使用者:Zanhsieh/沙盒4
- Rudder, stern-mounted and vertical axial:According to the scholars Zhang Zunyan and Vassilios Christides, there is literary evidence to suggest that the axial stern rudder existed in China since the 1st century BC,[1] while Gang Deng asserts the first reference was made in the Huainanzi of the 2nd century BC,[2] and K.S. Tom says the first clear reference dates to the 5th century AD.[3] However, K.S. Tom points to the fact that all Chinese pottery models of ships before this Guangzhou tomb model show steering oars instead of a rudder, which he states is strong evidence for the rudder's invention only by the 1st century AD.[4] Jacques Gernet states that while the Chinese had invented the rudder in the 1st century AD, it was not completely fixed to the sternpost of Chinese ships until the end of the 4th century.[5] The bulkhead ship design of the junk, which appeared roughly the same time as the rudder, provided the essential vertical components for the hinged axial rudder.[6] Deng points out that an Eastern Han (25–220) model distinctly shows a rudder located in its own separate cabin, suggesting that helmsmanship had already become an established profession.[2] Following the invention of the balanced rudder pivoted on an axis, Tom and Deng state that the Chinese then innovated the fenestrated rudder by the Song Dynasty (960–1279), with deliberate puncturing and boring out of holes in shapes such as diamonds, which, according to Tom, made the rudder "easier to steer, reduced turbulence drag, did not affect efficiency and was hydrodynamically sound."[7][2]
- 船尾安裝、垂直為軸的舵:將櫓定義為舵的學者勞倫斯·V·莫特表明，古埃及人開始使用船尾安裝的舵可以追溯到第六王朝（前2350-前2200年）。[8]莫特表示，船尾裝舵的方式在阿拉伯、中國、以及歐洲世界彼此間相異，導致他懷疑中國那種以窩鉗或滑輪組附着（相對於歐洲約於1180年所發明 樞鈕）方式櫓的源流。[8][9]對於莫特把櫓定義爲舵的一種，學者李約瑟、理查·德勒費弗爾·德諾蒂斯（Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes）、K·S·湯姆、曾熾傑、S·A·M·艾茲赫德、保羅·約翰史通（Paul Johnstone）和Sean McGrail等皆表示，櫓不是一種舵；櫓雖有能力直接介入船隻航行操作（這限制了其遂行任何遠洋航行的潛在可能），不過它更適合小型船舶在狹窄、湍急的水域進行運輸;舵不直接干預船隻航行操作，並且船隻舵手僅需少少的精力便能操作，更能滿足大型船舶遠洋旅行的需求，而且它最早在中國出現。[10][11][3][12][9]利歐·布拉克（Leo Block）在寫古地中海世界（特別是在前1550-前300年有關的腓尼基人的那部分）提到：「單程航行傾向將船體轉向順流或者逆流的方向，而梢公需控舵才能保持直線前進。當時採用櫓是因為人們尚未發明舵。隨著單程航行，梢公需要頻繁地移動櫓以保持船直線前進；這種方式減緩了船體行進的速度，因為櫓修正行進路線的方式類似於採煞車。」[13]許多最古老陶瓷製、不帶櫓的船後附舵船舶雕塑模型，可追溯到整個東漢西漢（前202年-後220年）時期。[14][15][3][2]根據學者張尊嚴（音譯）和瓦西利奧斯·克里斯提帝斯（Vassilios Christides）的研究，有文學上證據表明是定軸尾舵自前1世紀在中國就已存在，[16]
而鄧剛稱，第一次提到有人在 淮南子 的公元前二世紀，[17]湯姆說，首次明確提到追溯至公元5世紀。[3]然而，美國堪薩斯湯姆指出了事實，即所有中國陶器型號的船隻在此之前廣州墳墓模特表演，而不是轉向舵槳，他的國家是有力的證據為舵的發明，只有在公元1世紀。[18]雅克Gernet國家，雖然中國已經發明了舵，在公元1世紀，這不是完全固定的sternpost的中國船舶，直到結束的第四世紀。[19]艙壁的船舶設計的 垃圾,這似乎大致相同的時間為舵，提供必要的垂直分量的鉸鏈軸舵。 [20]鄧小平指出，一東漢（25-220）模型顯示出明顯舵設在其自己單獨的小屋，這表明helmsmanship已經成為一個既定的職業。引用錯誤：<ref>標籤有衝突或無效的屬性繼發明的平衡舵無所不能軸上，湯姆和鄧小平指出，中國再創新了孔的舵由宋（960-1279），與蓄意穿刺而枯燥出孔形狀，如鑽石，其中，根據湯姆，使舵「更容易駕馭，減少動盪拖累，不影響工作效率，是流體力學的聲音。」[7] [2]
- Steel made from cast iron through oxygenation: The Chinese, who had been producing cast iron from the late Spring and Autumn Period (722–481 BC), produced steel by the 2nd century BC through a process of decarburization, i.e. using bellows to pump large amounts of oxygen on to molten cast iron.[21] This was first described in the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) book Huainanzi, compiled by scholars under Prince Liu An (179–122 BC).[22] The Chinese called this technique "the hundred refinings method," since the process was repeated over and over to incrementally strengthen the steel.[22] The back of swords were often made of more elastic wrought iron while the cutting edge of the blade itself was made of strong steel.[22] For steel, they used both quenching (i.e. rapid cooling) and tempering (i.e. slow cooling) methods of heat treatment.[22] Much later, the American inventor William Kelly (1811–1888) brought four Chinese metallurgists to Eddyville, Kentucky in 1845, whose expertise in steelmaking influenced his ideas about air injection to reduce carbon content of iron; his invention anticipated the Bessemer process of Henry Bessemer (1813–1898).[23]
