使用者:幾維小小/遙遠未來的時間線

維基百科，自由的百科全書

翻譯暫存

圖例[編輯]

Astronomy and astrophysics 天文學和天體物理學
Geology and planetary science 地質學與行星科學
Biology 生物學
Particle physics 粒子物理學
Mathematics 數學
Technology and culture 科技和文化

地球、太陽系以及整個宇宙的未來[編輯]

再過多少年 發生什麼事
Geology and planetary science 1萬年 如果全球最大的冰層東南極冰蓋滑入海中，全球海平面將升高3到4米。[1]威爾克斯冰下盆地目前作為一個塞子，正阻止這種情況的發生。假設這個「塞子」受到全球暖化的長期影響完全融化，則需要經過這麼長的時間。這和南極西部冰原融化導致海平面升高不是一回事。
Astronomy and astrophysics 10,000[note 1] 紅巨星安塔瑞斯很可能發生白天可見的超新星爆發。[2]
Geology and planetary science 15,000 根據撒哈拉泵理論，地球兩極的歲差將把北非季風帶到足夠遠的北方，把撒哈拉沙漠重新變成熱帶氣候，就像5000 - 10000年前那樣。[3][4]
Geology and planetary science 25,000 火星將到達它五萬年米蘭科維奇循環中離太陽最近的點，溫度上升將導致火星北級冰蓋融化。[5][6]
Astronomy and astrophysics 36,000 小紅矮星Ross 248將在距離地球3.024光年的範圍內路過，成為離太陽最近的恆星。它將在大約8000年後離我們遠去，再次把第一名的位置讓給半人馬座阿爾法星，其次是格利澤445。[7] (see timeline).
Geology and planetary science 50,000 根據Berger和Loutre的觀點，目前的間冰期結束，[8] 地球又回到冰河時代的冰期，人類造成全球暖化影響甚微。

尼亞加拉大瀑布將侵蝕掉伊利湖剩下的32公里，而不復存在。[9]

加拿大地盾上的許多冰湖將會被後冰期回彈和侵蝕抹去。[10]

Astronomy and astrophysics 50,000 由於月球潮汐減慢了地球的自轉速度，天文計時所用的一天長度可達86401秒。在當今的計時系統下，要麼每一天都要在時鐘上增加一閏秒，要麼一天的長度必須正式延長一國際標準秒。[11]
Astronomy and astrophysics 100,000 恆星在天球上的固有運動反映了它們在銀河系中運動，也就是說，這使得許多星座變得與現在不同，難以辨認。[12]
Astronomy and astrophysics 100,000[note 1] 紅色特超巨星大犬座VY(VY Canis Majoris)可能發生超新星爆發。[13]
Geology and planetary science 100,000[note 1] 地球可能會發生劇烈的火山爆發，噴發出400 km³的岩漿。作為對比，長江三峽水利樞紐工程總庫容為39.3 km³。[14]
Biology 100,000 北美當地的蚯蚓，如巨型蚯蚓科，假設每年遷移10米[15] ，將自然地向北傳播，穿過美國中西部北部，到達加拿大與美國的邊界。(然而，北美的非本地入侵蚯蚓已經被人類在更短的時間內引入，對該地區的生態系統造成了衝擊。)
Geology and planetary science >100,000 作為全球暖化的長期影響之一，10%的人造二氧化碳將穩定地留在大氣中。[16]
Geology and planetary science 250,000 Lōʻihi、最年輕的火山Hawaiian-Emperor海底山鏈,將超越表面的海洋,成為一個新的火山島。[17]
Astronomy and astrophysics c. 300,000[note 1] 在未來「幾十萬年」的某個時候，沃爾夫-拉耶特星WR 104將會爆炸成為超新星。有人認為，如果它的兩極與地球成12°或更低的角度，它可能會產生伽馬射線爆發，對地球上的生命構成威脅。這顆恆星的旋轉軸尚未確定。[18]
Astronomy and astrophysics 500,000[note 1] 假設無法避免，地球很可能被直徑約1公里的小行星撞擊。[19]
Geology and planetary science 500,000 南達科他州Badlands國家公園的崎嶇地形將被完全侵蝕。[20]
Geology and planetary science 1 million 亞利桑那州的隕石坑被認為是目前「最新的」隕石坑，此時它將被侵蝕殆盡。[21]
Geology and planetary science 1 million[note 1] 地球可能會經歷一個超級火山爆發，噴出3200 km³岩漿，可與多峇巨災理論中提到的距今75000年前的火山爆發相提並論。[14]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1 million[note 1] 紅巨星參宿四最晚將在此時爆炸成為超新星。這次爆炸預計在白天可見。[22][23] 如果進化模型被證明是正確的話，這次爆炸可能會提前到距今10萬年後。
Astronomy and astrophysics 1 million[note 1] 天王星的衛星Desdemona和Cressida可能相撞。[24]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1.4 million Gliese 710恆星會經過距離地球9000個天文單位(距離太陽0.14光年)的地方。這將對奧爾特雲團的成員產生引力擾動，奧爾特雲團是一個環繞太陽系邊緣的冰狀天體的光環，因此在太陽系內部產生彗星撞擊的可能性增大。[25]
Biology 2 million 珊瑚礁生態系統從人為海洋酸化中恢復的估計時間;在大約6500萬年前發生的酸化事件之後，海洋生態系統的恢復也花了類似的時間。[26]
Geology and planetary science 2 million+ 科羅拉多大峽谷將進一步侵蝕，略微加深，但主要是沿科羅拉多河擴大成一個寬闊的山谷。[27]
Astronomy and astrophysics 2.7 million Average orbital half-life of current centaurs, that are unstable because of gravitational interaction of the several outer planets.[28] See predictions for notable centaurs.
Geology and planetary science 10 million The widening East African Rift valley is flooded by the Red Sea, causing a new ocean basin to divide the continent of Africa[29] and the African Plate into the newly formed Nubian Plate and the Somali Plate.
Biology 10 million Estimated time for full recovery of biodiversity after a potential Holocene extinction, if it were on the scale of the five previous major extinction events.[30]Even without a mass extinction, by this time most current species will have disappeared through the background extinction rate, with many clades gradually evolving into new forms.[31]
Astronomy and astrophysics 10 to 1,000 million[note 1] Cupid and Belinda, moons of Uranus, will likely have collided.[24]
Geology and planetary science 25 million According to Christopher R. Scotese, the movement of the San Andreas Fault will cause the Gulf of California to flood into the Central Valley. This will form a new inland sea on the West Coast of North America.[32]
Astronomy and astrophysics 50 million Maximum estimated time before the moon Phobos collides with Mars.[33]
Geology and planetary science 50 million According to Christopher R. Scotese, the movement of the San Andreas Fault will cause the current locations of Los Angeles and San Francisco to merge.[32] The Californian coast will begin to be subducted into the Aleutian Trench.[34]Africa's collision with Eurasia closes the Mediterranean Basin and creates a mountain range similar to the Himalayas.[35]

The Appalachian Mountains peaks will largely erode away,[36] weathering at 5.7 Bubnoff units, although topography will actually rise as regional valleys deepen at twice this rate.[37]

