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用戶:Niubuzheng/草稿1

維基百科，自由的百科全書

早年生涯

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Portrait of Mary, Princess Royal, in a yellow gown and William II in a black suit
威廉的父母：奧蘭治親王威廉二世和英國長公主瑪麗·斯圖亞特（英語：Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange）

出生及家庭

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奧蘭治的威廉·亨德里克於1650年11月4日在位於荷蘭共和國的海牙出生。[1]他是荷蘭省督奧蘭治的威廉二世和英國長公主瑪麗·斯圖亞特（英語：Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange）唯一的孩子。瑪麗是英格蘭、蘇格蘭及愛爾蘭國王查理一世之長女以及查理二世的妹妹和詹姆斯二世及七世的姊姊。

在威廉出生前八天，他的父親就被天花奪去了生命；因此，威廉從甫出生的那一刻起便成為了奧蘭治親王。[2]緊接着，他的母親瑪麗和祖母索姆-布勞菲爾斯的阿瑪利亞（英語：Amalia of Solms-Braunfels）在給他這個嬰兒起名上起了爭執。他的瑪麗想給他取名為查爾斯來紀念自己的兄長，但是他的祖母卻堅持為他取名為威廉（Willem）以作其成為荷蘭省督的墊枕。[3]儘管威廉二世曾在遺囑中任命太太瑪麗為兒子的監護人；但是威廉直到逝世也沒有在該遺囑文件上簽字，因而該遺囑被認定為無效。[4]1651年8月13日，荷蘭及新西蘭最高法院（英語：Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland）（最高理事會）做出裁定，他的母親、祖母以及勃蘭登堡選侯弗里德里希·威廉（「大選侯」）和他的妻子路易絲·亨麗埃特（英語：Luise Henriette of Nassau）（他的姑姑）將共享威廉的監護權。[5]

童年及教育

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威廉的母親對兒子從未顯示出私人感情上的興致，並一直刻意同荷蘭社會保持距離，時常數年不在兒子身邊。[6]威廉的教育最初掌握在幾位荷蘭家庭女教師及包括沃爾勃格·霍沃德（Walburg Howard）在內的幾個英國後裔手中。從1656年4月開始，反抗議派（英語：Franciscus Gomarus）神學家吉貝爾圖斯·沃修斯（英語：Gisbertus Voetius）的一名追隨者及加爾文主義的宣傳者科內利斯·特利格蘭德（Cornelis Trigland）每天都會為親王講授宗教改革方面的知識。[7]威廉在一篇名為Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince d'Orange的短論中，比較詳細的描述了理想教育，這篇短論亦可能是其導師之一的康斯坦丁·惠更斯（英語：Constantijn Huygens）所作。[8]通過預定論的這些課程，使威廉深信自己是神聖眷顧（英語：Divine Providence）的工具，並註定要在神佑下改變奧蘭治家族的歷史命運。[9]

揚·戴維茨·德赫姆（英語：Jan Davidsz de Heem）所繪威廉幼年畫像，畫中的威廉周圍充滿了奧蘭治家族的象徵物——橘子（Orange）

從1659年初開始，威廉在萊頓大學於倫理學教授亨德里克·博尼修（Hendrik Bornius）門下花費了七年時間接受正規教育（儘管他從未作為學生通過官方途徑註冊入學）。[10]威廉於居住在代爾夫特的普林森霍夫（Prinsenhof）期間，有了一支包括漢斯·威廉·本廷克（英語：William_Bentinck,_1st_Earl_of_Portland）在內的初具規模的侍從隊伍以及一位新教師——荷蘭省督奧蘭治的弗雷德里克·亨德里克的私生子及威廉的伯父弗雷德里克·拿騷·德·祖伊萊斯坦（英語：Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein）。教導威廉法語的是塞繆爾·恰普佐（英語：Samuel Chappuzeau）（其在威廉的母親去世後，被威廉的祖母遣走）。[11]

荷蘭州（英語：States of Holland）將教育威廉的責任推給了大議長約翰·德維特和他的舅舅科內利斯·德格雷夫（英語：Cornelis de Graeff）。1660年9月25日，荷蘭省採取了行動。雖然威廉的國家職能還沒有確定，但他們這樣做是為了使其獲得在未來從事某些國家事務所必需的技能；[12]然而，荷蘭當局最初的干預卻未能持久。1660年11月23日，威廉的母親正當在倫敦白廳宮拜訪其兄長查理二世國王之時染上天花而逝世，那時威廉只有十歲。[12]瑪麗在遺囑里要求查理照顧着威廉的利益，而查理隨即則要求荷蘭議會終止他們的干涉。[13]荷蘭當局對查理做出讓步，於1661年9月30日遵循了這些條件。[14]在1661年，祖伊萊斯坦開始給查理做思想工作。他勸導威廉寫信給查理，懇請其為威廉在未來就任省督時助一臂之力。[15]威廉的母親逝世後，他的教育和監護問題成了他的王朝的支持者（英語：Orangism (Netherlands)）同尼德蘭共和黨的支持者之間爭論的焦點。[16]

起初，荷蘭當局以最大的克制對這些陰謀視而不見，但在第二次英荷戰爭（英語：Second Anglo-Dutch War）期間，當威廉地位的提升成為其舅舅議和的主要條件之一時，他們無法再保持沉默了。[15]作為一項對策，荷蘭於1666年正式將威廉置於政府的監護之下，或成為「國家之子」（"Child of State"）。[15]包括祖伊萊斯坦在內的所有親英分子皆被驅離威廉的身邊。[15]威廉雖然苦苦央求德維特允許祖伊萊斯坦留下，但還是遭到了拒絕。[17]共和國的政界要員德維特將威廉的教育掌控在自己手中，他每周為威廉做一次國務上的指導，並時不時讓威廉參加室內網球（英語：real tennis）比賽。[17]

