佩科特人
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佩科特人 Pequots | |
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![]() 佩科特博物館展出的馬尚圖克特佩科特戰士 | |
總人口 | |
1620年:16,000 (大約)[1] 1637年:3,000 (大約) | |
分佈地區 | |
東佩科特部落國,燈籠山,北斯托寧頓,康涅狄格州:1,130人 馬尚圖克特佩科特部落或西佩科特人,萊德亞德:350人 | |
語言 | |
歷史上採用佩科特語,莫西干-佩科特語的方言之一 (一種阿爾岡昆語),現在採用英文 | |
宗教信仰 | |
美洲原住民宗教、基督教 "姊妹"民族: |
佩科特人(英語:Pequot,/ˈpiːkwɒt/)[2]是康涅狄格州的美洲原住民。現代佩科特人是聯邦承認的馬尚圖克特佩科特部落、康涅狄格州其他四個獲國家承認的集團和威斯康星州布拉澤敦印第安人的成員。[3]他們在歷史上使用佩科特語,莫西干-佩科特語的方言之一,在20世紀初期已經消亡,儘管有一些正在開展的復興努力。
佩科特人和莫西干人(英語:Mohegan)以前是同一集團,但在17世紀,正當佩科特人在康涅狄格州控制更多地盤,莫西干人分離了。與新英格蘭殖民地之間憋着的緊張局勢導致了1634年-1638年佩科特戰爭,大大削減了佩科特人的人口和影響力;許多成員被殺害、奴役、或者流散。少數佩科特人仍然留在康涅狄格州,分別於1666年和1683年在馬尚圖克特和波卡塔克河獲得保護區;其餘的人就與其他部落居住在其他區域。18世紀,一些佩科特基督徒加入了其他幾個團體的成員,形成布拉澤敦印第安人。他們在19世紀遷往紐約州西部並在後來遷往威斯康星州。[4]
馬尚圖克特佩科特部落成立於1975年,並於1983年得到了聯邦承認以解決土地聲索。1986年,他們建立了福克斯伍茲賭場度假村,美國最成功的美洲原住民賭場之一。[5]波卡塔克河佩科特人形成了東佩科特部落國,這獲康涅狄格州承認但不獲聯邦承認。除此之外,佩科特人的後裔加入了聯邦政府認可的,康涅狄格州的莫西幹部落、薩蒂福克部落國和金山Paugussett印第安國,以及在威斯康星州獲有限度承認的布拉澤敦印第安人。[3]
歷史
[編輯]詞源
[編輯]「佩科特」是一個阿爾岡昆語詞語,語言專家對其含義存在爭議。相當多的學者支持佩科特人的論述,說這個名字來自「Pequttôog」,意思是「破壞者」或「沼澤之人」。弗蘭克·斯佩克是二十世紀早期領先的莫西干-佩科特語專家,而他認為另一個詞更合理,指「淺水」,因為已知佩科特領土是沿着長島海灣海岸線的。[6][7]
一眾歷史學家在爭論佩科特人是否在大約公元1500年從上哈德遜河谷遷向康涅狄格的中部和東部。佩科特人遷到康乃狄克河谷的理論可以追溯到威廉·哈伯德大人(William Hubbard),他於1677年聲稱佩科特人在普利茅斯殖民地建立之前,已經入侵了該區域一段時間,而不是起源於該區域。在菲利普國王戰爭之後,哈伯德在他的著作《Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians in New-England》詳述其中一些新英格蘭的部落對英格蘭人作出殘暴的反應。哈伯德所描述的佩科特人為當地的「外來者」;不是從另一個海岸來的侵略者,而是「來自內陸」的人「用武力奪得鄰海一個適意的地方,並成為他們所有鄰居的惡夢。」[8]
許多現有的考古、語言學和書面證據可以表明,佩科特人不是康涅狄格河谷的侵略者,而是居住了當地數千年的原住民。[9] 到了普利茅斯和馬薩諸塞灣殖民地創立,佩科特人已經在康涅狄格州中部和東部得到了政治上、軍事上和經濟上的主導地位。他們占領了在康涅狄格州奈安蒂克河的奈安蒂克部落和在羅德島州西部的納拉甘西特族之間的沿海地區。有大概16 000佩科特人在新英格蘭南部人口最稠密的居住區。[1]
1616年-1619年間的天花疫情害死了許多新英格蘭東岸的印第安人,但它未能蔓延至佩科特、奈安蒂克和納拉甘西特部落。1633年,荷蘭在哈特福設立了一個貿易站稱為好望屋(the House of Good Hope)。他們因違反協議而處決了佩科特人的首領(sachem)Tatobem。佩科特人支付荷蘭大筆贖金之後,荷蘭人交回Tatobem的遺體。他的繼任人是Sassacus。1633年,疫情毀了當地所有部落,而歷史學家估計佩科特人喪失了80%的人口。在佩科特戰爭爆發時,倖存的佩科特人可能只剩下大約3 000人。[10]
佩科特戰爭
