用户:Waylon1104/条目翻译3
福尔诺沃战役（法语：Bataille de Fornoue）发生于1495年7月6日，是第一次意大利战争期间在帕尔马城西北处爆发的战役。由法王查理八世率领的法国军队在福尔诺沃击败威尼斯联盟具有人数优势的部队。这场胜利使法军得以推进至阿斯蒂，并返回法国。
法国在战争初期利用先进的火炮技术和职业部队，迅速征服大量意大利城邦与那不勒斯王国。但随着战争进行，法军缺乏补给并爆发了疟疾，意大利地区各邦对法国的敌意也逐渐升高，许多欧洲国家组成联盟以阻止法国的扩张，这一系列的危机迫使查理八世撤退回国。威尼斯联盟尝试阻止法军的撤退，但被法军优越的骑兵部队击溃。
背景[编辑]
1494年，查理八世作为一名仅有24岁的王者，统治者中世纪欧洲最强大的国家。他将自己视为基督教欧洲的拯救者，相信他能够扭转奥斯曼帝国不断扩展的征服。他决心将南意大利地区作为他的圣战基地。他随后通过祖母安茹的玛丽的继承权宣称他对那不勒斯王国的所有权，以获得占领的法理依据。[7]
为了能不受干扰，查理与临国签订了各种协议，确保征服行动不被干预。他给予英格兰国王亨利七世现金，[8] 将鲁西永交给阿拉贡的费迪南，还将阿图瓦和弗朗什-孔泰交给帝国皇帝马克西米利安。交出这些领土可以看出查理的短视。但他愿意承受如此代价以建立他的东征基地。
先前战事[编辑]
1494年8月末，查理八世发动闪电战，利用法军强大的近代军队和瑞士雇佣兵的增援，迅速横扫整个意大利，而法军的机动野战炮部队更将意大利地区的中世纪城墙轰得粉碎。在这当中，他得到了米兰的自由通行权，但受到佛罗伦萨、教宗国和那不勒斯王国的强烈反对。
1495年2月22日，查理八世和他的将军路易·德·拉特雷穆瓦耶在几乎没有抵抗的情况下进入那不勒斯。战役的速度和暴力程度让意大利人震惊，威尼斯共和国和米兰公爵卢多维科·斯福尔扎等人意识到，如果不能阻止查理的进军，意大利很快就会成为法国的行省。3月31日，神圣同盟成立，[9]签署人包括威尼斯共和国、米兰公国、教宗国、阿拉贡和卡斯提尔君合国、神圣罗马帝国和英格兰王国。[10]
战略性撤退[编辑]
The League engaged a veteran condottiero, Francesco II of Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua to gather an army and expel the French from Italy. Upon hearing the news of the coalition assembled against him, Charles VIII left behind a garrisoning force in Naples and marched north with the remainder of his army, his artillery train and the considerable booty seized in the campaign thus far in order to join a smaller army under Louis II, Duke of Orléans in Piedmont in north-western Italy.
On 27 June the Venetians and their allies established camp near Fornovo di Taro (44°41′N 10°06′E / 44.683°N 10.100°E), some 30 km southwest of Parma, to wait for the French. They would not have to wait long, but the Venetian Senate was not unanimous on fighting the French. Some members wanted to attack the rear guard of the French to try to seize their loot, while others cautioned that Italy was risking too much in this battle as this was just one French army and others could potentially be called upon.
On July 4, Ercole d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, Charles' strongest ally in Italy, wrote to him and informed him that the Senate had not yet decided on an action. But Charles was anxious, seeing the enemy numbers growing, while he himself had no hope of reinforcements for the time being. When an effort to sway the undecided forces of Parma was thwarted by the Venetians, Charles instead sent a messenger to request free passage to return to France, but the Venetians replied that he would have to restore all his conquests before such could be considered. The messenger, having scouted the troops, reported back to Charles. The 40 soldiers Charles subsequently sent to reconnoiter were attacked and quickly routed by the Stradioti, mostly Albanian mercenaries from the Balkans.[11]
Two days later, on July 6, Charles decided to offer battle because the French were short of provisions. South of Milan, the path of his army of some 10,000 French and Swiss was blocked by 20,000 Venetians and Mantuans under Gonzaga.[3] Melchiorre Trevisan promised the League soldiers the spoils of battle if they were victorious, igniting their combat ardor. Francesco Gonzaga divided his forces into nine lines. His battle plan was to distract the first and middle groups of the French with two lines while outflanking the rear. Once the French groups were disorganized, the rest of the Italian troops would attack. The League's overall goal was the complete destruction of the French army.[a][14]
交战[编辑]
The League army took position on the right side of the Taro river and the French decided to keep to the left bank. Charles organized his army in battle groups. The first section consisted of about 2,500 men and was led by Marshal Gie and Gian Giacomo Trivulzio.[15] The second and largest section, led by Englebert of Cleves and Antoine de Bessey, consisted of 3000 infantry, 300 dismounted archers and 200 crossbowman.[15] The final section, about 1,750 men, was led by Jean de Foix. There was in addition a large infantry force of spearmen. The French artillery was arranged in front of the first line, as well as on the side of the Taro, protecting the second line.[16] The League's right wing was commanded by Count Caiazzo with 400 Milanes men-at-arms and 2000 infantry, with 180 Bolognese men-at-arms in reserve.[17] The central division consisted of 492 men-at-arms and 600 mounted crossbowmen under the command of Francesco Gonzaga, while keeping a large contingent of cavalry in reserve.[18] The left wing, commanded by Fortebraccio di Montone, had 352 Venetian men-at-arms supported by cavalry.[18] Also in the center were 4,000 Venetian foot and 1,000 Mantuan infantry, with a contingent of 600 Stradioti on the French left flank.[18]
The French opened with an artillery bombardment, intending to kill as many of their opponents as possible.[19] Then they charged with their heavy cavalry, destroying and scattering the disordered Italian ranks in just minutes.[6] The fight was perhaps more memorable for the ineffectiveness of artillery on either side, other than the psychological effect achieved by the French guns.[b] Of the French and Italian casualties,[c] one eyewitness estimated that fewer than 10 men were killed by cannon fire.[6]