Geology and planetary science 50–60 million The Canadian Rockies will erode away to a plain, assuming a rate of 60 Bubnoff units.[38] The Southern Rockies in the United States are eroding at a somewhat slower rate.[39]
Geology and planetary science 50–400 million Estimated time for Earth to naturally replenish its fossil fuel reserves.[40]
Geology and planetary science 80 million The Big Island will have become the last of the current Hawaiian Islands to sink beneath the surface of the ocean, while a more recently formed chain of "new Hawaiian Islands" will then have emerged in their place.[41]
Astronomy and astrophysics 100 million[note 1] Earth will likely have been hit by an asteroid comparable in size to the one that triggered the K–Pg extinction 66 million years ago, assuming it cannot be averted.[42]
Geology and planetary science 100 million According to the Pangaea Proxima Model created by Christopher R. Scotese, a new subduction zone will open in the Atlantic Ocean and the Americas will begin to converge back toward Africa.[32]
Geology and planetary science 100 million Upper estimate for lifespan of the rings of Saturn in their current state.[43]
Astronomy and astrophysics 110 million The Sun's luminosity has increased by 1%.[44]
Astronomy and astrophysics 180 million Due to the gradual slowing down of Earth's rotation, a day on Earth will be one hour longer than it is today.[45]
Mathematics 230 million Prediction of the orbits of the planets is impossible over greater time spans than this, due to the limitations of Lyapunov time.[46]
Astronomy and astrophysics 240 million From its present position, the Solar System completes one full orbit of the Galactic center.[47]
Geology and planetary science 250 million According to Christopher R. Scotese, due to the northward movement of the West Coast of North America, the coast of California will collide with Alaska.[32]
Geology and planetary science 250–350 million All the continents on Earth may fuse into a supercontinent. Three potential arrangements of this configuration have been dubbed Amasia, Novopangaea, and Pangaea Ultima.[32][48] This will likely result in a glacial period, lowering sea levels and increasing oxygen levels, further lowering global temperatures.[49][50]
Biology ~250 million Rapid biological evolution may occur due to the formation of a supercontinent, causing lower temperatures and higher oxygen levels.[51]
Geology and planetary science 300–600 million Estimated time for Venus's mantle temperature to reach its maximum. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, major subduction occurs and the crust is recycled.[52]
Geology and planetary science 350 million According to the extroversion model, first developed by Paul F. Hoffman, the Pacific Ocean will close completely.[53][54][48]
Geology and planetary science 400–500 million The supercontinent (Pangaea Ultima, Novopangaea, or Amasia) will likely have rifted apart.[48] This will likely result in higher global temperatures, similar to the Cretaceous period.[51]
Astronomy and astrophysics 500 million[note 1] Estimated time until a gamma-ray burst, or massive, hyperenergetic supernova, occurs within 6,500 light-years of Earth; close enough for its rays to affect Earth's ozone layer and potentially trigger a mass extinction, assuming the hypothesis is correct that a previous such explosion triggered the Ordovician–Silurian extinction event. However, the supernova would have to be precisely oriented relative to Earth to have any negative effect.[55]
Astronomy and astrophysics 600 million Tidal acceleration moves the Moon far enough from Earth that total solar eclipses are no longer possible.[56]
Geology and planetary science 600 million The Sun's increasing luminosity begins to disrupt the carbonate–silicate cycle; higher luminosity increases weathering of surface rocks, which traps carbon dioxide in the ground as carbonate. As water evaporates from the Earth's surface, rocks harden, causing plate tectonics to slow and eventually stop. Without volcanoes to recycle carbon into the Earth's atmosphere, carbon dioxide levels begin to fall.[57] By this time, carbon dioxide levels will fall to the point at which C3 photosynthesis is no longer possible. All plants that utilize C3 photosynthesis (≈99 percent of present-day species) will die.[58]
Biology 700–800 million[note 1] The death of most plant life will result in less oxygen in the atmosphere, allowing for more DNA-damaging ultraviolet radiation to reach the surface. The rising temperatures will increase chemical reactions in the atmosphere, further lowering oxygen levels. Flying animals would be better off because of their ability to travel large distances looking for cooler temperatures.[59] Many animals may be driven to the poles or possibly underground. These creatures would become active during the polar night and hibernate during the polar day due to the intense heat and radiation. Much of the land would become a barren desert, and plants and animals would primarily be found in the oceans.[60]
Biology 800 million Carbon dioxide levels fall to the point at which C4 photosynthesis is no longer possible.[58] Without plant life to recycle oxygen in the atmosphere, free oxygen and the ozone layer will disappear from the atmosphere allowing for intense levels of deadly UV light to reach the surface. In the book The Life and Death of Planet Earth, authors Peter D. Ward and Donald Brownlee stated that some animal life may be able to survive in the oceans. Eventually, however, all multicellular life will die out.[61] The only life left on the Earth after this will be single-celled organisms.
Geology and planetary science 1 billion[note 2] 27% of the ocean's mass will have been subducted into the mantle. If this were to continue uninterrupted, it would reach an equilibrium where 65% of the surface water would remain at the surface.[62]
Geology and planetary science 1.1 billion The Sun's luminosity has risen by 10%, causing Earth's surface temperatures to reach an average of c. 320 K（47 °C；116 °F）. The atmosphere will become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans.[57][63] This would cause plate tectonics to stop completely, if not already stopped before this time.[64] Pockets of water may still be present at the poles, allowing abodes for simple life.[65][66]
Biology 1.2 billion High estimate until all plant life dies out, assuming some form of photosynthesis is possible despite extremely low carbon dioxide levels. If this is possible, rising temperatures will make a complex biosphere unsustainable from this point on.[67][68][69]
Biology 1.3 billion Eukaryotic life dies out on Earth due to carbon dioxide starvation. Only prokaryotes remain.[61]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1.5–1.6 billion The Sun's rising luminosity causes its circumstellar habitable zone to move outwards; as carbon dioxide rises in Mars's atmosphere, its surface temperature rises to levels akin to Earth during the ice age.[61][70]
Biology 1.6 billion Lower estimate until all prokaryotic life will go extinct.[61]
Geology and planetary science 2 billion High estimate until the Earth's oceans evaporate if the atmospheric pressure were to decrease via the nitrogen cycle.[71]
Geology and planetary science 2.3 billion The Earth's outer core freezes, if the inner core continues to grow at its current rate of 1 mm（0.039英寸） per year.[72][73] Without its liquid outer core, the Earth's magnetic field shuts down,[74] and charged particles emanating from the Sun gradually deplete the atmosphere.[75]
Astronomy and astrophysics 2.55 billion The Sun will have reached a maximum surface temperature of 5,820 K. From then on, it will become gradually cooler while its luminosity will continue to increase.[63]
Geology and planetary science 2.8 billion Earth's surface temperature reaches c. 420 K（147 °C；296 °F）, even at the poles. At this point, all life, now reduced to unicellular colonies in isolated, scattered microenvironments such as high-altitude lakes or caves, will go extinct.[57][76]
Astronomy and astrophysics c. 3 billion[note 1] There is a roughly 1-in-100,000 chance that the Earth might be ejected into interstellar space by a stellar encounter before this point, and a 1-in-3-million chance that it will then be captured by another star. Were this to happen, life, assuming it survived the interstellar journey, could potentially continue for far longer.[77]
Astronomy and astrophysics 3 billion Median point at which the Moon's rising distance from the Earth lessens its stabilising effect on the Earth's axial tilt. As a consequence, Earth's true polar wander becomes chaotic and extreme, leading to dramatic shifts in the planet's climate due to the changing axial tilt.[78]
Astronomy and astrophysics 3.3 billion 1% chance that Jupiter's gravity may make Mercury's orbit so eccentric as to collide with Venus, sending the inner Solar System into chaos. Possible scenarios include Mercury colliding with the Sun, being ejected from the Solar System, or colliding with Earth.[79]
Geology and planetary science 3.5–4.5 billion All water currently present in oceans (if not lost earlier) evaporates. The greenhouse effect caused by the massive, water-rich atmosphere, combined with the Sun's luminosity reaching roughly 35–40% above its present value, will result in Earth's surface temperature rising to 1,400 K（1,130 °C；2,060 °F）, which is hot enough to melt some surface rock.[64][71][80][81] This period in Earth's future is often compared to Venus today, but the temperature is actually around two times the temperature on Venus today, and at this temperature the surface will be partially molten,[82] while Venus probably has a mostly solid surface at present. Venus will also probably drastically heat up at this time as well, most likely being much hotter than Earth will be as it is closer to the Sun.
Astronomy and astrophysics 3.6 billion Neptune's moon Triton falls through the planet's Roche limit, potentially disintegrating into a planetary ring system similar to Saturn's.[83]
Astronomy and astrophysics 4 billion Median point by which the Andromeda Galaxy will have collided with the Milky Way, which will thereafter merge to form a galaxy dubbed "Milkomeda".[84] The planets of the Solar System are expected to be relatively unaffected by this collision.[85][86][87]
Geology and planetary science 4.5 billion Mars reaches the same solar flux the Earth did when it first formed, 4.5 billion years ago from today.[70]
Astronomy and astrophysics 5.4 billion With the hydrogen supply exhausted at its core, the Sun leaves the main sequence and begins to evolve into a red giant.[88]
Geology and planetary science 6.5 billion Mars reaches the same solar radiation flux as Earth today, after which it will suffer a similar fate to the Earth as described above.[70]
Astronomy and astrophysics 7.5 billion Earth and Mars may become tidally locked with the expanding subgiant Sun.[70]
Astronomy and astrophysics 7.59 billion The Earth and Moon are very likely destroyed by falling into the Sun, just before the Sun reaches the tip of its red giant phase and its maximum radius of 256 times the present-day value.[88][note 3] Before the final collision, the Moon possibly spirals below Earth's Roche limit, breaking into a ring of debris, most of which falls to the Earth's surface.[89] During this era, Saturn's moon Titan may reach surface temperatures necessary to support life.[90]
Astronomy and astrophysics 7.9 billion The Sun reaches the tip of the red-giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, achieving its maximum radius of 256 times the present-day value.[91] In the process, Mercury, Venus, and very likely Earth are destroyed.[88]
Astronomy and astrophysics 8 billion The Sun becomes a carbon-oxygen white dwarf with about 54.05% its present mass.[88][92][93][94] At this point, if somehow the Earth survives, temperatures on the surface of the planet, as well as other remaining planets in the Solar System, will begin dropping rapidly, due to the white dwarf Sun emitting much less energy than it does today.
Astronomy and astrophysics 22 billion The end of the Universe in the Big Rip scenario, assuming a model of dark energy with w = −1.5.[95] If the density of dark energy is less than -1, then the Universe's expansion would continue to accelerate and the Observable Universe would continue to get smaller. Around 200 million years before the rip, galaxy clusters like the Local Group or the Sculptor Group would be destroyed. Sixty million years before the rip, all galaxies will begin to lose stars around their edges and will completely disintegrate in another 40 million years. Three months before the end, all star systems will become gravitationally unbound, and planets will fly off into the rapidly expanding universe. Thirty minutes before the end, planets, stars, asteroids and even extreme objects like neutron stars and black holes will evaporate into atoms. 10−19 seconds before the end, atoms would break apart. Ultimately, once rip reaches the Planck scale, cosmic strings would be disintegrated as well as the fabric of spacetime itself. The universe would enter into a "rip singularity" when all distances become infinitely large. Whereas a "crunch singularity" all matter is infinitely concentrated, in a "rip singularity" all matter is infinitely spread out.[96] However, observations of galaxy cluster speeds by the Chandra X-ray Observatory suggest that the true value of w is c. −0.991, meaning the Big Rip will not occur.[97]
Astronomy and astrophysics 50 billion If the Earth and Moon are not engulfed by the Sun, by this time they will become tidelocked, with each showing only one face to the other.[98][99] Thereafter, the tidal action of the white dwarf Sun will extract angular momentum from the system, causing the lunar orbit to decay and the Earth's spin to accelerate.[100]
Astronomy and astrophysics 65 billion The Moon may end up colliding with the Earth due to the decay of its orbit, assuming the Earth and Moon are not engulfed by the red giant Sun.[101]
Astronomy and astrophysics 100-150 billion The Universe's expansion causes all galaxies beyond the former Milky Way's Local Group to disappear beyond the cosmic light horizon, removing them from the observable universe.[102]
Astronomy and astrophysics 150 billion The universe will have expanded in size by a factor of 10,000 and the observable universe will have grown to approximately 1015 (1 quadrillion) light-years in diameter.[103]Proximate galaxy group M81, currently one of the closest to the Local Group at 11.4 million light-years away and receding at ≈300 km/s, would then be over 100 billion light-years away and receding at more than 6 times the speed of light.[104]