- 鋼鑄鐵製成，通過氧:的中國，誰製造了鑄鐵從晚春秋（公元前722-481 ），產生 鋼鐵由公元前2世紀經歷一個過程的脫碳，即使用波紋管泵大量的氧氣到熔融鑄鐵。[24]這是首次描述在漢（公元前202年，公元220年）書 淮南子,學者編制下王子[ [劉安]]（179-122年）。[22]這種技術的中文名為「百refinings法」，因為這個過程被重複一遍遍地逐步加強的鋼材。[22]背面的刀劍往往使更多的彈性 鍛鐵，而尖端的刀片本身是用堅固鋼板。[22]鋼鐵，他們同時使用解渴荷蘭國際集團（即快速冷卻）和鍛煉（即緩慢冷卻）方法熱處理。[22]很久以後，在美國發明 威廉凱利（1811年至1888年）所帶來的四中國冶金為 埃迪維爾，肯塔基州 1845年，她的專長在煉鋼影響了他的想法，以減少對空氣注入碳含量的鐵，他的發明預期的貝西默進程的亨利貝西默（1813 - 1898年）。[23]
馬鐙
[編輯]- Stirrup: There are authors who point out that it is unclear whether the stirrup was invented by northern nomads or the sedentary Chinese.[25] Liu Han (1961) credited the invention of the stirrup to nomadic invaders of northern China.[26] Archaeologial evidence shows that horse riders in India had a small loop for a single toe to be inserted by roughly the 1st century AD.[27] However, the first true depiction of the stirrup is featured on a Jin Dynasty (265–420) Chinese tomb figurine dated 302 AD, yet this was a single stirrup and was perhaps used only for initially mounting the horse.[28] It should be noted that the latter was found in Changsha, Hunan, far from the northern border.[29] The first validated depiction of a rider with a pair of saddle stirrups for both feet comes from a Jin Chinese tomb figurine dated 322.[28] The first actual specimens of stirrups comes from a Chinese tomb in southern Manchuria that is dated 415.[28] The stirrup was not widely used by Chinese cavalry until the 5th century.[27][30] By the 6th century, the use of the stirrup had spread as far west as the Byzantine Empire, where both the stirrup and Celtic horseshoe were adopted.[27]
劉晗（1961）計入該發明的馬鐙來中國北方游牧民族的入侵。[32] Archaeologial證據表明，騎馬在印度有一個小環為一個單一的腳趾被插入了大約公元1世紀。[27]但是，第一個真正的描寫箍筋為特色的晉（265-420）中墓俑公元302日，不過，這是一個單一的馬鐙他可能最初只用於安裝馬。[28]應該指出的是，後者是發現在長沙，湖南，遠從北部邊境。[33]的第一套有效描寫一對騎手與馬鐙的馬鞍雙腳來自一個墓俑金中日322。 [28]的第一個實際標本箍筋來自一個中國墓在南滿的發布日期為 415。[28]馬蹬並沒有被廣泛使用中國騎兵直到公元5世紀。[27] [34]到6世紀，馬鐙的使用已經擴散的最西部的拜占庭帝國，其中兩個馬鐙和凱爾特人 馬蹄獲得通過。[27]
- Tomb, structural design imitating real life residences: The ancient Chinese built imperial tombs which by structural design imitated the actual living spaces and residences of the deceased tomb occupants when they were alive, a representation of their earthly life which would continue to serve them in the afterlife. For example, Fu Xinian writes that the tomb of Tang Dynasty (618–907) crown prince Li Chongrun (682–701) at the Qianling Mausoleum had a specific number and layout of "underground chambers, ventilation shafts, compartments, and air wells" which would have corresponded to the exact number and layout of "courtyards, main halls, rooms, and corridors" of his real palatial residence at Chang'an.[35]
- 墓，結構設計模仿現實生活中，住宅:古代帝王陵墓的建造中的結構設計模仿實際的生活空間和住宅死者的墳墓佔用時，他們還活著，一個代表性的人間生活將繼續為他們在來世。例如，傅希鯰寫道，墓大唐（618-907）皇太子黎充閏（682-701）在乾陵陵園有一個具體的數量和佈局「地下洞室，通風井，車廂，空井「，將有相對應的確切數量和佈局的」院落，大殿，房間和走廊「他真正的宮殿居住在長安。[36]
往復錘