早期政治生涯

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portrait of a man dressed all in black, looking left
荷蘭省大議長約翰·德維特，他在1666年接手小威廉的教育，對其嚴加管控。德維特後來在1672年被群眾凌遲洩憤
portrait of a plump man standing at a desk with papers lying on it
加斯帕·菲格（英語：Gaspar Fagel），1672年接替約翰·德維特為大議長。不同於前任，他友善地對待威廉並支持其志業

荷蘭省督被取消

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參見：第一次無執政時期（英語：First Stadtholderless Period）

在威廉的父親逝後，多數省份執政之位空缺。[18]《西敏斯特和約（英語：Treaty of Westminster (1654)）》結束了首次英荷戰爭，在奧利弗·克倫威爾的堅持下，此合約附帶了一個名為《隔離法案（英語：Act of Seclusion）》的密件，該密件要求禁止荷蘭省任命奧蘭治家族成員擔任荷蘭執政。[19]英格蘭王政復辟（英語：Restoration (England)）之後，早已不再是秘密的《隔離法案》隨着英格蘭聯邦（包括在此聯邦期間締結的條約）的土崩瓦解而被廢除。[20]1660年，瑪麗和阿瑪利亞都試圖說服幾個省的議會指定威廉為他們未來的省督，但最終均遭到了回絕。[20]

1667年，威廉三世的十八歲生日臨近，橙帶黨（英語：Orangism_(Netherlands)）再次試圖通過保證他作為省督和海洋統帥（英語：Captain-General）的地位而將親王推上權力的舞台，以至於荷蘭州黨（英語：Dutch States Party）領袖德維特為防止奧蘭治家族勢力復興而允許哈勒姆的年金領取者（英語：pensionary）加斯帕·菲格（英語：Gaspar Fagel）勸誘荷蘭省議會頒佈《永久諭令（英語：Perpetual Edict (1667)）》。[21]該諭令宣佈，尼德蘭聯省的陸軍統帥或海軍統帥不得擔任任何一省的省督。[21]即便如此，威廉的支持者仍尋求各種方法提高他的聲望。1668年，威廉躲過其家庭教師的眼線，秘密地搭船前往西蘭省的米德爾堡。同年9月19日，他被西蘭省議會（英語：States_of_Zeeland）授予省議長（First Noble）一職。[22]翌月，他在祖母阿瑪利亞的同意下，趁機宣佈自己已十八歲成年，並開始管理自己的家族。[23]

1670年3月，反橙帶黨主義的中心荷蘭省宣佈廢除執政這一職務，另外四省也起而效仿，建立了所謂的「和諧局」（"Harmony"）。[21]而德維特更是要求荷蘭省議會的每一位寡頭（市政當局的「攝政者」）宣誓堅守《永久諭令》；除一人拒絕外，其餘人均表示服從。[21]威廉雖然受到了一連串的打擊，但是這些情形實際上卻是折中之論——德維特本想對親王視若罔聞，可親王如今的官職還是升到了陸軍最高統帥。[24]而德維特也容許將威廉納為參政院國務委員會（英語：Council of State of the Netherlands）的一員，然後讓其在國會管理國防預算。[25]儘管德維特堅決將威廉的身份地位限制在顧問上。但在1670年5月31日，威廉獲全票薦舉進入了委員會。[26]

同共和黨的衝突

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在1670年11月，威廉在德維特的許可下前往英格蘭，敦促其舅父查理至少得償還斯圖亞特欠給奧蘭治家族的二百七十九萬七千八百五十九盾債務的一部分。[27]可查理沒有能力支付欠債，使威廉不得不同意將債務總額減少至一百八十萬盾。[27]威廉在和查理會面之後，查理發現他的外甥不但是個虔誠篤實的喀爾文派教徒，更是個奉行愛國主義的荷蘭人。查理經過深思熟慮，決定對威廉隱瞞與法簽訂的《多佛秘密條約》，打算出兵消滅荷蘭共和國，然後把共和國殘存的國土封給威廉，扶植威廉當殘存國家的「主權領主」。[27]而威廉發現，查理和詹姆斯除政治觀點和他不同之外，生活方式也同他截然不然，他們在生活中更關心的是跳舞、賭博及調戲情婦。[28]

翌年，盎格魯-法蘭西聯軍對安全局勢有所惡化的共和國的進攻迫在眉睫。[29]儘管威廉既年輕又無經驗，但海爾德蘭省國會鑑於這一威脅，仍想要任命他為荷蘭陸海軍統帥。[30]1671年12月15日，烏德勒支省議會把此作其官方政策。[31]1672年1月19日，荷蘭省議會制定了一個反提案：威廉只能在戰時任職。[32]親王於2月25日拒絕達成妥協：按照荷蘭國會在一個夏天的約定，他將在二十二歲生日時正式任職。[32]與此同時，威廉在1672年1月給查理寫了封密信，詢問其舅是否趁機對國會施加壓力以任命他為荷蘭總督。[33]作為回報，威廉將允許共和國同英格蘭結盟，並盡最大努力滿足查理的利益「榮譽並效忠其國國會」。[33]查理沒有就這個提案採取任何行動，並與其法國盟友繼續着作戰計劃。