Galaxy GN-z11, currently at 32 billion light-years away the most distant galaxy known, would then be more than 200 trillion light-years away and receding at over 10,000 times the speed of light, assuming convergence of the Hubble parameter from currently ≈70 km/s/Mpc to a future value of 55.4 km/s/Mpc.

Astronomy and astrophysics 150 billion The cosmic microwave background cools from its current temperature of c. 2.7 K to 0.3 K, rendering it essentially undetectable with current technology.[105]
Astronomy and astrophysics 450 billion Median point by which the c. 47 galaxies[106] of the Local Group will coalesce into a single large galaxy.[107]
Astronomy and astrophysics 785 billion If the projected expansion rate of the universe continues with doubling in size occurring approximately every 12 billion years,[103][note 4] the universe will have doubled in size more than 64 times (a factor of more than 1019 ) to more than 1030 (1 nonillion) light-years in diameter. Formerly proximate galaxy group M81 would at that point be more than 1026 (100 septillion) light-years away and receding more than 400 million light-years per second.

The most distant-known galaxy GN-z11 would be more than 1029 light-years away and receding at approximately 1 trillion light-years (more than 10 times the diameter of the currently observable universe) per second, assuming a future Hubble parameter value of 55.4 km/s/Mpc.[note 5]

Astronomy and astrophysics 800 billion Expected time when the net light emission from the combined "Milkomeda" galaxy begins to decline as the red dwarf stars pass through their blue dwarf stage of peak luminosity.[108]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1012 (1 trillion) Low estimate for the time until star formation ends in galaxies as galaxies are depleted of the gas clouds they need to form stars.[107]The Universe's expansion, assuming a constant dark energy density, multiplies the wavelength of the cosmic microwave background by 1029, exceeding the scale of the cosmic light horizon and rendering its evidence of the Big Bang undetectable. However, it may still be possible to determine the expansion of the universe through the study of hypervelocity stars.[102]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1011 – 1012 (100 billion – 1 trillion) Estimated time until the Universe ends via the Big Crunch, assuming a "closed" model. Depending on how long the expansion phase is, the events in the contraction phase will happen in the reverse order.[109] Galaxy superclusters would first merge, followed by galaxy clusters and then later galaxies. Eventually, stars have become so close together that they will begin to collide with each other. As the Universe continues to contract, the cosmic microwave background temperature will rise above the surface temperature of certain stars, which means that these stars will no longer be able to expel their internal heat, slowly cooking themselves until they explode. It will begin with low-mass red dwarf stars once the CMB reaches 2,400 K（2,130 °C；3,860 °F） around 500,000 years before the end, followed by K-type, G-type, F-type, A-type, B-type and finally O-type stars around 100,000 years before the Big Crunch. Minutes before the Big Crunch, the temperature will be so great that atomic nuclei will disband and the particles will be sucked up by already coalescing black holes. Finally, all the black holes in the Universe will merge into one singular black hole containing all the matter in the universe, which would then devour the Universe, including itself.[109] After this, it is possible that a new Big Bang would follow and create a new universe. The observed actions of dark energy and the shape of the Universe do not support this scenario. It is thought that the Universe is flat and because of dark energy, the expansion of the universe will accelerate; However, the properties of dark energy are still not known, and thus it is possible that dark energy could reverse sometime in the future.

It is also possible that the Universe is a "closed model", but that the curvature is so small that we can't detect it over the distance of the current observable universe.[110]

Astronomy and astrophysics 1.25×1012 (1.25 trillion) The universe will have doubled in size more than 100 times (a factor of more than 1030) to more than 1041 light-years in diameter. All gravitationally unbound galaxies currently separated by more than 1 megaparsec (Mpc) will at this point be separated by more than 1030 Mpc (≈1036 light-years) and receding from each other more than 100 million times the diameter of the currently observable universe every second.

Distant galaxy GN-z11 or its remnants would at that point also be more than 1041 light-years away and receding more than 1 trillion times the diameter of the currently observable universe every second[note 6] (assuming a continued expansion rate of doubling every 12.2 billion years and future Hubble parameter value of 55.4 km/s/Mpc[103]) . Beyond this point, the universe will expand by a factor of 1024 every trillion years, and it will be increasingly difficult to describe the recession of any gravitationally unbound objects in terms of a familiar physical analogy.

Astronomy and astrophysics 4×1012 (4 trillion) Estimated time until the red dwarf star Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun at a distance of 4.25 light-years, leaves the main sequence and becomes a white dwarf.[111]
Astronomy and astrophysics 4.2×1012 (4.2 trillion) The universe will have expanded by significantly more than a factor of 10100. All gravitationally unbound galaxies currently separated by more than 1 Mpc will at this point be separated by more than ≈10103 Mpc (≈10110 light-years) and receding from each other at more than ≈1083 Gpc/s (≈1092 light-years per second), assuming a continued expansion rate of doubling every 12.2 billion years and future Hubble parameter value of 55.4 km/s/Mpc.[103]The proper distances between galaxies will be increasing to such an extent[note 7] that the rate at which they are receding from each other is accelerating by more than ≈1065 Gpc/s/s (≈1074 light-years per second per second) due to the expansion of the universe.
Astronomy and astrophysics 1013 (10 trillion) Estimated time of peak habitability in the universe, unless habitability around low mass stars is suppressed.[112]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1.2×1013 (12 trillion) Estimated time until the red dwarf VB 10, as of 2016 the least massive main sequence star with an estimated mass of 0.075 M☉, runs out of hydrogen in its core and becomes a white dwarf.[113][114]
Astronomy and astrophysics 3×1013 (30 trillion) Estimated time for stars (including the Sun) to undergo a close encounter with another star in local stellar neighborhoods. Whenever two stars (or stellar remnants) pass close to each other, their planets' orbits can be disrupted, potentially ejecting them from the system entirely. On average, the closer a planet's orbit to its parent star the longer it takes to be ejected in this manner, because it is gravitationally more tightly bound to the star.[115]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1014 (100 trillion) High estimate for the time until normal star formation ends in galaxies.[107] This marks the transition from the Stelliferous Era to the Degenerate Era; with no free hydrogen to form new stars, all remaining stars slowly exhaust their fuel and die.[116]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1.1–1.2×1014 (110–120 trillion) Time by which all stars in the universe will have exhausted their fuel (the longest-lived stars, low-mass red dwarfs, have lifespans of roughly 10–20 trillion years).[107] After this point, the stellar-mass objects remaining are stellar remnants (white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes) and brown dwarfs.

Collisions between brown dwarfs will create new red dwarfs on a marginal level: on average, about 100 stars will be shining in what was once the Milky Way. Collisions between stellar remnants will create occasional supernovae.[107]

Astronomy and astrophysics 1015 (1 quadrillion) Estimated time until stellar close encounters detach all planets in star systems (including the Solar System) from their orbits.[107]By this point, the Sun will have cooled to five degrees above absolute zero.[117]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1019 to 1020

(10–100 quintillion)