[編輯]1636年,佩科特部落有成員殺害了康涅狄格殖民地的居民,於是引發了戰爭。莫西干人和納拉甘西特部落加入殖民者一方。大約1500佩科特戰士陣亡或被追殺,其他人則被捕,並被分發為奴隸或家庭傭人。一些人逃到長島並加入了當地的莫霍克人和奈安蒂克部落。最後,一些人返回到他們的傳統土地,與留下來的友善佩科特家庭同聚。至於淪為奴隸的人,大多數贈給了盟軍的部落,但被賣去百慕大的也有不少。[11][12]莫西干人極其殘忍地處理他們的佩科特俘虜,以致康涅狄格殖民地的官員最終要帶走他們。1683年,康涅狄格州為佩科特人建立了兩個保護區:在康涅狄格州北斯托寧頓的東佩科特保護區,以及在萊德亞德的西佩科特(或馬尚圖克特佩科特保護區)。
現代歷史
[編輯]1910年的人口普查顯示佩科特人的人口只有66,[13] 而他們在幾十年後達到最低數字。佩科特的人數在1970年代和1980年代增長顯着,尤其是馬尚圖克特佩科特部落,它當時開放了一個賭場,部落主席理查德·海沃德鼓勵了族人返回自己部族的家園。他曾在爭取部落的聯邦承認和經濟發展。[14]
1976年,佩科特人在美州原住民權利基金會(NARF)和印第安權利協會的協助下提出訴訟,針對北斯托寧頓的地主和居民以獲得他們的土地,佩科特人聲稱當地於1856年被康涅狄格州非法出售。提出訴訟之後七年佩科特人和他們達成和解。康涅狄格州立法機構通過了申請聯邦政府給予馬尚圖克特佩科特人部落承認的法案,而《馬尚圖克特佩科特印第安人的土地索求解決法案》獲得國會頒布,並於1983年10月18日由總統羅納德·里根簽署。[15]這法案對授予馬尚圖克特佩科特人部落聯邦承認,使他們能買回在解決法案裡的土地,並讓這些土地在印第安事務局(BIA)的託管下作保護區用途。[16]1986年,他們開了一家博彩機構,然後於1992年開始福克斯伍茲賭場度假村(Foxwoods Resort Casino)的第一階段。賭場的收入支持了文化博物館的開發和興建,並於1998年8月11日在馬尚圖克特佩科特保護區開幕,當地有許多部落成員繼續生活。
東佩科特部落國於2002年獲得承認。自1930年代以來,這兩個佩科特部落已經有嚴重緊張的種族問題,有人認為深色皮膚的後代不應被視為完全佩科特人。兩個東佩科特部落提出申請去尋求BIA的承認,他們同意團結起來以獲得承認。國家立即挑戰這決定,而內政部在2005年撤銷了對他們的承認。同年,它撤消了薩蒂福克人部落在2004年獲得的承認。康涅狄格州政府和議會的代表團反對了BIA的承認,因為當地居民們擔心新承認的部落會建立賭場。
地理
[編輯]有1130成員的東佩科特部落國有一個保護區稱為「燈籠山」(Lantern Hill)。東佩科特部落國獲康乃狄克州承認。
有超過800人的馬尚圖克特佩科特部落或西佩科特在1983年獲得了聯邦承認,並有一個保護區在萊德亞德。
幾乎所有識別為佩科特人的人居住在上述兩個命名的社區。他們是多種族,但確認為佩科特人。沒有部落成員是完全純種的佩科特人。
語言
[編輯]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Holy_Bible_Old_Testament_and_New_Translated_into_the_Indian_Language.jpg/220px-Holy_Bible_Old_Testament_and_New_Translated_into_the_Indian_Language.jpg)
歷史上,佩科特人講莫西干-佩科特語的其中一種方言、一種東阿岡昆語支語言。1637年佩科特戰爭以後締結了《哈特福德條約》,當時殖民者列明講佩科特語是罪行。一代之內,該語言大程度上已經滅絕。東佩科特部落國裡的佩科特人和馬尚圖克特佩科特人用的是英語。
在21世紀,馬尚圖克特佩科特人仔細分析包含佩科特語的歷史文件和比較現存密切相關的語言,正在積極努力地恢復該語言。迄今為止,他們已恢復超過1000個詞,雖然這對於實用語言所需的來說只是很小部分。馬尚圖克特佩科特人在馬斯比萬帕諾亞格人的幫助下已經開始提供語言課程[失效連結] 。萬帕諾亞格人最近發起了「Wôpanâak語言開墾項目」 ((頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館))。參與着該項目的新英格蘭南部印第安社區包括馬斯比萬帕諾亞格、Aquinnah萬帕諾亞格、鯡魚池萬帕諾亞格,以及馬尚圖克特佩科特人。
着名的佩科特人
[編輯]- 威利·德維爾(Willy DeVille,1950年-2009年),搖滾吉他手、作曲家和歌手。佩科特人血統來自外祖母。他於2000年後的作品探討了他的美洲原住民根源
註解
[編輯]參考文獻
[編輯]- ^ 1.0 1.1 Dean R. Snow and Kim M. Lamphear, "European Contact and Indian Depopulation in the Northeast: The Timing of the First Epidemics," Ethnohistory 35 (1988): 16-38.