Becoming stadtholder

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"Disaster year": 1672

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主條目：Rampjaar

For the Dutch Republic, 1672 proved calamitous, becoming known as the "disaster year" (Dutch: rampjaar) because of the Franco-Dutch War and the Third Anglo-Dutch War in which the Netherlands were invaded by France under Louis XIV, England, Münster, and Cologne. Although the Anglo-French fleet was disabled by the Battle of Solebay, in June the French army quickly overran the provinces of Gelderland and Utrecht. William on 14 June withdrew with the remnants of his field army into Holland, where the States had ordered the flooding of the Dutch Water Line on 8 June.[34] Louis XIV, believing the war was over, began negotiations to extract as large a sum of money from the Dutch as possible.[35] The presence of a large French army in the heart of the Republic caused a general panic, and the people turned against de Witt and his allies.[35]

On 4 July the States of Holland appointed William stadtholder, and he took the oath five days later.[36] The next day, a special envoy from Charles, Lord Arlington, met with William in Nieuwerbrug. He offered to make William Sovereign Prince of Holland in exchange for his capitulation—whereas a stadtholder was a mere civil servant.[37] When William refused, Arlington threatened that William would witness the end of the republic's existence.[37] William made his famous answer: "There is one way to avoid this: to die defending it in the last ditch". On 7 July, the inundations were complete and the further advance of the French army was effectively blocked. On 16 July Zeeland offered the stadtholderate to William.[36]

Johan de Witt had been unable to function as Grand Pensionary after having been wounded by an attempt on his life on 21 June.[38] On 15 August William published a letter from Charles, in which the English King stated that he had made war because of the aggression of the de Witt faction.[39] The people thus incited, de Witt and his brother, Cornelis, were murdered by an Orangist civil militia in The Hague on 20 August.[39] After this William replaced many of the Dutch regents with his followers.[40]

Though William's complicity in the lynching has never been proved (and some 19th-century Dutch historians have made an effort to disprove that he was an accessory before the fact) he thwarted attempts to prosecute the ringleaders, and even rewarded some, like Hendrik Verhoeff, with money, and others, like Johan van Banchem and Johan Kievit, with high offices.[41] This damaged his reputation in the same fashion as his later actions at Glencoe.

William III continued to fight against the invaders from England and France, allying himself with Spain and Brandenburg. In November 1672 he took his army to Maastricht to threaten the French supply lines.[42] By 1673, the situation further improved. Although Louis took Maastricht and William's attack against Charleroi failed, Lieutenant-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter defeated the Anglo-French fleet three times, forcing Charles to end England's involvement by the Treaty of Westminster; after 1673, France slowly withdrew from Dutch territory (with the exception of Maastricht), while making gains elsewhere.[43]

Fagel now proposed to treat the liberated provinces of Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel as conquered territory (Generality Lands), as punishment for their quick surrender to the enemy.[44] William refused but obtained a special mandate from the States-General to newly appoint all delegates in the States of these provinces.[44] William's followers in the States of Utrecht on 26 April 1674 appointed him hereditary stadtholder.[45] The States of Gelderland on 30 January 1675 offered the titles of Duke of Guelders and Count of Zutphen.[46] The negative reactions to this from Zeeland and the city of Amsterdam, where the stock market collapsed, made William ultimately decide to decline these honours; he was instead appointed stadtholder of Gelderland and Overijssel.[46]

Marriage

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portrait of a woman with brown hair in a blue-and-gray dress
William married his first cousin, the future Queen Mary II, in 1677.

During the war with France, William tried to improve his position by marrying his first cousin Mary, elder surviving daughter of James, Duke of York, and eleven years his junior. Although he anticipated resistance to a Stuart match from the Amsterdam merchants who had disliked his mother (another Mary Stuart), William believed that marrying Mary would increase his chances of succeeding to Charles's kingdoms, and would draw England's monarch away from his pro-French policies.[47] James was not inclined to consent, but Charles pressured his brother to go along.[48] Charles wanted to use the possibility of marriage to gain leverage in negotiations relating to the war, but William insisted that the two issues be decided separately.[49] Charles relented, and Bishop Henry Compton married the couple on 4 November 1677.[50] Mary became pregnant soon after the marriage, but miscarried. After a further illness later in 1678, she never conceived again.[51]

Throughout William and Mary's marriage, William had only one acknowledged mistress, Elizabeth Villiers, in contrast to the many mistresses his uncles openly kept.[52]

Peace with France, intrigue with England

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By 1678, Louis sought peace with the Dutch Republic.[53] Even so, tensions remained: William remained very suspicious of Louis, thinking the French king desired "Universal Kingship" over Europe; Louis described William as "my mortal enemy" and saw him as an obnoxious warmonger. France's small annexations in Germany (the Réunion policy) and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, caused a surge of Huguenot refugees to the Republic.[54] This led William III to join various anti-French alliances, such as the Association League, and ultimately the League of Augsburg (an anti-French coalition that also included the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, Spain and several German states) in 1686.[55]

portrait of a man clad in armour, looking right
Portrait of William, aged 27, by Peter Lely

After his marriage in November 1677, William became a possible candidate for the English throne if his father-in-law (and uncle) James were excluded because of his Catholicism. During the crisis concerning the Exclusion Bill in 1680, Charles at first invited William to come to England to bolster the king's position against the exclusionists, then withdrew his invitation—after which Lord Sunderland also tried unsuccessfully to bring William over but now to put pressure on Charles.[56] Nevertheless, William secretly induced the States-General to send the Insinuation to Charles, beseeching the king to prevent any Catholics from succeeding him, without explicitly naming James.[57] After receiving indignant reactions from Charles and James, William denied any involvement.[57]

