干粪燃料
外观
干粪燃料是经过干燥的动物粪便,是一种历史悠久的燃料。虽然它有效的重复利用资源,却会产生空气污染。[1]
优点
[编辑]使用干燥动物粪便的好处包括: [2]
- 廉价
- 高效
- 减少伐木
- 容易取得
- 与其他燃料相比,环境污染更少
- 使动物粪便被安全的处理,而不会污染水源
- 可持续且可再生
各国的传统干粪燃料
[编辑]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Tibet-5874_-_Something_smells_here%21_%282212605065%29.jpg/220px-Tibet-5874_-_Something_smells_here%21_%282212605065%29.jpg)
干动物粪便从史前时期就开始使用,[3]赤道几内亚有考古证据[4] 。圣经中有动物和人类粪便被当作燃料的纪载,[5]已知古波斯、[6]古埃及和近代早期的英格兰都会使用干粪作为燃料。[7]
非洲
[编辑]在埃及,动物粪便(来自牛和水牛)与稻草或农业副产物混合制成的传统干燥燃料称为Gella或Jilla(中世纪时称为khoroshtof)。 [8] 1980年代,包含粪饼在内的传统燃料占埃及农村地区总能源消耗的76.4%。[9]
此外,埃及也使用骆驼粪便作为燃料。
亚洲
[编辑]由畜牧业副产品制成的粪饼(Dung cakes)是印度的一种传统燃料,通常是牛粪或水牛粪,由妇女制造,用于在传统的灶中燃烧以烹饪。通常一块粪饼可提供相当于2100 kJ的能量。
美洲
[编辑]- 美国大平原上的早期欧洲定居者使用干水牛粪作为燃料,称为buffalo chips。
- 普韦布洛人使用干动物粪便作为燃料。
现代技术开发
[编辑]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Yavari_%285690014405%29.jpg/220px-Yavari_%285690014405%29.jpg)
大部分的传统干粪燃料都是来自家畜,不过理论来说,人类粪便也可以当作燃料来源。自2011年以来,比尔及梅琳达·盖茨基金会一直在支持安全收集粪便的厕所开发,以推广更安全、更有效的方法来处理人类排泄物;[10]Omni处理器是使用人类粪便作为燃料源的另一个例子。
空气污染
[编辑]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Volatility_distribution_of_organic_emissions_from_dried_cow_dung_cake_combustion.jpg/220px-Volatility_distribution_of_organic_emissions_from_dried_cow_dung_cake_combustion.jpg)
干粪饼的燃烧已被证明会释放数千种有机成分到气相和气溶胶相中,其中一些是粪便燃烧的独特示踪剂,例如粪甾烷醇。 [11]粪饼一般来说排放较高,且其释放的物质易与羟基自由基反应,从印度德里收集的牛粪饼样本燃烧时释放的挥发性有机化合物比薪材样本多四倍左右,且与羟基自由基的反应性约为液化石油气排放物的120倍。[12]牛粪饼也被证明燃烧时会产生比薪材多3-4倍的二次有机气溶胶,并释放出更多有毒的多环芳烃。 [13]
参考资料
[编辑]- ^ Mudway, Ian S; Duggan, Sean T; Venkataraman, Chandra; Habib, Gazala; Kelly, Frank J; Grigg, Jonathan. Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates. Particle and Fibre Toxicology. 2005, 2 (1): 6. ISSN 1743-8977. PMC 1262769
. PMID 16202154. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-2-6.
- ^ Pyrolysis Processing of Animal Manure to Produce Fuel Gases (PDF). [2012-10-11]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2012-12-03).
- ^ Mlekuž, Dimitrij. The materiality of dung: the manipulation of dung in Neolithic Mediterranean caves. Documenta Praehistorica. 2009, 36: 219–225. ISSN 1854-2492. doi:10.4312/dp.36.14
.
- ^ Picornell Gelabert, Llorenç; Asouti, Eleni; Martí, Ethel Allué. The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 2011, 30 (3): 375–384. ISSN 0278-4165. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2011.05.002.
- ^ The Bible Ezekiel 4:12 And you shall eat it as barley cakes, and you shall bake it with dung that comes out of man. http://bibleapps.com/ezekiel/4-12.htm (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- ^ Miller, Naomi. The use of dung as fuel: an ethnographic example and an archaeological application | Naomi Miller. Paléorient (Academia.edu). 1984-01-01, 10 (2): 71–79 [2012-10-11]. doi:10.3406/paleo.1984.941. (原始内容存档于2023-08-10).
- ^ Fiennes, Celia. Griffiths , 编. Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary. Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C. 1888 [1702] [2023-08-10]. (原始内容存档于2023-08-11).
- ^ Egyptian cities and markets: What's behind a name? - Street Smart - Folk - Ahram Online. English.ahram.org.eg. 2012-06-28 [2012-10-11]. (原始内容存档于2023-08-10).
- ^ Biogas Technology Transfer To Rural Communities in Egypt (PDF). [2012-10-11]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2011-11-23).
- ^ Elisabeth von Muench, Dorothee Spuhler, Trevor Surridge, Nelson Ekane, Kim Andersson, Emine Goekce Fidan, Arno Rosemarin (2013) Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s sanitation grants (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Sustainable Sanitation Practice Journal, Issue 17, pp. 4–10
- ^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Farren, Naomi J.; Hopkins, James R.; Ward, Martyn W.; Swift, Stefan J.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu. Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2021-02-18, 21 (4): 2407–2426 [2023-08-10]. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2407S. ISSN 1680-7316. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021
. (原始内容存档于2023-02-27) (英语).
- ^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Nelson, Beth S.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu; Ahlawat, Sakshi; Yadav, Lokesh; Sharma, Sudhir K. Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from combustion of domestic fuels in Delhi, India. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2021-02-18, 21 (4): 2383–2406 [2023-08-10]. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2383S. ISSN 1680-7316. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021
. (原始内容存档于2023-04-05) (英语).
- ^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Yunus, Siti S. M.; Hewitt, C. Nicholas; Nemitz, Eiko; Mandal, Tuhin K.; Gadi, Ranu; Sahu, Lokesh K. Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India. Environmental Science: Atmospheres. 2021-02-25, 1 (2): 104–117. ISSN 2634-3606. doi:10.1039/D0EA00009D
(英语).