- ^ Salwen, Bert (1978). "Indians of Southern New England and Long Island: Early Period." In Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger. Vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pg. 175
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Pritzker, Barry (2000) A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples, pp. 656–657. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Pritzker, Barry (2000) A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples, pp. 654–655, 656. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513897-X.
- ^ Jeff Benedict, Without Reservation: The Making of America's Most Powerful Indian Tribe and Foxwoods the World's Largest Casino Hardcover], New York: Harper, 2000, ISBN 978-0060193676
- ^ Frank Speck, "Native Tribes and Dialects of Connecticut: A Mohegan-Pequot Diary", Annual Reports of the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology 43 (1928): 218.
- ^ "The Pequot Relationships, as Indicated by the Events Leading to the Pequot Massacre of 1637 and Subsequent Claims in the Mohegan Land Controversy", Archaeological Society of Connecticut Bulletin 21 (1947): 26-33.
- ^ William Hubbard, The History of the Indian Wars in New England 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel G. Drake, 1845), vol. 2, pp. 6-7.
- ^ For archaeological investigations disproving Hubbard's theory of origins, see Irving Rouse, "Ceramic Traditions and Sequences in Connecticut," Archaeological Society of Connecticut Bulletin 21 (1947): 25; Kevin McBride, "Prehistory of the Lower Connecticut Valley" (Ph.D. diss., University of Connecticut, 1984), pp. 126-28, 199-269; and the overall evidence on the question of Pequot origins in Means, "Mohegan-Pequot Relationships," 26-33. For historical research, refer to Alfred A. Cave, "The Pequot Invasion of Southern New England: A Reassessment of the Evidence," New England Quarterly 62 (1989): 27-44; and for linguistic research, see Truman D. Michelson, "Notes on Algonquian Language," International Journal of American Linguistics 1 (1917): 56-57.
- ^ Refer to Sherburne F. Cook, "The Significance of Disease in the Extinction of the New England Indians," Human Biology 45 (1973): 485-508; and Arthur E. Speiro and Bruce D. Spiess, "New England Pandemic of 1616-1622: Cause and Archaeological Implication," Man in the Northeast 35 (1987): 71-83.
- ^ Lion Gardiner, "Relation of the Pequot Warres," History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent, and Gardiner (Cleveland, 1897), p. 138; Ethel Boissevain, "Whatever Became of the New England Indians Shipped to Bermuda to be Sold as Slaves," Man in the Northwest 11 (Spring 1981), pp. 103-114; and Karen O. Kupperman, Providence Island, 1630-1641: The Other Puritan Colony (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), p. 172.
- ^ Rootsweb: Pequot-Bermudian Reconnection Festival 2002. [2019-07-19]. (原始內容存檔於2008-12-17).
- ^ "Thirteenth Census of the United States taken in the year 1910" United States Bureau of the Census, (Washington, D.C. : Government Printing Office, 1912-1914).
- ^ See Laurence M. Hauptman and James Wherry, eds. The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an Indian Nation (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990); Wayne J. Stein, "Gaming: The Apex of a Long Struggle," Wicazo Sa Review, vol. 13, No. 1. (Spring, 1998), pp. 73-91; Jeff Benedict, Without Reservation: How a Controversial Indian Tribe Rose to Power and Built the World's Largest Casino, Harper Books, 2001; Brett Duval Fromson, Hitting the Jackpot: The Inside Story of the Richest Indian Tribe in History, Grove Press, 2004.
- ^ See Reagan's initial response in "Message to the Senate Returning Without Approval the Mashantucket Pequot Indian Claims Settlement Bill", April 5, 1983, University of Texas. (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- ^ Mashantucket Pequot Indian Claims Settlement Act (1983), S. 366.
- ^ Heller, Louis G. (1961). "Two Pequot Names in American Literature," American Speech 36(1): 54-57
參考書目
[編輯]主要來源
[編輯]- Gardiner, Lion. Leift Lion Gardener his Relation of the Pequot Warres (Boston: [First Printing] Massachusetts Historical Society Collections, 1833).