In 1685, when James II succeeded Charles, William at first attempted a conciliatory approach, at the same time trying not to offend the Protestants in England.[58] William, ever looking for ways to diminish the power of France, hoped James would join the League of Augsburg, but by 1687 it became clear that James would not join the anti-French alliance.[58] Relations worsened between William and James thereafter.[59] In November, James's wife Mary of Modena was announced to be pregnant.[60] That month, to gain the favour of English Protestants, William wrote an open letter to the English people in which he disapproved of James's policy of religious toleration. Seeing him as a friend, and often having maintained secret contacts with him for years, many English politicians began to negotiate an armed invasion of England.[61]

Glorious Revolution

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sepia-toned allegorical engraving representing William III's arrival at Tor Bay
The Arrival of William III by Sir James Thornhill. William landed in England on 5 November (Guy Fawkes day), a day already special in the Protestant calendar.
主條目：Glorious Revolution

Invasion of England

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William at first opposed the prospect of invasion, but most historians now agree that he began to assemble an expeditionary force in April 1688, as it became increasingly clear that France would remain occupied by campaigns in Germany and Italy, and thus unable to mount an attack while William's troops would be occupied in Britain.[62][63] Believing that the English people would not react well to a foreign invader, he demanded in a letter to Rear-Admiral Arthur Herbert that the most eminent English Protestants first invite him to invade.[64] In June, James's wife, Mary of Modena, bore a son (James Francis Edward Stuart), who displaced William's wife to become first in the line of succession.[65] Public anger also increased because of the trial of seven bishops who had publicly opposed James's Declaration of Indulgence granting religious liberty to his subjects, a policy which appeared to threaten the establishment of the Anglican Church.[66]

On 30 June 1688—the same day the bishops were acquitted—a group of political figures known afterward as the "Immortal Seven", sent William a formal invitation.[64] William's intentions to invade were public knowledge by September 1688.[67] With a Dutch army, William landed at Brixham in southwest England on 5 November 1688.[68] He came ashore from the ship Brill, proclaiming "the liberties of England and the Protestant religion I will maintain". William had come ashore with approximately 11,000-foot and 4,000 horse soldiers.[69] James's support began to dissolve almost immediately upon William's arrival; Protestant officers defected from the English army (the most notable of whom was Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, James's most able commander), and influential noblemen across the country declared their support for the invader.[70]

James at first attempted to resist William, but saw that his efforts would prove futile.[70] He sent representatives to negotiate with William, but secretly attempted to flee on 11 December.[71] A group of fishermen caught him and brought him back to London.[71] He successfully escaped to France in a second attempt on 23 December.[71] William permitted James to leave the country, not wanting to make him a martyr for the Roman Catholic cause.[72]

Proclaimed king

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A silver coin picturing William III and his coat of arms
Silver crown coin of William III, dated 1695. The Latin inscription is (obverse) GVLIELMVS III DEI GRA[TIA] (reverse) MAG[NAE] BR[ITANNIAE], FRA[NCIAE], ET HIB[ERNIAE] REX 1695. English: "William III, By the grace of God, King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, 1695." The reverse shows the arms, clockwise from top, of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, centred on William's personal arms of the House of Orange-Nassau.

William summoned a Convention Parliament in England, which met on 22 January 1689,[73] to discuss the appropriate course of action following James's flight.[74] William felt insecure about his position; though his wife ranked higher in the line of succession to the throne, he wished to reign as King in his own right, rather than as a mere consort.[75] The only precedent for a joint monarchy in England dated from the sixteenth century, when Queen Mary I married Philip of Spain.[76] Philip remained king only during his wife's lifetime, and restrictions were placed on his power. William, on the other hand, demanded that he remain as king even after his wife's death.[77] Although the majority of Tory Lords proposed to acclaim her as sole ruler, Mary, remaining loyal to her husband, refused.[78]

The House of Commons, with a Whig majority, quickly resolved that the throne was vacant, and that it was safer if the ruler was Protestant. There were more Tories in the House of Lords which would not initially agree, but after William refused to be a regent or to agree to remaining king only in his wife's lifetime, there were negotiations between the two houses and the Lords agreed by a narrow majority that the throne was vacant. The Commons made William accept a Bill of Rights,[73] and on 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Declaration of Right, in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee, had abdicated the government of the realm, thereby leaving the throne vacant.[79] The Crown was not offered to James's eldest son, James Francis Edward (who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances), but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns.[75] It was, however, provided that "the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives".[75]

William and Mary were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689 by the Bishop of London, Henry Compton.[80] Normally, the coronation is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, but the Archbishop at the time, William Sancroft, refused to recognise James's removal.[80]

William also summoned a Convention of the Estates of Scotland which met on 14 March 1689, and sent a conciliatory letter while James sent haughty uncompromising orders, swaying a majority in favour of William. On 11 April, the day of the English coronation, the Convention finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland.[81] William and Mary were offered the Scottish Crown; they accepted on 11 May.[82]

Revolution settlement

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Statue of a rider on a horse
Statue of an idealised William III by John Michael Rysbrack erected in Queen Square, Bristol in 1736

William III of England encouraged the passage of the Act of Toleration, which guaranteed religious toleration to certain Protestant nonconformists.[74] It did not, however, extend toleration as far as William wished, still restricting the religious liberty of Roman Catholics, non-trinitarians, and those of non-Christian faiths.[80] In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights, was passed.[83] The Act, which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right, established restrictions on the royal prerogative. It provided, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments.[74] William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute.[84]