Estimated time until 90%–99% of brown dwarfs and stellar remnants (including the Sun) are ejected from galaxies. When two objects pass close enough to each other, they exchange orbital energy, with lower-mass objects tending to gain energy. Through repeated encounters, the lower-mass objects can gain enough energy in this manner to be ejected from their galaxy. This process eventually causes the Milky Way to eject the majority of its brown dwarfs and stellar remnants.[107][118]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1020 (100 quintillion) Estimated time until the Earth collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via emission of gravitational radiation,[119] if the Earth is not ejected from its orbit by a stellar encounter or engulfed by the Sun during its red giant phase.[119]
Astronomy and astrophysics 1030 Estimated time until those stars not ejected from galaxies (1%–10%) fall into their galaxies' central supermassive black holes. By this point, with binary stars having fallen into each other, and planets into their stars, via emission of gravitational radiation, only solitary objects (stellar remnants, brown dwarfs, ejected planetary-mass objects, black holes) will remain in the universe.[107]
Particle physics 2×1036 Estimated time for all nucleons in the observable universe to decay, if the hypothesized proton half-life takes its smallest possible value (8.2×1033 years).[120][121][note 8]
Particle physics 3×1043 Estimated time for all nucleons in the observable universe to decay, if the hypothesized proton half-life takes the largest possible value, 1041 years,[107] assuming that the Big Bang was inflationary and that the same process that made baryons predominate over anti-baryons in the early Universe makes protons decay.[121][note 8] By this time, if protons do decay, the Black Hole Era, in which black holes are the only remaining celestial objects, begins.[116][107]
Particle physics 1065 Assuming that protons do not decay, estimated time for rigid objects, from free-floating rocks in space to planets, to rearrange their atoms and molecules via quantum tunneling. On this timescale, any discrete body of matter "behaves like a liquid" and becomes a smooth sphere due to diffusion and gravity.[119]
Particle physics 5.8×1068 Estimated time until a stellar mass black hole with a mass of 3 solar masses decays into subatomic particles by Hawking radiation.[122]
Particle physics 6×1099 Estimated time until the supermassive black hole of TON 618, as of 2018 the most massive known with the mass of 66 billion solar masses, dissipates by the emission of Hawking radiation,[122] assuming zero angular momentum (non-rotating black hole).
Particle physics 1.7×10106 Estimated time until a supermassive black hole with a mass of 20 trillion solar masses decays by the Hawking process.[122] This marks the end of the Black Hole Era. Beyond this time, if protons do decay, the Universe enters the Dark Era, in which all physical objects have decayed to subatomic particles, gradually winding down to their final energy state in the heat death of the universe.[116][107]Also by this time, if the projected expansion rate of the universe continues with doubling in size occurring approximately every 12 billion years,[103] the universe will have expanded in size by a factor of more than [note 9][note 10] If protons do decay, most of the universe would then be almost pure vacuum with each of the currently estimated 1097 subatomic particles being entirely alone within its cosmological event horizon.[note 11] From a probabilistic standpoint, our currently observable universe would be unlikely to then contain even a single subatomic particle.[note 12][note 13]
Particle physics 10139 2018 estimate of Standard Model lifetime before collapse of a false vacuum; 95% confidence interval is 1058 to 10241 years due in part to uncertainty about the top quark mass.[123]
Particle physics 10200 Estimated high time for all nucleons in the observable universe to decay, if they do not via the above process, through any one of many different mechanisms allowed in modern particle physics (higher-order baryon non-conservation processes, virtual black holes, sphalerons, etc.) on time scales of 1046 to 10200 years.[116]
Particle physics 101500 Assuming protons do not decay, the estimated time until all baryonic matter has either fused together to form iron-56 or decayed from a higher mass element into iron-56 (see iron star).[119]
Particle physics [note 14][note 15] Low estimate for the time until all objects exceeding the Planck mass[與來源不符] collapse via quantum tunnelling into black holes, assuming no proton decay or virtual black holes.[119]On this vast timescale, even ultra-stable iron stars are destroyed by quantum tunnelling events. First iron stars of sufficient mass (somewhere between 0.2 M☉ and the Chandrasekhar limit. Because when iron stars have 0.2 M☉ or less (neutron stars around 0.2 M☉ are stable), these iron stars are energetically favorable enough to prevent collapse via tunnelling[124]) will collapse via tunnelling into neutron stars. Subsequently, neutron stars and any remaining iron stars less than 0.2 M☉ collapse via tunnelling into black holes. The subsequent evaporation of each resulting black hole into sub-atomic particles (a process lasting roughly 10100 years), and subsequent shift to the Dark Era is on these timescales instantaneous.
Particle physics [note 1][note 15][note 16] Estimated time for a Boltzmann brain to appear in the vacuum via a spontaneous entropy decrease.[125]
Particle physics [note 15] High estimate for the time until all matter collapses into neutron stars or black holes, assuming no proton decay or virtual black holes,[119] which then (on these timescales) instantaneously evaporate into sub-atomic particles.

This is the highest estimate possible time for Black Hole Era (and subsequent Dark Era) to finally commence. Beyond this point, it is almost certain that Universe will not contain any more baryonic matter and the Universe after this time will be near-pure vacuum (possibly accompanied with the presence of a false vacuum), characteristic of Dark Era Universe until it reaches final energy state, assuming it does not happen before this time.

