortex just behind the forehead to help them control their tics, are better at estimating intervals of time just over a second than other children.

In his book "Awakenings", [[Oliver Sacks]] discusses how patients with [[Parkinson's disease]] experience deficits in their awareness of time and tempo. For example, Mr E, when asked to clap his hands steadily and regularly did so for the first few claps before clapping faster and irregularly; culminating in an apparent freezing of motion. When he finished, Mr E asked if his observers were glad he did it correctly to which they replied "no". Mr E was offended by this because to him, his claps were regular and steady. When given [[L-DOPA]], these deficits are lessened or subside entirely depending on the dose. This case not only shows that Parkinson's disease is related to time perception deficits but it also demonstrates how dopamine is involved.<ref name=sacks />

Dopamine is also theorized to play a role in the attention deficits present with [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]]. Specifically, dopaminergic systems are involved in [[working memory]] and inhibitory processes, both of which are believed central to ADHD pathology.<ref name=levy /> Children with ADHD have also been found to be significantly impaired on time discrimination tasks (telling the difference between two stimuli of different temporal lengths) and respond earlier on time reproduction tasks (duplicating the duration of a presented stimulus) than controls.<ref name=smith />

Along with other perceptual abnormalities, it has been noted by psychologists that [[schizophrenia]] patients have an altered sense of time. This was first described in psychology by Minkowski in 1927.<ref name=franck /> Many schizophrenic patients stop perceiving time as a flow of causally linked events. It has been suggested that there is usually a delay in time perception in schizophrenic patients compared to normal subjects.

These defects in time perception may play a part in the hallucinations and delusions experienced by schizophrenic patients according to some studies. Some researchers suggest that "abnormal timing judgment leads to a deficit in action attribution and action perception."<ref name=franck/>

== See also ==
*[[Time]]
*[[Arrow of time]]
*[[Slow motion perception]]
*[[Time dilation]]
*[[Dyschronometria]]
*[[Benjamin Libet]]
-->

==参考资料==
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<ref name=davalos>{{cite journal | vauthors = Davalos DB, Kisley MA, Ross RG | title = Deficits in auditory and visual temporal perception in schizophrenia | journal = Cognitive Neuropsychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 273–82 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 16571542 | doi = 10.1080/13546800143000230 }}</ref>

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}}

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== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{cite web | last = Le Poidevin | first = Robin | name-list-format = vanc | url = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2004/entries/time-experience/ | title = The Experience and Perception of Time | work = The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date = Winter 2004 | editor-first = Edward N. | editor-last = Zalta }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Hodder A | date = 1901 | title = The adversaries of the sceptic; or, The specious present, a new inquiry into human knowledge | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uZ5RAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA36&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0 | chapter = Chapter II, The Specious Present | location = London: | publisher = S. Sonnenschein &. | pages = 36–56. }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Underwood G, Swain RA | title = Selectivity of attention and the perception of duration | journal = Perception | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 101–5 | year = 1973 | pmid = 4777562 | doi = 10.1068/p020101 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Brown SW, Stubbs DA | title = Attention and interference in prospective and retrospective timing | journal = Perception | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 545–57 | year = 1992 | pmid = 1437469 | doi = 10.1068/p210545 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Eagleman DM, Tse PU, Buonomano D, Janssen P, Nobre AC, Holcombe AO | title = Time and the brain: how subjective time relates to neural time | journal = The Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 25 | issue = 45 | pages = 10369–71 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16280574 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3487-05.2005 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Slanger TG | title = Evidence for a Short-Period Internal Clock in Humans | journal = [[Journal of Scientific Exploration]] | year = 1988 | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 203–216 | url = http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_02_2_slanger.pdf | accessdate = 2011-10-02 }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Le Poidevin R | title = The images of time: an essay on temporal representation | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford [Oxfordshire] | year = 2007 | pages = | isbn = 978-0-19-926589-3 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=l0qrewXYnOYC&lpg=PA115&dq | authorlink = Robin LePoidevin }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikibooks}}
* [http://www.kafalas.com/Logtime.html The Logarithmic Time Perception Hypothesis]
* [http://www.neuroquantology.com/index.php/journal/issue/view/25/showToc NeuroQuantology Special Issue: Time, Timing, and the Brain]
* [http://www.manchestertiming.co.uk Time perception research at the University of Manchester]
* [http://www.harley.com/writing/time-sense.html Time Sense: Polychronicity and Monochronicity]
* [http://www.rotman.utoronto.ca/bicpapers/pdf/memoryfortime.pdf "A Cognitive Model of Retrospective Duration Estimations", Hee-Kyung Ahn, et al., March 7, 2006.]
* [http://www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/homepages/wildgen/pdf/antwerpen_time.pdf "Time, Force, Motion, and the Semantics of Natural Languages", Wolfgang Wildgen, ''Antwerp Papers in Linguistics'', 2003/2004.]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjlpamhrId8&feature=related Can Time Slow Down?]
* [http://www.pjonline.com/Editorial/20051119/comment/onlooker.html "Interactions emerge between biological clocks", ''The Pharmaceutical Journal'', Vol 275 No 7376 p644, 19 November 2005] Registration required.
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/picturespacetime/ Picture Space Time helps to add Time Perception to Photographs using sound]
-->


{{Psychologist-stub}}
[[Category:心理学]]
[[Category:心理学]]

2017年7月1日 (六) 15:55的版本

一把当代的石英表

時間知覺是心理學、認知語言學[1]和神经科学中的一個重要概念，也稱為時間感。它指人在不使用任何計時工具的情況下,對客觀現象的延續性和順序性的感知。這種感知來源於內部或者外部，外部感知可來源於晝夜長短、節氣、太陽高度等等。內部感知可來源於我們的心跳、呼吸等等。在實驗心理學中，有“復制刺激”的實驗。即給被試一個刺激，燈光或是聲音，刺激出現的時間不等，被試接受刺激後，以被試所感覺的刺激出現時間復制這個刺激。實驗證明，被試在刺激出現3S的情況下復制比較准確。

两个事件之间的时间感知被称为感觉时间。我们无法直接感知或者体验别人的感觉时间，但是可以使用一系列科学实验客观地研究它。时间知觉是一种大脑的构造。在不同情况下它可以被影响或者改变。这样的时间错感可以帮助研究时间知觉下的神经原理。


参考资料

  1. ^ Evans V. Language and time: a cognitive linguistics approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-1-107-04380-0. 

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取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=時間知覺&oldid=45014244”