The Bill of Rights also settled the question of succession to the Crown. After the death of either William or Mary, the other would continue to reign. Next in the line of succession was Mary II's sister, Princess Anne, and her issue.[83] Finally, any children William might have had by a subsequent marriage were included in the line of succession. Roman Catholics, as well as those who married Catholics, were excluded.[83]

Rule with Mary II

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Resistance to validity of rule

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Although most in Britain accepted William and Mary as sovereigns, a significant minority refused to accept the validity of their claim to the throne, holding that the divine right of kings was authority directly from God, not delegated to the monarch by Parliament. Over the next 57 years Jacobites pressed for restoration of James and his heirs.[85] Nonjurors in England and Scotland, including over 400 clergy and several bishops of the Church of England and Scottish Episcopal Church as well as numerous laymen, refused to take oaths of allegiance to William.[86]

Painting of a battle scene
Battle of the Boyne between James II and William III, 12 July 1690, Jan van Huchtenburg

Ireland was controlled by Roman Catholics loyal to James, and Franco-Irish Jacobites arrived from France with French forces in March 1689 to join the war in Ireland and contest Protestant resistance at the Siege of Derry.[87] William sent his navy to the city in July, and his army landed in August. After progress stalled, William personally intervened to lead his armies to victory over James at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690,[88] after which James II fled back to France.[89]

Upon King William's return to England, his close friend Dutch General Godert de Ginkell, who had accompanied William to Ireland and had commanded a body of Dutch cavalry at the Battle of the Boyne, was named Commander in Chief of William's forces in Ireland and entrusted with further conduct of the war there. Ginkell took command in Ireland in the spring of 1691, and following several ensuing battles, succeeded in capturing both Galway and Limerick, thereby effectively suppressing the Jacobite forces in Ireland within a few more months. After difficult negotiations a capitulation was signed on 3 October 1691—the Treaty of Limerick. Thus concluded the Williamite pacification of Ireland, and for his services the Dutch general received the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and was awarded the title of Earl of Athlone by the King.

A series of Jacobite risings also took place in Scotland, where Viscount Dundee raised Highland forces and won a victory on 27 July 1689 at the Battle of Killiecrankie, but he died in the fight and a month later Scottish Cameronian forces subdued the rising at the Battle of Dunkeld.[90] William offered Scottish clans that had taken part in the rising a pardon provided they signed allegiance by a deadline, and his government in Scotland punished a delay with the Massacre of Glencoe of 1692, which became infamous in Jacobite propaganda as William had countersigned the orders.[91][92] Bowing to public opinion, William dismissed those responsible for the massacre, though they still remained in his favour; in the words of the historian John Dalberg-Acton, "one became a colonel, another a knight, a third a peer, and a fourth an earl."[91]

William's reputation in Scotland was further damaged when he refused English assistance to the Darien scheme, a colony which then failed disastrously.[93]

Parliament and faction

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Engraving depicting a king, queen, throne, and arms
A 1703 engraving of King William III and Queen Mary II

Although the Whigs were William's strongest supporters, he initially favoured a policy of balance between the Whigs and Tories.[94] The Marquess of Halifax, a man known for his ability to chart a moderate political course, gained William's confidence early in his reign.[95] The Whigs, a majority in Parliament, had expected to dominate the government, and were disappointed that William denied them this chance.[96] This "balanced" approach to governance did not last beyond 1690, as the conflicting factions made it impossible for the government to pursue effective policy, and William called for new elections early that year.[97]

After the Parliamentary elections of 1690, William began to favour the Tories, led by Danby and Nottingham.[98] While the Tories favoured preserving the king's prerogatives, William found them unaccommodating when he asked Parliament to support his continuing war with France.[99] As a result, William began to prefer the Whig faction known as the Junto.[100] The Whig government was responsible for the creation of the Bank of England. William's decision to grant the Royal Charter in 1694 to the Bank, a private institution owned by bankers, is his most relevant economic legacy.[101] It laid the financial foundation of the English take-over of the central role of the Dutch Republic and Bank of Amsterdam in global commerce in the 18th century.

William dissolved Parliament in 1695, and the new Parliament that assembled that year was led by the Whigs. There was a considerable surge in support for William following the exposure of a Jacobite plan to assassinate him in 1696.[102] Parliament passed a bill of attainder against the ringleader, John Fenwick, and he was beheaded in 1697.[103]

War in Europe

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William continued to be absent from the realm for extended periods during his war with France, leaving each spring and returning to England each autumn.[104] England joined the League of Augsburg, which then became known as the Grand Alliance.[105] Whilst William was away fighting, his wife, Mary II, governed the realm, but acted on his advice. Each time he returned to England, Mary gave up her power to him without reservation, an arrangement that lasted for the rest of Mary's life.[106]

After the Anglo-Dutch fleet defeated a French fleet at La Hogue in 1692, the allies for a short period controlled the seas, and Ireland was pacified thereafter by the Treaty of Limerick.[107] At the same time, the Grand Alliance fared poorly in Europe, as William lost Namur in the Spanish Netherlands in 1692, and was badly beaten at the Battle of Landen in 1693.[108]

Later years

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Mary II died of smallpox on 28 December 1694, leaving William III to rule alone.[109] William deeply mourned his wife's death.[110] Despite his conversion to Anglicanism, William's popularity plummeted during his reign as a sole monarch.[111]