Particle physics [note 15] High estimate for the time for the universe to reach its final energy state, even in the presence of a false vacuum.[125]
Particle physics [note 1][note 15] Around this vast timeframe, quantum tunnelling in any isolated patch of the vacuum could generate, via inflation, new Big Bangs giving birth to new universes.[126]Because the total number of ways in which all the subatomic particles in the observable universe can be combined is ,[127][128] a number which, when multiplied by , disappears into the rounding error, this is also the time required for a quantum-tunnelled and quantum fluctuation-generated Big Bang to produce a new universe identical to our own, assuming that every new universe contained at least the same number of subatomic particles and obeyed laws of physics within the range predicted by string theory.[129]
  1. ^ Mengel, M.; A. Levermann. Ice plug prevents irreversible discharge from East Antarctica. Nature Climate Change. 4 May 2014, 4 (6): 451–455. Bibcode:2014NatCC...4..451M. doi:10.1038/nclimate2226. 
  2. ^ Hockey, T.; Trimble, V. Public reaction to a V = −12.5 supernova. The Observatory. 2010, 130 (3): 167. Bibcode:2010Obs...130..167H. 
  3. ^ Mowat, Laura. Africa's desert to become lush green tropics as monsoons MOVE to Sahara, scientists say. Express.co.uk. 14 July 2017 [23 March 2018] （英語）. 
  4. ^ Orbit: Earth's Extraordinary Journey. ExptU. 23 December 2015 [23 March 2018]. （原始內容存檔於14 July 2018）.  已忽略未知參數|df= (幫助)
  5. ^ Schorghofer, Norbert. Temperature response of Mars to Milankovitch cycles (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 23 September 2008, 35 (18): L18201. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3518201S. doi:10.1029/2008GL034954. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於19 September 2009）. 
  6. ^ Beech, Martin. Terraforming: The Creating of Habitable Worlds. Springer. 2009: 138–142. Bibcode:2009tchw.book.....B. 
  7. ^ Matthews, R. A. J. (Spring 1994). "The Close Approach of Stars in the Solar Neighborhood". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 35 (1): 1. Bibcode:1994QJRAS..35....1M.
  8. ^ Berger, A & Loutre, MF (2002). "Climate: an exceptionally long interglacial ahead?". Science. 297 (5585): 1287–1288. doi:10.1126/science.1076120. PMID 12193773.
  9. ^ "Niagara Falls Geology Facts & Figures". Niagara Parks. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
  10. ^ Bastedo, Jamie. Shield Country: The Life and Times of the Oldest Piece of the Planet. Arctic Institute of North America of the University of Calgary. 1994: 202. 
  11. ^ Finkleman, David; Allen, Steve; Seago, John; Seaman, Rob; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (June 2011). "The Future of Time: UTC and the Leap Second". American Scientist, July–August , V N4 P312. 2011 (99). arXiv:1106.3141.
  12. ^ Tapping, Ken (2005). "The Unfixed Stars". National Research Council Canada. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
  13. ^ Monnier, J. D.; Tuthill, P.; Lopez, GB; et al. (1999). "The Last Gasps of VY Canis Majoris: Aperture Synthesis and Adaptive Optics Imagery". The Astrophysical Journal. 512 (1): 351–361. arXiv:astro-ph/9810024. Bibcode:1999ApJ...512..351M. doi:10.1086/306761.
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 "Super-eruptions: Global effects and future threats". The Geological Society. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
  15. ^ Schaetzl, Randall J.; Anderson, Sharon. Soils: Genesis and Geomorphology. Cambridge University Press. 2005: 105. 
  16. ^ David Archer. The Long Thaw: How Humans Are Changing the Next 100,000 Years of Earth's Climate. Princeton University Press. 2009: 123. ISBN 978-0-691-13654-7. 
  17. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park. 2011. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
  18. ^ Tuthill, Peter; Monnier, John; Lawrance, Nicholas; Danchi, William; Owocki, Stan; Gayley, Kenneth. The Prototype Colliding-Wind Pinwheel WR 104. The Astrophysical Journal. 2008, 675 (1): 698–710. Bibcode:2008ApJ...675..698T. arXiv:0712.2111 可免費查閱. doi:10.1086/527286. 
  19. ^ Bostrom, Nick (March 2002). "Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards". Journal of Evolution and Technology. 9 (1). Retrieved 10 September 2012.
  20. ^ Badlands National Park – Nature & Science – Geologic Formations. 
  21. ^ Landstreet, John D. Physical Processes in the Solar System: An introduction to the physics of asteroids, comets, moons and planets. Keenan & Darlington. 2003: 121. 
  22. ^ "Sharpest Views of Betelgeuse Reveal How Supergiant Stars Lose Mass". Press Releases. European Southern Observatory. 29 July 2009. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
  23. ^ Sessions, Larry (29 July 2009). "Betelgeuse will explode someday". EarthSky Communications, Inc. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
  24. ^ 24.0 24.1 Uranus's colliding moons. astronomy.com. 2017 [23 September 2017]. 
  25. ^ Filip Berski and Piotr A. Dybczyński (25 October 2016). "Gliese 710 will pass the Sun even closer". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 595 (L10): L10. Bibcode:2016A&A...595L..10B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629835.
  26. ^ Goldstein, Natalie. Global Warming. Infobase Publishing. 2009: 53. The last time acidification on this scale occurred (about 65 mya) it took more than 2 million years for corals and other marine organisms to recover; some scientists today believe, optimistically, that it could take tens of thousands of years for the ocean to regain the chemistry it had in preindustrial times. 
  27. ^ Grand Canyon – Geology – A dynamic place. Views of the National Parks. National Park Service. 
  28. ^ Horner, J.; Evans, N.W.; Bailey, M. E. Simulations of the Population of Centaurs I: The Bulk Statistics. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 2004, 354 (3): 798–810. Bibcode:2004MNRAS.354..798H. arXiv:astro-ph/0407400 可免費查閱. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08240.x. 
  29. ^ Haddok, Eitan (29 September 2008). "Birth of an Ocean: The Evolution of Ethiopia's Afar Depression". Scientific American. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
  30. ^ Kirchner, James W.; Weil, Anne. Delayed biological recovery from extinctions throughout the fossil record. Nature. 9 March 2000, 404 (6774): 177–180. Bibcode:2000Natur.404..177K. PMID 10724168. doi:10.1038/35004564. 
  31. ^ Wilson, Edward O. The Diversity of Life. W.W. Norton & Company. 1999: 216. 
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Scotese, Christopher R. "Pangea Ultima will form 250 million years in the Future". Paleomap Project. Retrieved 13 March 2006.
  33. ^ Bills, Bruce G.; Gregory A. Neumann; David E. Smith; Maria T. Zuber (2005). "Improved estimate of tidal dissipation within Mars from MOLA observations of the shadow of Phobos" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 110 (E07004): E07004. Bibcode:2005JGRE..110.7004B. doi:10.1029/2004je002376. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2015.
  34. ^ Garrison, Tom (2009). Essentials of Oceanography (5 ed.). Brooks/Cole. p. 62.[ISBN missing]
  35. ^ "Continents in Collision: Pangea Ultima". NASA. 2000. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
  36. ^ Geology. Encyclopedia of Appalachia. University of Tennessee Press. 2011 [21 May 2014]. （原始內容存檔於21 May 2014）.  已忽略未知參數|df= (幫助)
  37. ^ Hancock, Gregory; Kirwan, Matthew. Summit erosion rates deduced from 10Be: Implications for relief production in the central Appalachians (PDF). Geology. January 2007, 35 (1): 89. Bibcode:2007Geo....35...89H. doi:10.1130/g23147a.1. 
  38. ^ Yorath, C. J. Of rocks, mountains and Jasper: a visitor's guide to the geology of Jasper National Park. Dundurn Press. 1995: 30. 
