水煙：修订间差异

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2020年4月26日 (日) 22:53的版本

水菸（英语：hookah；印度斯坦语: हुक़्क़ा (天城文), حقّہ (波斯体), IPA: [ˈɦʊqqaː]；胡卡）是一種菸草和抽菸用裝置。人们用水烟抽鸦片、大麻属、烟叶、等。

起源

有关胡卡的起源有两种理论。第一种认为在耶稣会把烟草带到了中世纪印度之后，来自阿克巴的波斯物理学家Abu’l-Fath Gilani在印度的在蒙兀兒王朝时期的法泰赫普尔西克里城市发明了水管;^[1]^[2] 胡卡从南亚次大陆先传至波斯，形成了今天的形状，然后传播至近东地区。^[3] 另一种理论认为胡卡起源于波斯的萨非王朝,^[4]^[5] 随后逐渐向东传播至印度。^[6]^[7] 胡卡huqa这个印度斯坦语的词汇源于阿拉伯语的 حُقَّة‎ ḥuqqa，本意思为水烟。

中国的水菸

摘取霜冻后呈鲜红色的水菸叶，切碎，加亚麻籽油，浸透，压成四尺见方，用压榨机榨出油份，然后刨成薄片，放入模子内压成饼状。

比较昂贵的水菸，采取未经霜冻的绿色菸叶，加入少许绿石末，和入亚麻籽油，其余程序同上。^[8]

中国的水菸壺

水菸壺（泰語：บ้อง; 英語：Bong）是中國傳統的吸菸方式。十六世紀後經絲綢之路傳入泰國、越南、中國等，流行於明代末年，盛行於清代、民國時期。水菸壺主要有兩種：

竹管形：通常是在農村自製的，使用長度約70厘米的竹管，一端是開通的，另一端是封閉的。在從封閉處起測量竹管四分之一長度的位置，在那位置鑽一個小孔，之後在那小孔斜插一個小竹管，再用牛皮膠、橡膠圈、環氧樹脂等在接觸點封口。在國外，藝術家或工匠亦會用吹製玻璃或丙烯酸製成竹管形水菸壺。
金屬鶴形：通常當中國人想到的水菸壺就是金屬鶴形的。慈禧太后是喜好這類的水菸壺。

在中國，水菸壺主要是老年人的爱好。然而在外國，竹管形水菸壺是深受青年人與大學生喜愛，因為在國外水菸壺主要是用於吸食大麻。

風險

很多人以為水菸經水過濾、且味道比香菸淡，故此對健康的損害低於香菸，但這種想法是錯誤的。世衛^[9]、美國的马约诊所^[10]及加州大學舊金山分校^[11]等研究證實，水菸對身體的損害不亞於香菸；水菸產生的有害物質，甚至比某些種類的香菸多。

參考文獻

^ 引用错误：没有为名为Sivaramakrishnan4-5的参考文献提供内容
^ The Wealth of India. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. 1976 [2007-08-01]. The smoking of hookah and hubble-bubble started in India during the reign of the great Moghul emperor, Akbar
^ Khaled Aljarrah; Zaid Q Ababneh; Wael K Al-Delaimy. Perceptions of hookah smoking harmfulness: predictors and characteristics among current hookah users. Tobacco Induced Diseases. 2009, 5 (1): 16. ISSN 1617-9625. PMC 2806861 . PMID 20021672. doi:10.1186/1617-9625-5-16. Hookahs originated in India in the 15th century and then spread to the Near East countries. Hookahs spread first to Persia and underwent further changes to its original shape to the current known shape. In the middle of the 16th century, hookahs reached the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and other Mediterranean regions.
^ ḠALYĀN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. www.iranicaonline.org. [2019-05-29]. It seems, therfore, [sic] that Abu’l-Fatḥ Gīlānī should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, to India.
^ Nichola Fletcher. Charlemagne's tablecloth: a piquant history of feasting. Macmillan. 1 Aug 2005: 10. ISBN 9780312340681.
^ Sandra Alters; Wendy Schiff. Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 28 Jan 2011. ISBN 9780763789756.
^ Prakash C. Gupta. Control of tobacco-related cancers and other diseases: proceedings of an international symposium, January 15–19, 1990, TIFR, Bombay. Prakash C. Gupta. 1992: 33. ISBN 9780195629613.
^ 柔克义《喇嘛之乡》 Land of The Lamas p35
^ 存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2009-05-01）.
^ http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hookah/AN01265
^ UCSF報告：水菸比香菸更有害

外部連結

Water Pipe around the world^{[永久失效連結]} Water pipe in the world.

[Sivaramakrishnan4-5-1] 引用错误：没有为名为Sivaramakrishnan4-5的参考文献提供内容

[Wealth-2] The Wealth of India. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. 1976 [2007-08-01]. The smoking of hookah and hubble-bubble started in India during the reign of the great Moghul emperor, Akbar

[Aljarrah2009-3] Khaled Aljarrah; Zaid Q Ababneh; Wael K Al-Delaimy. Perceptions of hookah smoking harmfulness: predictors and characteristics among current hookah users. Tobacco Induced Diseases. 2009, 5 (1): 16. ISSN 1617-9625. PMC 2806861 . PMID 20021672. doi:10.1186/1617-9625-5-16. Hookahs originated in India in the 15th century and then spread to the Near East countries. Hookahs spread first to Persia and underwent further changes to its original shape to the current known shape. In the middle of the 16th century, hookahs reached the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and other Mediterranean regions.