Allegations of homosexual relations

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During the 1690s rumours grew of William's alleged homosexual inclinations and led to the publication of many satirical pamphlets by his Jacobite detractors.[112] He did have several close, male associates, including two Dutch courtiers to whom he granted English titles: Hans Willem Bentinck became Earl of Portland, and Arnold Joost van Keppel was created Earl of Albemarle. These relationships with male friends, and his apparent lack of more than one mistress, led William's enemies to suggest that he might prefer homosexual relationships. William's modern biographers, however, still disagree on the veracity of these allegations, with many contending that they were just figments of his enemies' imaginations,[113] and others suggesting there may have been some truth to the rumours.[114]

Bentinck's closeness to William did arouse jealousies in the Royal Court at the time, but most modern historians doubt that there was a homosexual element in their relationship.[115] William's young protege, Keppel, aroused more gossip and suspicion, being 20 years William's junior and strikingly handsome, and having risen from being a royal page to an earldom with some ease.[116] Portland wrote to William in 1697 that "the kindness which your Majesty has for a young man, and the way in which you seem to authorise his liberties ... make the world say things I am ashamed to hear".[117] This, he said, was "tarnishing a reputation which has never before been subject to such accusations". William tersely dismissed these suggestions, however, saying, "It seems to me very extraordinary that it should be impossible to have esteem and regard for a young man without it being criminal."[117]

Peace with France

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Black and white depiction of six small portraits arrayed in a circle around a larger portrait
Engraving from 1695 showing the Lord Justices who administered the kingdom while William was on campaign.

In 1696, the Dutch territory of Drenthe made William its Stadtholder. In the same year, Jacobites plotted to assassinate William III in an attempt to restore James to the English throne, but failed. In accordance with the Treaty of Rijswijk (20 September 1697), which ended the Nine Years' War, Louis recognised William III as King of England, and undertook to give no further assistance to James II.[118] Thus deprived of French dynastic backing after 1697, Jacobites posed no further serious threats during William's reign.

As his life drew towards its conclusion, William, like many other European rulers, felt concern over the question of succession to the throne of Spain, which brought with it vast territories in Italy, the Low Countries and the New World. The King of Spain, Charles II, was an invalid with no prospect of having children; amongst his closest relatives were Louis XIV (the King of France) and Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. William sought to prevent the Spanish inheritance from going to either monarch, for he feared that such a calamity would upset the balance of power. William and Louis XIV agreed to the First Partition Treaty, which provided for the division of the Spanish Empire: Duke Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria would obtain Spain, while France and the Holy Roman Emperor would divide the remaining territories between them.[119] Charles II accepted the nomination of Joseph Ferdinand as his heir, and war appeared to be averted.[120]

Portrait of Louis XIV of France, standing, wearing an ermine robed faced with fleur-de-lis
Louis XIV of France was William's lifelong enemy.

When, however, Joseph Ferdinand died of smallpox, the issue re-opened. In 1700, the two rulers agreed to the Second Partition Treaty (also called the Treaty of London), under which the territories in Italy would pass to a son of the King of France, and the other Spanish territories would be inherited by a son of the Holy Roman Emperor.[121] This arrangement infuriated both the Spanish, who still sought to prevent the dissolution of their empire, and the Holy Roman Emperor, to whom the Italian territories were much more useful than the other lands.[121] Unexpectedly, the invalid King of Spain, Charles II, interfered as he lay dying in late 1700.[122] Unilaterally, he willed all Spanish territories to Philip, a grandson of Louis XIV. The French conveniently ignored the Second Partition Treaty and claimed the entire Spanish inheritance.[122] Furthermore, Louis XIV alienated William III by recognising James Francis Edward Stuart, the son of the former King James II who had died in 1701, as King of England.[123] The subsequent conflict, known as the War of the Spanish Succession, continued until 1713.

English succession

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The Spanish inheritance was not the only one which concerned William. His marriage with Mary II had not yielded any children, and he did not seem likely to remarry. Mary's sister, the Princess Anne, had borne numerous children, all of whom died during childhood. The death of Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, in 1700 left the Princess Anne as the only individual left in the line of succession established by the Bill of Rights.[124] As the complete exhaustion of the line of succession would have encouraged a restoration of James II's line, Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which provided that if Anne died without surviving issue and William III failed to have surviving issue by any subsequent marriage, the Crown would be inherited by a distant relative, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, a granddaughter of King James VI and I, and her Protestant heirs.[125] The Act debarred Roman Catholics from the throne thereby excluding the candidacy of several dozen people whose claims would otherwise have been genealogically superior to Sophia's. The Act extended to England and Ireland, but not to Scotland, whose Estates had not been consulted before the selection of Sophia.[125]

Death

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主條目：Second Stadtholderless Period
Statue of William III by Henry Cheere in Petersfield

In 1702, William died of pneumonia, a complication from a broken collarbone following a fall from his horse, Sorrel.[126] Because his horse had stumbled into a mole's burrow, many Jacobites toasted "the little gentleman in the black velvet waistcoat."[127] Years later, Sir Winston Churchill, in his A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, stated that the fall "opened the door to a troop of lurking foes".[128] William was buried in Westminster Abbey alongside his wife.[129] His sister-in-law Anne became queen regnant of England, Scotland and Ireland.