  39. ^ Dethier, David P.; Ouimet, W.; Bierman, P. R.; Rood, D. H.; et al. Basins and bedrock: Spatial variation in 10Be erosion rates and increasing relief in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA (PDF). Geology. 2014, 42 (2): 167–170. Bibcode:2014Geo....42..167D. doi:10.1130/G34922.1. 
  40. ^ Patzek, Tad W. Can the Earth Deliver the Biomass-for-Fuel we Demand?. Pimentel, David (編). Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems: Benefits and Risks. Springer. 2008. 
  41. ^ Perlman, David. Kiss that Hawaiian timeshare goodbye / Islands will sink in 80 million years. San Francisco Chronicle. 14 October 2006. 
  42. ^ Nelson, Stephen A. "Meteorites, Impacts, and Mass Extinction". Tulane University. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
  43. ^ Lang, Kenneth R. The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System. Cambridge University Press. 2003: 328–329. 
  44. ^ Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert. Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 2008, 386 (1): 155–63. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. arXiv:0801.4031 可免費查閱. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. 
  45. ^ Jillian Scudder. How Long Until The Moon Slows The Earth to a 25 Hour Day?. Forbes. [30 May 2017]. 
  46. ^ Hayes, Wayne B. (2007). "Is the Outer Solar System Chaotic?". Nature Physics. 3 (10): 689–691. arXiv:astro-ph/0702179. Bibcode:2007NatPh...3..689H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.337.7948. doi:10.1038/nphys728.
  47. ^ Leong, Stacy (2002). "Period of the Sun's Orbit Around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year)". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 2 April 2007.
  48. ^ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Williams, Caroline; Nield, Ted (20 October 2007). "Pangaea, the comeback". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
  49. ^ Calkin and Young in 1996 on pages 9–75
  50. ^ Thompson and Perry in 1997 on pages127–28
  51. ^ 51.0 51.1 Thompson and Perry in 1997 on pages 127–28
  52. ^ Strom, Robert G.; Schaber, Gerald G.; Dawson, Douglas D. The global resurfacing of Venus. Journal of Geophysical Research. 25 May 1994, 99 (E5): 10899–10926. Bibcode:1994JGR....9910899S. doi:10.1029/94JE00388. 
  53. ^ Nield in 2007 on pages 20–21
  54. ^ Hoffman in 1992 on pages 323–27
  55. ^ Minard, Anne (2009). "Gamma-Ray Burst Caused Mass Extinction?". National Geographic News. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
  56. ^ "Questions Frequently Asked by the Public About Eclipses". NASA. Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2010.
  57. ^ 57.0 57.1 57.2 O'Malley-James, Jack T.; Greaves, Jane S.; Raven, John A.; Cockell, Charles S. Swansong Biospheres: Refuges for life and novel microbial biospheres on terrestrial planets near the end of their habitable lifetimes. International Journal of Astrobiology. 2012, 12 (2): 99–112. Bibcode:2013IJAsB..12...99O. arXiv:1210.5721 可免費查閱. doi:10.1017/S147355041200047X. 
  58. ^ 58.0 58.1 Heath, Martin J.; Doyle, Laurance R. (2009). "Circumstellar Habitable Zones to Ecodynamic Domains: A Preliminary Review and Suggested Future Directions". arXiv:0912.2482 [astro-ph.EP].
  59. ^ Ward & Brownlee in 2003 on pages 117-28
  60. ^ Ward & Brownlee in 2003 on pages 117–28
  61. ^ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 Franck, S.; Bounama, C.; Von Bloh, W. (November 2005). "Causes and timing of future biosphere extinction" (PDF). Biogeosciences Discussions. 2 (6): 1665–1679. Bibcode:2005BGD.....2.1665F. doi:10.5194/bgd-2-1665-2005.
  62. ^ Bounama, Christine; Franck, S.; Von Bloh, David (2001). "The fate of Earth's ocean". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 5 (4): 569–575. Bibcode:2001HESS....5..569B. doi:10.5194/hess-5-569-2001.
  63. ^ 63.0 63.1 Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (1 May 2008). "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x.
  64. ^ 64.0 64.1 Brownlee 2010，第95頁.
  65. ^ Brownlee, Donald E. (2010). "Planetary habitability on astronomical time scales". In Schrijver, Carolus J.; Siscoe, George L. (eds.). Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521112949.
  66. ^ Li King-Fai; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Yung, Luk L. (2009). "Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (24): 9576–9579. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9576L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809436106. PMC 2701016. PMID 19487662.
  67. ^ Caldeira, Ken; Kasting, James F. The life span of the biosphere revisited. Nature. 1992, 360 (6406): 721–23. Bibcode:1992Natur.360..721C. PMID 11536510. doi:10.1038/360721a0. 
  68. ^ Franck, S. Reduction of biosphere life span as a consequence of geodynamics. Tellus B. 2000, 52 (1): 94–107. Bibcode:2000TellB..52...94F. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.2000.00898.x. 
  69. ^ Timothy M, von Bloh; Werner. Biotic feedback extends the life span of the biosphere. Geophysical Research LettersLenton. 2001, 28 (9): 1715–18. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.1715L. doi:10.1029/2000GL012198. 
  70. ^ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 Kargel, Jeffrey Stuart (2004). Mars: A Warmer, Wetter Planet. Springer. p. 509. ISBN 978-1852335687. Retrieved 29 October 2007.
  71. ^ 71.0 71.1 Li, King-Fai; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Yung, Yuk L. Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 16 June 2009, 106 (24): 9576–9579. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9576L. PMC 2701016 可免費查閱. PMID 19487662. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809436106. 
  72. ^ Waszek, Lauren; Irving, Jessica; Deuss, Arwen (20 February 2011). "Reconciling the Hemispherical Structure of Earth's Inner Core With its Super-Rotation". Nature Geoscience. 4 (4): 264–267. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..264W. doi:10.1038/ngeo1083.
  73. ^ McDonough, W. F. (2004). Compositional Model for the Earth's Core. Treatise on Geochemistry. 2. pp. 547–568. Bibcode:2003TrGeo...2..547M. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/02015-6. ISBN 978-0080437514.
  74. ^ Luhmann, J. G.; Johnson, R. E.; Zhang, M. H. G. (1992). "Evolutionary impact of sputtering of the Martian atmosphere by O+ pickup ions". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (21): 2151–2154. Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19.2151L. doi:10.1029/92GL02485.
  75. ^ Quirin Shlermeler. Solar wind hammers the ozone layer. News@nature. 3 March 2005. doi:10.1038/news050228-12. 
  76. ^ Adams, Fred C. (2008). "Long-term astrophysicial processes". In Bostrom, Nick; Cirkovic, Milan M. (eds.). Global Catastrophic Risks. Oxford University Press. pp. 33–47.[ISBN missing]
  77. ^ Adams 2008，第33–44頁.
  78. ^ Neron de Surgey, O.; Laskar, J. (1996). "On the Long Term Evolution of the Spin of the Earth". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 318: 975. Bibcode:1997A&A...318..975N.
  79. ^ "Study: Earth May Collide With Another Planet". Fox News. 11 June 2009. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
  80. ^ Guinan, E. F.; Ribas, I. Montesinos, Benjamin; Gimenez, Alvaro; Guinan, Edward F. , 編. Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate. ASP Conference Proceedings. 2002, 269: 85–106. Bibcode:2002ASPC..269...85G. 
  81. ^ Kasting, J. F. Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of earth and Venus. Icarus. June 1988, 74 (3): 472–494. Bibcode:1988Icar...74..472K. PMID 11538226. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90116-9. 
  82. ^ Hecht, Jeff (2 April 1994). "Science: Fiery Future for Planet Earth". New Scientist (1919). p. 14. Retrieved 29 October 2007.