[4] ḠALYĀN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. www.iranicaonline.org. [2019-05-29]. It seems, therfore, [sic] that Abu’l-Fatḥ Gīlānī should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, to India.

[5] Nichola Fletcher. Charlemagne's tablecloth: a piquant history of feasting. Macmillan. 1 Aug 2005: 10. ISBN 9780312340681.

[common-6] Sandra Alters; Wendy Schiff. Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 28 Jan 2011. ISBN 9780763789756.

[7] Prakash C. Gupta. Control of tobacco-related cancers and other diseases: proceedings of an international symposium, January 15–19, 1990, TIFR, Bombay. Prakash C. Gupta. 1992: 33. ISBN 9780195629613.

[8] 柔克义《喇嘛之乡》 Land of The Lamas p35

[9] 存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2009-05-01）.

[10] ttp://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hookah/AN01265

[11] UCSF報告：水菸比香菸更有害

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@@ 第3行： / 第3行： @@
 '''水菸'''（英语：'''hookah；'''[[印度斯坦语]]''': हुक़्क़ा <small>(</small>'''[[天城文]]'''<small>)</small>, حقّہ <small>(</small>'''[[波斯体]]'''<small>)</small>, IPA: [ˈɦʊqqaː]；胡卡'''）是一種菸草和抽菸用裝置。人们用水烟抽[[鸦片]]、[[大麻属]]、[[烟叶]]、等。
-== 西方水烟起源理论 ==
+== 起源==
+有关胡卡的起源有两种理论。第一种认为在[[耶稣会]]把烟草带到了[[中世纪印度]]之后，来自[[阿克巴]]的波斯物理学家Abu’l-Fath Gilani在[[印度]]的在[[蒙兀兒王朝]]时期的[[法泰赫普尔西克里]]城市发明了水管;<ref name= "Sivaramakrishnan4-5"/><ref name=Wealth>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hm1XAAAAMAAJ&q=hookah+isndia&dq=hookah+india |title=The Wealth of India |quote=The smoking of hookah and hubble-bubble started in India during the reign of the great Moghul emperor, Akbar |publisher=Council of Scientific & Industrial Research |accessdate=2007-08-01|year=1976 }}</ref> 胡卡从[[南亚次大陆]]先传至波斯，形成了今天的形状，然后传播至近东地区。<ref name="Aljarrah2009">{{cite journal|author=Khaled Aljarrah |author2=Zaid Q Ababneh |author3=Wael K Al-Delaimy|year=2009|title=Perceptions of hookah smoking harmfulness: predictors and characteristics among current hookah users|journal=Tobacco Induced Diseases|volume=5|issue=1|page=16|issn=1617-9625|doi=10.1186/1617-9625-5-16|pmid=20021672|pmc=2806861|quote=Hookahs originated in India in the 15th century and then spread to the Near East countries. Hookahs spread first to Persia and underwent further changes to its original shape to the current known shape. In the middle of the 16th century, hookahs reached the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and other Mediterranean regions.}}</ref> 另一种理论认为胡卡起源于[[波斯]]的[[萨非王朝]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/galyan-|title=ḠALYĀN – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=2019-05-29|quote=It seems, therfore, &#91;sic&#93; that Abu’l-Fatḥ Gīlānī should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, to India.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Charlemagne's tablecloth: a piquant history of feasting |author=Nichola Fletcher |publisher=Macmillan |date=1 Aug 2005 |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vMfEyKvR59sC&pg=PA10&dq=Charlemagne's+Tablecloth+hookahs#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780312340681 }}</ref> 随后逐渐向东传播至印度。<ref name=common>{{cite book |title=Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update |author=Sandra Alters |author2=Wendy Schiff|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |date=28 Jan 2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EciU_y1JroMC&pg=PA353&dq=hookah+origin+persia+india#v=onepage&q=hookah%20origin%20persia%20india&f=false|isbn=9780763789756}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Control of tobacco-related cancers and other diseases: proceedings of an international symposium, January 15–19, 1990, TIFR, Bombay |author=Prakash C. Gupta |publisher=Prakash C. Gupta |year=1992 |page=33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Zqo67BjH7UC&pg=PA33&dq=hookah+origin++India#v=onepage&q=hookah%20origin%20%20India&f=false|isbn=9780195629613 }}</ref>
-有学者认为胡卡起源于[[波斯]]的[[萨非王朝]]，然后传到印度。
-其他学者认为胡卡起源于[[印度]]的[[蒙兀兒王朝]]，然后传到波斯。
 胡卡huqa这个印度斯坦语的词汇源于[[阿拉伯语]]的 حُقَّة‎ ''ḥuqqa，''本意思为水烟。