[編輯]- Trip hammer: The ancient Chinese used pestle and mortar to pound and decorticate grain, which was superseded by the treadle-operated tilt hammer (employing a simple lever and fulcrum) perhaps during the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BC) but first described in a Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) dictionary of 40 BC and soon after by Yang Xiong (53 BC–18 AD) in his Fangyan dictionary written in 15 BC; the next stage in this evolution of grain-pounding devices was to apply hydraulic power, which the author Huan Tan (43 BC–28 AD) mentioned in his Xinlun of 20 AD, although he also described trip hammers powered by the labor of horses, oxen, donkeys, and mules.[37] After Huan Tan's book was written, numerous references to trip hammers powered by waterwheels were made in subsequent Chinese dynasties and in Medieval Europe by the 12th century.[38] However, trip hammers were also attested by both literary (Pliny, Natural History 18.97) and archaeological evidence in fairly widespread use in the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD.[39][40]
- 往復錘:古人最早利用杵臼碎穀去糠，後來大約周朝（前1122-前256年）期間被一種簡單的槓桿和支點、腳踏操作的輪錘機構所取代。雖是如此，不過它首次見諸描述是在成書於漢朝（前202-220年）西元前40年的辭典，以及不久之後揚雄（前53-18年）寫於前15年的《方言》一書中。
後不久，由揚雄（前53-18年）在他的 方岩 字典寫在公元前15年，下一次在這個演化階段糧食衝擊裝置是適用於 液壓動力，它的作者桓塌嗯（公元前43年-28年）中提到他的 新綸 20廣告，儘管他還介紹了錘動力之旅，由勞動馬，牛，驢和騾子。[41]後還她嗯的書是寫，多次提到行程錘子本站由水車學生發了言在隨後的中國朝代，在中世紀歐洲的12世紀。[42]不過，行程也證明了錘子的文學（普林尼 自然歷史 18.97）和考古證據相當普遍使用的羅馬帝國由公元1世紀。[43] [44]
農業
[編輯]
天文與地圖學
[編輯]
工程
[編輯]
家政與工業技術
[編輯]
醫藥與生理
[編輯]
數學
[編輯]
磁學
[編輯]自然科學
[編輯]運輸與勘測
[編輯]
音樂
[編輯]軍事
[編輯]
- ^ Christides (1996), 66–67.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Deng (1997), 42.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 引用錯誤：沒有為名為
tom 1989 103的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ Tom (1989), 103–104.
- ^ Gernet (1996), 378.
- ^ 引用錯誤：沒有為名為
needham volume 4 part 3 391的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ 7.0 7.1 Tom (1989), 104. 引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「tom 1989 104」的
<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次 - ^ 8.0 8.1 Mott（1991），2-3，92，84，95F
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Adshead (2000), 156.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 3, 627–628.
- ^ Chung (2005), 152.
- ^ Johnstone & McGrail (1988), 191.
- ^ Block (2003), 8–9.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 3, 649–650.
- ^ Fairbank (2006), 192.
- ^ Christides（1996），66-67。
- ^ 引用錯誤：沒有為名為
deng和KS 1997 42的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ 湯姆（1989）， 103-104。
- ^ Gernet（1996年），378。
- ^ 引用錯誤：沒有為名為
needham第4卷第3部分391的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ Temple (1986), 49–50.
- ^ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 Temple (1986), 50. 引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「temple 1986 50」的
<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次 - ^ 23.0 23.1 Temple (1986), 49. 引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「temple 1986 49」的
<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次 - ^ 寺（1986），49-50。
- ^ Dien (1986), 33–56.
- ^ Dien (1981), 5–66.
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 Addington (1990), 45. 引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「addington 45」的
<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次 - ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 Graff (2002), 42. 引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「graff 2002 42」的
<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次 - ^ Temple (1986), 89.
- ^ Hobson (2004), 103.
- ^ Dien (1986), 33–56.
- ^ 演（1981），5-66 。
- ^ 寺（1986年），89。
- ^ 霍布森（2004），103。
- ^ Fu (2002), 108.
- ^ 富（2002），108。
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 183–184, 390–392.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 379, 392–395.
- ^ Wilson (2002), 1–32.
- ^ Burnham (1997) 333–335.
- ^ 李約瑟，第4卷，第2，183-184，390-392。
- ^ 李約瑟，第4卷，第2部分，379，392-395。
- ^ 威爾遜（2002），1-32。
- ^ 伯納姆（1997）333-335。