  83. ^ Chyba, C. F.; Jankowski, D. G.; Nicholson, P. D. (1989). "Tidal Evolution in the Neptune-Triton System". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 219 (1–2): 23. Bibcode:1989A&A...219L..23C.
  84. ^ Cox, J. T.; Loeb, Abraham (2007). "The Collision Between The Milky Way And Andromeda". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 461–474. arXiv:0705.1170. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..461C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13048.x.
  85. ^ NASA. NASA's Hubble Shows Milky Way is Destined for Head-On Collision. NASA. 31 May 2012 [13 October 2012]. 
  86. ^ Dowd, Maureen. Andromeda Is Coming!. The New York Times. 29 May 2012 [9 January 2014]. [NASA's David Morrison] explained that the Andromeda-Milky Way collision would just be two great big fuzzy balls of stars and mostly empty space passing through each other harmlessly over the course of millions of years. 
  87. ^ Braine, J.; Lisenfeld, U.; Duc, P. A.; et al. (2004). "Colliding molecular clouds in head-on galaxy collisions". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 418 (2): 419–428. arXiv:astro-ph/0402148. Bibcode:2004A&A...418..419B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20035732.
  88. ^ 88.0 88.1 88.2 88.3 Schroder, K. P.; Connon Smith, Robert (2008). "Distant Future of the Sun and Earth Revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x.
  89. ^ Powell, David (22 January 2007). "Earth's Moon Destined to Disintegrate". Space.com. Tech Media Network. Retrieved 1 June 2010.
  90. ^ Lorenz, Ralph D.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; McKay, Christopher P. (1997). "Titan under a red giant sun: A new kind of "habitable" moon" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 24 (22): 2905–2908. Bibcode:1997GeoRL..24.2905L. doi:10.1029/97GL52843. PMID 11542268. Retrieved 21 March 2008.
  91. ^ Rybicki, K. R.; Denis, C. (2001). "On the Final Destiny of the Earth and the Solar System". Icarus. 151 (1): 130–137. Bibcode:2001Icar..151..130R. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6591.
  92. ^ Balick, Bruce. "Planetary Nebulae and the Future of the Solar System". University of Washington. Archived from the original on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2006.
  93. ^ Kalirai, Jasonjot S.; et al. (March 2008). "The Initial-Final Mass Relation: Direct Constraints at the Low-Mass End". The Astrophysical Journal. 676 (1): 594–609. arXiv:0706.3894. Bibcode:2008ApJ...676..594K. doi:10.1086/527028.
  94. ^ Based upon the weighted least-squares best fit on p. 16 of Kalirai et al. with the initial mass equal to a solar mass.
  95. ^ "Universe May End in a Big Rip". CERN Courier. 1 May 2003. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
  96. ^ Caldwell, Robert R.; Kamionkowski, Marc; Weinberg, Nevin N. Phantom Energy and Cosmic Doomsday. Physical Review Letters. 2003, 91 (7): 071301. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91g1301C. PMID 12935004. arXiv:astro-ph/0302506 可免費查閱. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.071301. 
  97. ^ Vikhlinin, A.; Kravtsov, A.V.; Burenin, R.A.; et al. (2009). "Chandra Cluster Cosmology Project III: Cosmological Parameter Constraints". The Astrophysical Journal. 692 (2): 1060–1074. arXiv:0812.2720. Bibcode:2009ApJ...692.1060V. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/692/2/1060.
  98. ^ Murray, C.D. & Dermott, S.F. Solar System Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. 1999: 184. ISBN 978-0-521-57295-8. 
  99. ^ Dickinson, Terence. From the Big Bang to Planet X. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House. 1993: 79–81. ISBN 978-0-921820-71-0. 
  100. ^ Canup, Robin M.; Righter, Kevin. Origin of the Earth and Moon. The University of Arizona space science series 30. University of Arizona Press. 2000: 176–177. ISBN 978-0-8165-2073-2. 
  101. ^ Bruce Dorminey. Earth and Moon May Be on Long-Term Collision Course. Forbes. 31 January 2017 [11 February 2017]. 
  102. ^ 102.0 102.1 Loeb, Abraham (2011). "Cosmology with Hypervelocity Stars". Harvard University. 2011 (4): 023. arXiv:1102.0007. Bibcode:2011JCAP...04..023L. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2011/04/023.
  103. ^ 103.0 103.1 103.2 103.3 103.4 Siegel, Ethan. Ask Ethan: How Big Will The Universe Get?. Forbes. [2019-03-02] （英語）. 
  104. ^ Frequently Asked Questions in Cosmology – Can objects move away from us faster than the speed of light?. www.astro.ucla.edu. [2019-03-17]. 
  105. ^ Chown, Marcus (1996). Afterglow of Creation. University Science Books. p. 210.[ISBN missing]
  106. ^ "The Local Group of Galaxies". University of Arizona. Students for the Exploration and Development of Space. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  107. ^ 107.00 107.01 107.02 107.03 107.04 107.05 107.06 107.07 107.08 107.09 107.10 Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects". Reviews of Modern Physics. 69 (2): 337–372. arXiv:astro-ph/9701131. Bibcode:1997RvMP...69..337A. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337.
  108. ^ Adams, F. C.; Graves, G. J. M.; Laughlin, G. (December 2004). García-Segura, G.; Tenorio-Tagle, G.; Franco, J.; Yorke, H. W. (eds.). "Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets. / First Astrophysics meeting of the Observatorio Astronomico Nacional. / A meeting to celebrate Peter Bodenheimer for his outstanding contributions to Astrophysics: Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence". Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica (Serie de Conferencias). 22: 46–49. Bibcode:2004RMxAC..22...46A. See Fig. 3.
  109. ^ 109.0 109.1 Davies, Paul. The Last Three Minutes: Conjectures About The Ultimate Fate of the Universe. Basic Books. 1997. ISBN 978-0-465-03851-0. 
  110. ^ Fraser Cain. How Will The Universe End?. 17 October 2013 [13 June 2016]. 
  111. ^ Fred C. Adams; Gregory Laughlin; Genevieve J. M. Graves. RED Dwarfs and the End of The Main Sequence (PDF). Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, Serie de Conferencias. 2004, 22: 46–49. 
  112. ^ Loeb, Abraham; Batista, Rafael; Sloan, W. (2016). "Relative Likelihood for Life as a Function of Cosmic Time". arXiv:1606.08448. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2016/08/040. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  113. ^ Why the Smallest Stars Stay Small. Sky & Telescope. November 1997, (22). 
  114. ^ Adams, F. C.; P. Bodenheimer; G. Laughlin. M dwarfs: planet formation and long term evolution. Astronomische Nachrichten. 2005, 326 (10): 913–919. Bibcode:2005AN....326..913A. doi:10.1002/asna.200510440. 
  115. ^ Tayler, Roger John (1993). Galaxies, Structure and Evolution (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0521367103.
  116. ^ 116.0 116.1 116.2 116.3 Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (1999). The Five Ages of the Universe. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 978-0684854229.
  117. ^ Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (19 May 1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. foreword by John A. Wheeler. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192821478. LC 87-28148.
  118. ^ Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (1999). The Five Ages of the Universe. New York: The Free Press. pp. 85–87. ISBN 978-0684854229.
  119. ^ 119.0 119.1 119.2 119.3 119.4 119.5 Dyson, Freeman J. (1979). "Time Without End: Physics and Biology in an Open Universe". Reviews of Modern Physics. 51 (3): 447–460. Bibcode:1979RvMP...51..447D. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.51.447. Retrieved 5 July 2008.
  120. ^ Nishino, Super-K Collaboration, et al. (2009). "Search for Proton Decay via
    p+
     →
    e+