William's death brought an end to the Dutch House of Orange, members of which had served as stadtholder of Holland and the majority of the other provinces of the Dutch Republic since the time of William the Silent (William I). The five provinces of which William III was stadtholder—Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel—all suspended the office after his death. Thus, he was the last patrilineal descendant of William I to be named stadtholder for the majority of the provinces. Under William III's will, John William Friso stood to inherit the Principality of Orange as well as several lordships in the Netherlands.[130] He was William's distant agnatic relative, as well as son of William's aunt Albertine Agnes. However, King Frederick I of Prussia also claimed the Principality as the senior cognatic heir, his mother Louise Henriette being Albertine Agnes's older sister.[131] Under the Treaty of Utrecht, which was agreed to in 1713, Frederick William I of Prussia (who kept the title as part of his titulary) ceded the Principality of Orange to the King of France, Louis XIV; Friso's son, William IV, shared the title of "Prince of Orange", which had accumulated high prestige in the Netherlands as well as in the entire Protestant world, with Frederick William after the Treaty of Partition (1732).[132][133]

Legacy

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A modern Orange Banner representing the Cooke's Defenders Lodge 609, Ballymacarrett District number 6

William's primary achievement was to contain France when it was in a position to impose its will across much of Europe. His life was largely opposed to the will of Louis XIV of France. This effort continued after his death during the War of the Spanish Succession. Another important consequence of William's reign in England involved the ending of a bitter conflict between Crown and Parliament that had lasted since the accession of the first English monarch of the House of Stuart, James I, in 1603. The conflict over royal and parliamentary power had led to the English Civil War during the 1640s and the Glorious Revolution of 1688.[134] During William's reign, however, the conflict was settled in Parliament's favour by the Bill of Rights 1689, the Triennial Act 1694 and the Act of Settlement 1701.[134]

William endowed the College of William and Mary (in present day Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693.[135] Nassau, the capital of The Bahamas, is named after Fort Nassau, which was renamed in 1695 in his honour.[136] Similarly Nassau County, New York a county on Long Island, is a namesake.[137] Long Island itself was also known as Nassau during early Dutch rule.[137] Though many alumni of Princeton University think that the town of Princeton, N.J. (and hence the university) were named in his honour, this is probably untrue. Nassau Hall, at the university campus, is so named, however.[138]

New York City was briefly renamed New Orange for him in 1673 after the Dutch recaptured the city, which had been renamed New York by the British in 1665. His name was applied to the fort and administrative center for the city on two separate occasions reflecting his different sovereign status—first as Fort Willem Hendrick in 1673, and then as Fort William in 1691 when the English evicted Colonists who had seized the fort and city.[139] Nassau Street, NY was also named some time before 1696 in his honor. Orange County, just north of New York City, is also his namesake.

Ireland

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Mural in Donegall Pass, a loyalist area in south Belfast, depicting "Good King Billy" astride his white horse

The modern day Orange Order is named after William III, and makes a point of celebrating his victory at the Battle of the Boyne with annual parades by Orangemen in Northern Ireland, parts of Scotland and other countries as far afield as Canada, Australia and Togo on 12 July.

William or "King Billy" as he is sometimes known in Northern Ireland is usually called "Good King Billy" by loyalists (with various negative phrases, eg "To Hell with" in place of "Good" for Republicans). He has featured prominently in many loyalist murals. He is traditionally depicted mounted on his white horse.