After the battle, Charles then marched on into Lombardy and returned to France.[2]
结果[编辑]
Both parties strove to present themselves as the victors in the battle.[4] The battle was reported in Venice as a victory, and was recorded and celebrated as such, which included the capture of Mathieu de Bourbon.[22] Regardless of the self-proclamations of victory by League commanders, Domenico Malipiero recognized that the League failed to stop the French from reaching Asti.[13] Francesco Gonzaga claimed victory and the ordered the portrait of the Madonna della Vittoria,[23] while the Italian historian Francesco Guicciardini's judgement was to award the palm of victory to the French.[d][4] Privately, Gonzaga confessed to his wife that the battle was a near run thing and that if the French had turned on them, the League's forces would have been destroyed.[24] A week later, Bernardino Fortebraccio spoke to the Venetian senate, stating the League's army could have defeated the French if their troops would have stayed in the battle and left the baggage train alone.[25]
The French had won their battle, fighting off superior numbers and proceeding on their march to Asti.[e][f][27][26][28][4] The League took much higher casualties and could not prevent the French army from crossing Italian lands on its way back to France.[28]
后果[编辑]
On the same day as the battle was fought, Ferdinand II appeared before Naples with a Spanish fleet; he re-entered and occupied Naples the following day. He was welcomed with rejoicing by the citizens, as the French had made themselves hated through their behaviour. Pope Alexander VI denounced the French as having committed worse crimes in Italy than had the Goths. Already under threat of excommunication, Charles VIII was ordered to lay down his arms and promote the peace of Christendom by the pope. Alexander also wrote to the Venetians to congratulate them on winning "immortal fame" by their liberation of Italy.[29]
Charles left Italy abandoning all his conquests. He attempted in the next few years to rebuild his army, but was hampered by the serious debts incurred by the previous one, and he never succeeded in recouping anything substantive. He died two-and-a-half years after his retreat, of an accident, striking his head while passing through a doorway, he succumbed to a sudden coma several hours later.
Charles bequeathed a meagre legacy: he left France in debt and in disarray as a result of an ambition most charitably characterized as unrealistic, and having lost several important provinces that it would take centuries to recover. On a more positive side, his expedition did broaden contacts between French and Italian humanists, energizing French art and letters in the latter Renaissance.
Charles proved to be the last of the elder branch of the House of Valois, and upon his death at Amboise the throne passed to a cousin, the Duc d'Orléans, who reigned as King Louis XII of France, who would try to make good his clearer claim to the Duchy of Milan.
However, for Italy the consequences were catastrophic.[g] Europe knew now, from Charles' expedition, of an enormously rich land, divided into easily conquerable principalities, and defended only by mercenary armies that refused to fight with the slightest disadvantage. Italy was to be the scene of a dispute between the main continental powers, with the result that the Italians were left with only a secondary role in their own destiny. Only Venice, Genoa, the Papal States, Savoy, and Tuscany would survive as independent nations after the end of the Italian Wars, losing however their original power and stability.
注释[编辑]
- ^ Malipiero mentions the League's failure to stop the French from reaching Asti.[12][13]
- ^ The French guns stopped firing due to the rain making the powder wet.[20]
- ^ Paolo Giovio states 4,000 casualties for the League and 1,000 for the French, which Santosuosso believes is more accurate.[21]
- ^ If officially Italians celebrated the Battle of Fornovo as a victory – to the surprise of the French – privately, many were not so sure. Guicciardini’s verdict was that ‘general consent awarded the palm to the French’[4]
- ^ The battle of Fornovo, by which Charles forced his way past the enemy who stood in his path, was not an indecisive action but a definite victory for France.[26]
- ^ Santosuosso states the French had won the battle, both strategically and tactically, but not decisively.[27]
- ^ In his work, La prima parte dell'historie del suo tempo, Giovio claimed that Italian soldiers were despised following the Leagues' defeat at Fornovo.[30]
注脚[编辑]
- ^ Mallett & Hale 1984，第56页.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Tucker 2010，第361页.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Nolan 2006，第303页.
- ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Mallett & Shaw 2012，第31页.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Dupuy 1993，第462页.
- ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Nolan 2006，第304页.
- ^ Nicolle 2005.
- ^ Palmer 1994，第19页.
- ^ Mallett & Shaw 2012，第27, 29页.
- ^ Anderson, M. S. The Rise of Modern Diplomacy 1450–1919. London: Longman. 1993: 3. ISBN 978-0-582-21232-9.
- ^ Birtachas 2018，第327-328页.
- ^ Malipiero 1843，第353页.
- ^ 13.0 13.1 Luzio & Renier 1890，第219页.
- ^ Santosuosso 1994，第232页.
- ^ 15.0 15.1 Nicolle 2005，第52页.
- ^ Oman 1987，第111页.
- ^ Nicolle 2005，第56-57页.
- ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Nicolle 2005，第57页.
- ^ Nolan 2006，第303-304页.
- ^ Santosuosso 1994，第236页.
- ^ Santosuosso 1994，第246页.
- ^ Santosuosso 1994，第248-249页.
- ^ Kuiper 2009，第114页.
- ^ Nicolle 2005，第83页.
- ^ Nicolle 2005，第84页.
- ^ 26.0 26.1 Taylor 1921，第14页.
- ^ 27.0 27.1 Santosuosso 1994，第222页.
- ^ 28.0 28.1 Setton 1978，第493–494页.
- ^ Setton 1978，第495–496页.
- ^ Santosuosso 1994，第221页.
参考文献[编辑]
- Birtachas, Stathis. Stradioti, Cappelletti, Compagnie or Milizie Greche: 'Greek' Mounted and Foot Troops in the Venetian State (Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries). Theotokis, Georgios; Yıldız, Aysel (编). A Military History of the Mediterranean Sea. 2018.
- Dupuy, Trevor N. Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. HarperCollins. 1993. ISBN 978-0-06-270056-8.
- Kuiper, Kathleen (编). The 100 Most Influential Painters & Sculptors of the Renaissance. Britannica Educational Publishing. 2009.
- Luzio, Alessandro; Renier, Rodolfo. Francesco Gonzaga alla Battaglia di Fornovo (1495) Secondo I Documenti Mantovani. Archivio Storico Italiano Serie V (Casa Editrice Leo S. Olschki s.r.l.). 1890, 6 (179): 205-246 （Italian）.
- Mallett, M. E.; Hale, J. R. The Military Organisation of a Renaissance State: Venice c. 1400 to 1617. Cambridge studies in early modern history. Cambridge University Press. 1984. ISBN 978-0-521-24842-6.
- Mallett, Michael; Shaw, Christine. The Italian Wars 1494–1559. Modern Wars in Perspective. Harlow: Pearson. 2012. ISBN 978-0-582-05758-6.
- Malipiero, Domenico. Annali veneti dall'anno 1457 al 1500. Firenze. 1843 （Italian）.
- Nicolle, David. Fornovo 1495: France's Bloody Fighting Retreat. Praeger illustrated military history series. Westport Connecticut: Osprey. 2005. ISBN 978-0-275-98850-0.
- Nolan, Cathal. The Age Of Wars Of Religion, 1000–1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization A-K I. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-313-33733-8.
- Oman, Charles. A History of The Art of War in the Sixteenth Century. Stackpole Books. 1987.
- Palmer, William. The Problem of Ireland in Tudor Foreign Policy, 1485–1603. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. 1994. ISBN 978-0-85115-562-3.
- Ritchie, Robert. Historical Atlas of The Renaissance. Thalamus Publishing. 2004. ISBN 978-0-8160-5731-3.
- Santosuosso, Antonio. Anatomy of Defeat in Renaissance Italy: The Battle of Fornovo in 1495. The International History Review (Taylor & Francis, Ltd.). 1994,. 16, No. 2 (May) (2): 221-250. doi:10.1080/07075332.1994.9640674.
- Setton, Kenneth M. The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. 1978. ISBN 0-87169-127-2 （英语）.
- Taylor, Frederick Lewis. The Art of War in Italy 1494–1529: Prince Consort Prize Essay 1920. Cambridge library collection. European History. Cambridge University Press. 1921. OCLC 967401725 –通过Archive Foundation.
- Theotokis, Georgios; Yıldız, Aysel (编). A Military History of the Mediterranean Sea: Aspects of War, Diplomacy, and Military Elites. History of Warfare (118) e-book. Leiden/Boston: Brill. 2018. ISBN 978-90-04-36204-8.
- Tucker, Spencer C. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East I. ABC-CLIO. 2010. ISBN 978-1-85109-672-5.
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