    π0
     and
    p+
     →
    μ+

    π0
     in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical Review Letters. 102 (14): 141801. arXiv:0903.0676. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.102n1801N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.141801. PMID 19392425.
  121. ^ 121.0 121.1 Tyson, Neil de Grasse; Tsun-Chu Liu, Charles; Irion, Robert (2000). One Universe: At Home in the Cosmos. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0309064880.
  122. ^ 122.0 122.1 122.2 Page, Don N. (1976). "Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole: Massless Particles from an Uncharged, Nonrotating Hole". Physical Review D. 13 (2): 198–206. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..13..198P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.13.198. See in particular equation (27).
  123. ^ Andreassen, Anders; Frost, William; Schwartz, Matthew D. Scale-invariant instantons and the complete lifetime of the standard model. Physical Review D. 12 March 2018, 97 (5): 056006. Bibcode:2018PhRvD..97e6006A. arXiv:1707.08124 可免費查閱. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.97.056006. 
  124. ^ Template:Cite ArXiv
  125. ^ 125.0 125.1 Linde, Andrei. (2007). "Sinks in the Landscape, Boltzmann Brains and the Cosmological Constant Problem". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2007 (1): 022. arXiv:hep-th/0611043. Bibcode:2007JCAP...01..022L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.266.8334. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022.
  126. ^ Carroll, Sean M.; Chen, Jennifer (27 October 2004). "Spontaneous Inflation and the Origin of the Arrow of Time". arXiv:hep-th/0410270.
  127. ^ Tegmark, M. Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations. Sci. Am. May 2003, 288 (5): 40–51. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. PMID 12701329. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131 可免費查閱. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. 
  128. ^ Max Tegmark. Parallel Universes. In "Science and Ultimate Reality: From Quantum to Cosmos", Honoring John Wheeler's 90th Birthday. J. D. Barrow, P.C.W. Davies, & C.L. Harper Eds. 2003, 288 (5): 40–51. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. PMID 12701329. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131 可免費查閱. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. 
  129. ^ M. Douglas, "The statistics of string / M theory vacua", JHEP 0305, 46 (2003).
    arXiv:hep-th/0303194
    ; S. Ashok and M. Douglas, "Counting flux vacua", JHEP 0401, 060 (2004).


引用錯誤：頁面中存在<ref group="note">標籤，但沒有找到相應的<references group="note" />標籤

取自「https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:几维小小/遥远未来的时间线&oldid=80647923」