See also

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References

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Footnotes

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  1. ^ Claydon, 9
  2. ^ Claydon, 14
  3. ^ Troost, 26; van der Zee, 6–7
  4. ^ Troost, 26
  5. ^ Troost, 26–27. 這位普魯士王侯被選中是因為其能夠作為一個中間力量來調和婆媳二人的分歧, 同時也因為阿瑪利亞深恐瑪麗將會把奧蘭治家族的財產揮霍掉, 而作為潛在的繼承人的他一定會積極地保護後者的安全.
  6. ^ Van der Kiste, 5–6; Troost, 27
  7. ^ Troost, 34–37
  8. ^ Troost, 27. 這篇短論的真實作者可能是約翰·范德海格 (Johan van den Kerckhoven). Ibid.
  9. ^ Troost, 36–37
  10. ^ Troost, 37–40
  11. ^ Meinel
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Troost, 43
  13. ^ Troost, 43–44
  14. ^ Troost, 44
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Troost, 49
  16. ^ Van der Kiste, 12–17
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 Van der Kiste, 14–15
  18. ^ 威廉的姻叔父威廉·弗雷德里克 (奧蘭治-迪茨親王)為弗里斯蘭省執政.
  19. ^ Troost, 29–30
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 Troost, 41
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Troost, 52–53
  22. ^ Van der Kiste, 16–17
  23. ^ Troost, 57
  24. ^ Troost, 53–54
  25. ^ Troost, 59
  26. ^ Troost, 60
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Troost, 62–64
  28. ^ Van der Kiste, 18–20
  29. ^ Troost, 64
  30. ^ Troost, 65
  31. ^ Troost, 66
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 Troost, 67
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 Troost, 65–66
  34. ^ Troost, 74
  35. ^ 35.0 35.1 Troost, 78–83
  36. ^ 36.0 36.1 Troost, 76
  37. ^ 37.0 37.1 Troost, 80–81
  38. ^ Troost, 75
  39. ^ 39.0 39.1 Troost, 85–86
  40. ^ Troost, 89–90
  41. ^ Rowen, H.H. (1986) John de Witt: Statesman of the "true Freedom", Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52708-2, p. 222; Nijhoff, D.C. (1893) Staatkundige Geschiedenis van Nederland. Tweede Deel, pp. 92–93, and fn.4 p. 92; Robert Fruin, "De schuld van Willem III en zijn vrienden aan den moord der gebroeders de Witt", in De Gids (1867), pp. 201–218 [1]
  42. ^ Troost, 122
  43. ^ Troost, 128–129
  44. ^ 44.0 44.1 Troost, 106–110
  45. ^ Troost, 109
  46. ^ 46.0 46.1 Troost, 109–112
  47. ^ Van der Kiste, 38–39
  48. ^ Van der Kiste, 42–43
  49. ^ Van der Kiste, 44–46
  50. ^ Van der Kiste, 47
  51. ^ Chapman, 86–93
  52. ^ Van der Zee, 202–206
  53. ^ Troost, 141–145
  54. ^ Troost, 153–156
  55. ^ Troost, 156–163
  56. ^ Troost, 150–151
  57. ^ 57.0 57.1 Troost, 152–153
  58. ^ 58.0 58.1 Troost, 173–175
  59. ^ Troost, 180–183
  60. ^ Troost, 189
  61. ^ Troost, 186
  62. ^ e.g. Troost, 190
  63. ^ Claydon, Tony. William III and II (1650–1702). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. September 2004; rev. May 2008 [8 August 2008].  (Subscription required)
  64. ^ 64.0 64.1 Troost, 191
  65. ^ Troost, 191; van der Kiste, 91–92
  66. ^ Van der Kiste, 91
  67. ^ Troost, 193–196
  68. ^ Troost, 200–203; van der Kiste, 102–103
  69. ^ Van der Kiste, 105
  70. ^ 70.0 70.1 Troost, 204–205
  71. ^ 71.0 71.1 71.2 Troost, 205–207
  72. ^ Baxter, 242–246; Miller, 208
  73. ^ 73.0 73.1 Legitimism in England. [10 November 2009]. 
  74. ^ 74.0 74.1 74.2 Davies, 614–615
  75. ^ 75.0 75.1 75.2 Troost, 207–210
  76. ^ Davies, 469; Israel, 136
  77. ^ Van der Kiste, 107–108
  78. ^ Troost, 209
  79. ^ Troost, 210–212
  80. ^ 80.0 80.1 80.2 Troost, 219–220
  81. ^ Troost, 266–268
  82. ^ Davies, 614–615. William was "William II" of Scotland, for there was only one previous Scottish King named William.
  83. ^ 83.0 83.1 83.2 Van der Kiste, 114–115
  84. ^ Troost, 212–214
  85. ^ The Jacobite Heritage. [9 November 2009]. 
  86. ^ Nonjurors. [9 November 2009]. 
  87. ^ The Siege of Derry (1688–1689). [10 November 2009]. 
  88. ^ Due to the change to the Gregorian calendar, William's victory is commemorated annually by Northern Irish and Scottish Protestants on The Twelfth of July – cf. Troost, 278–280
  89. ^ The Battle of the Boyne (1689–1690). [10 November 2009]. 
  90. ^ Troost, 270–273
  91. ^ 91.0 91.1 Troost, 274–275
  92. ^ BBC – History – Scottish History – Restoration and Revolution (II). The Making of the Union. [9 November 2009]. 
  93. ^ BBC – History – British History in depth: The Jacobite Cause. [9 November 2009]. 
  94. ^ Troost, 220–223
  95. ^ Troost, 221
  96. ^ Van der Zee, 296–297
  97. ^ Troost, 222; van der Zee, 301–302
  98. ^ Troost, 223–227
  99. ^ Troost, 226
  100. ^ Troost, 228–232
  101. ^ Claydon, 129–131
  102. ^ Van der Zee, 402–403
  103. ^ Van der Zee, 414
  104. ^ Troost, 239–241; van der Zee, 368–369
  105. ^ Troost, 241–246
  106. ^ Van der Kiste, 150–158
  107. ^ Troost, 281–283
  108. ^ Troost, 244–246
  109. ^ Van der Kiste, 179–180
  110. ^ Van der Kiste, 180–184
  111. ^ Van der Kiste, 186–192; Troost, 226–237
  112. ^ Culture and Society in Britain, J. Black (ed.), Manchester, 1997. p97
  113. ^ Van der Kiste, 204–205; Baxter, 352; James Falkner, 'Keppel, Arnold Joost van, first earl of Albemarle (1669/70–1718)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004.
  114. ^ Troost, 25–26; Van der Zee, 421–423
  115. ^ Van der Kiste, 205
  116. ^ Van der Kiste, 201
  117. ^ 117.0 117.1 Van der Kiste, 202–203
  118. ^ Troost, 251
  119. ^ Troost, 253–255
  120. ^ Troost, 255
  121. ^ 121.0 121.1 Troost, 256–257
  122. ^ 122.0 122.1 Troost, 258–260
  123. ^ Troost, 260
  124. ^ Troost, 234
  125. ^ 125.0 125.1 Troost, 235
  126. ^ Van der Kiste, 251–254
  127. ^ Van der Kiste, 255
  128. ^ Churchill, 30–31
  129. ^ William III. Westminster Abbey Official site. [8 August 2008]. （原始內容存檔於6 January 2008）. 
  130. ^ Israel, 959–960
  131. ^ Israel, 962, 968
  132. ^ Israel, 991–992
  133. ^ Text of the Treaty of Partition. Heraldica. [8 August 2008] （French）. 
  134. ^ 134.0 134.1 Claydon, 3–4
  135. ^ Historical Chronology, 1618–1699. College of William and Mary. [30 July 2008]. （原始內容存檔於15 July 2008）. 
  136. ^ Craton, Michael; Saunders-Smith, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People. University of Georgia Press. 1992: 101. ISBN 0-8203-2122-2. 
  137. ^ 137.0 137.1 History of Nassau County. Nassau County website. [30 July 2008]. 
  138. ^ Norris, Edwin Mark. The Story of Princeton. Little, Brown. 1917: 5–6. 
  139. ^ "The Dutch Under English Rule" The History of North America by Guy Carleton Lee Francis and Francis Newton Thorpe. Published 1904 by G. Barrie & Sons, p. 167

Bibliography

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