- Hubbard, William. The History of the Indian Wars in New England 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel G. Drake, 1845).
- Johnson, Edward. Wonder-Working Providence of Sion's Saviour in New England by Captain Edward Johnson of Woburn, Massachusetts Bay. With an historical introduction and an index by William Frederick Poole (Andover, MA: W. F. Draper, [London: 1654] 1867.
- Mason, John. A Brief History of the Pequot War: Especially of the Memorable taking of their Fort at Mistick in Connecticut in 1637/Written by Major John Mason, a principal actor therein, as then chief captain and commander of Connecticut forces; With an introduction and some explanatory notes by the Reverend Mr. Thomas Prince (Boston: Printed & sold by. S. Kneeland & T. Green in Queen Street, 1736).
- Mather, Increase. A Relation of the Troubles which have Hapned in New-England, by Reason of the Indians There, from the Year 1614 to the Year 1675 (New York: Arno Press, [1676] 1972).
- Orr, Charles ed., History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent, and Gardiner (Cleveland, 1897).
- Underhill, John. Nevves from America; or, A New and Experimentall Discoverie of New England: Containing, a True Relation of their War-like Proceedings these two yeares last past, with a figure of the Indian fort, or Palizado. Also a discovery of these places, that as yet have very few or no inhabitants which would yeeld speciall accommodation to such as will plant there . . . By Captaine Iohn Underhill, a commander in the warres there (London: Printed by I. D[awson] for Peter Cole, and are to be sold at the signe of the Glove in Corne-hill neere the Royall Exchange, 1638).
- Vincent, Philip. A True Relation of the late Battell fought in New England, between the English, and the Salvages: VVith the present state of things there (London: Printed by M[armaduke] P[arsons] for Nathanael Butter, and Iohn Bellamie, 1637).
第二手資料來源
[編輯]- Boissevain, Ethel. "Whatever Became of the New England Indians Shipped to Bermuda to be Sold as Slaves," Man in the Northwest 11 (Spring 1981), pp. 103–114.
- Benedict, Jeff. Without Reservation: How a Controversial Indian Tribe Rose to Power and Built the World's Largest Casino. New York: Harper Books, 2001.
- Bradstreet, Howard. The Story of the War with the Pequots, Retold. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1933.
- Cave, Alfred A. "The Pequot Invasion of Southern New England: A Reassessment of the Evidence," New England Quarterly 62 (1989): 27-44.
- ______. The Pequot War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996).
- Cook, Sherburne F. "The Significance of Disease in the Extinction of the New England Indians," Human Biology 45 (1973): 485-508.
- Fromson, Brett Duval. Hitting the Jackpot: The Inside Story of the Richest Indian Tribe in History. Grove Press, 2004.
- Hauptman, Laurence M. and James D. Wherry, eds. The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993.
- Kupperman, Karen O. Providence Island, 1630-1641: The Other Puritan Colony (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
- McBride, Kevin. "The Historical Archaeology of the Mashantucket Pequots, 1637-1900," in Laurence M. Hauptman and James Wherry, eds. Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), pp. 96–116.
- ______. Prehistory of the Lower Connecticut Valley. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1984.
- Means, Carrol Alton. "Mohegan-Pequot Relationships, as Indicated by the Events Leading to the Pequot Massacre of 1637 and Subsequent Claims in the Mohegan Land Controversy," Archaeological Society of Connecticut Bulletin 21 (1947): 26-33.
- Michelson, Truman D. "Notes on Algonquian Language," International Journal of American Linguistics 1 (1917): 56-57.
- Newell, Margaret Ellen. Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015.
- Richter, Daniel K. Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.
- Rouse, Irving. "Ceramic Traditions and Sequences in Connecticut," Archaeological Society of Connecticut Bulletin 21 (1947).
- Oberg, Michael. Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press, 2003).
- Simmons, William S. Spirit of the New England Tribes: Indian History and Folklore, 1620-1984. Dartmouth, NH: University Press of New England, 1986.
- Snow, Dean R. and Kim M. Lamphear. "European Contact and Indian Depopulation in the Northeast: The Timing of the First Epidemics," Ethnohistory 35 (1988): 16-38.
- Spiero, Arthur E., and Bruce E. Speiss. "New England Pandemic of 1616-1622: Cause and Archaeological Implication," Man in the Northeast 35 (1987): 71-83.
- Vaughan, Alden T. "Pequots and Puritans: The Causes of the War of 1637," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd Ser., Vol. 21, No. 2 (Apr., 1964), pp. 256–269; also republished in Roots of American Racism: Essays on the Colonial Experience (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
- _______. New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians 1620-1675. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1980.