User:Discardpath/沙盒

维基百科，自由的百科全书
An inscription dated c. 2130 BCE. "Lugalanatum prince of Umma ... built the E.GIDRU [Sceptre] Temple at Umma, buried his foundation deposit [and] regulated the orders. At that time, Siium was king of Gutum [or Qutum]." (Collection of the Louvre Museum.)

The Guti (/ˈɡuːti/) or Quti, also known by the derived exonyms Gutians or Guteans, were a nomadic people of West Asia, around the Zagros Mountains (Modern Iran) during ancient times. Their homeland was known as Gutium (Sumerian: 𒄖𒌅𒌝𒆠,Gu-tu-umki or 𒄖𒋾𒌝𒆠,Gu-ti-umki).[1][2]

Conflict between people from Gutium and the Akkadian Empire has been linked to the collapse of the empire, towards the end of the 3rd Millennium BCE. The Guti subsequently overran southern Mesopotamia and formed the Gutian dynasty of Sumer. The Sumerian king list suggests that the Guti ruled over Sumer for several generations, following the fall of the Akkadian Empire.[3]

By the 1st Millennium BCE, usage of the name Gutium, by the peoples of lowland Mesopotamia, had expanded to include all of western Media, between the Zagros and the Tigris. Various tribes and places to the east and northeast were often referred to as Gutians or Gutium.[4] For example, Assyrian royal annals use the term Gutians in relation to populations known to have been Medes or Mannaeans. As late as the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia, the famous general Gubaru (Gobryas) was described as the "governor of Gutium".

Origin[编辑]

Little is known of the origins, material culture or language of the Guti, as contemporary sources provide few details and no artifacts have been positively identified.[5] As the Gutian language lacks a text corpus, apart from some proper names, its similarities to other languages are impossible to verify. The names of Gutian-Sumerian kings suggest that the language was not closely related to any languages of the region, including Sumerian, Akkadian, Hurrian, Hittite and Elamite.

W. B. Henning suggested that the different endings of the king names resembled case endings in the Tocharian languages, a branch of Indo-European known from texts found in the Tarim Basin (in the northwest of modern China) dating from the 6th to 8th centuries CE, making Gutian the earliest documented Indo-European language. He further suggested that they had subsequently migrated to the Tarim.[6] Gamkrelidze and Ivanov explored Henning's suggestion, as possibly supporting their proposal of an Indo-European Urheimat in the Near East.[7][8] However, most scholars reject the attempt to connect two groups of languages, Gutian and Tocharian, that were separated by more than two millennia.[9]

History[编辑]

Overview[编辑]

Akkadian soldiers slaying enemies, circa 2300 BC.

Since Gutian appears to have been an unwritten language, for information about the Guti, scholars must rely on external sources – often highly biased texts composed by their enemies. For example, Sumerian sources generally portray the Guti as an "unhappy", barbarous and rapacious people from the mountains – apparently the central Zagros east of Babylon and north of Elam.[10] The period of the Gutian dynasty in Sumer is portrayed as chaotic.

Initially, according to the Sumerian king list, "in Gutium ... no king was famous; they were their own kings and ruled thus for three [or five] years".[11] This may indicate that the Gutian kingship was rotated between tribes/clans, or within an oligarchical elite.

25th to 23rd centuries BCE[编辑]

The Guti appear in texts from Old Babylonian copies of inscriptions ascribed to Lugal-Anne-Mundu (fl. circa 25th century BCE) of Adab as among the nations providing his empire tribute. These inscriptions locate them between Subartu in the north, and Marhashe and Elam in the south. They were a prominent nomadic tribe who lived in the Zagros mountains in the time of the Akkadian Empire.

Sargon the Great (r. circa 2340 – 2284 BCE) also mentions them among his subject lands, listing them between Lullubi, Armanum and Akkad to the north; Nikku and Der to the south. According to one stele, Naram-Sin of Akkad's army of 360,000 soldiers defeated the Gutian king Gula'an, despite having 90,000 slain by the Gutians.

The epic Cuthean Legend of Naram-Sin claims Gutium among the lands raided by Annubanini of Lulubum during the reign of Naram-Sin (c. 2254–2218 BCE).[12] Contemporary year-names for Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad indicate that in one unknown year of his reign, Shar-kali-sharri captured Sharlag king of Gutium, while in another year, "the yoke was imposed on Gutium".[13]

Prominence during the early 22nd century BCE[编辑]

The Gutians capturing a Babylonian city, as Akkadians are making a stand outside their city. 19th century illustration.
参见：Gutian dynasty of Sumer

As the Akkadians went into decline, the Gutians began a campaign, decades-long of hit-and-run raids against Mesopotamia. Their raids crippled the economy of Sumer. Travel became unsafe, as did work in the fields, resulting in famine. The Gutians eventually overran Akkad, and as the King List tells us, their army also subdued Uruk for hegemony of Sumer, in about 2147–2050 BCE. However, it seems that autonomous rulers soon arose again in a number of city-states, notably Gudea of Lagash.

The Gutians seem also to have briefly overrun Elam at around the same time, towards the close of Kutik-Inshushinak's reign (c. 2100 BCE).[14] On a statue of the Gutian king Erridupizir at Nippur, an inscription imitates his Akkadian predecessors, styling him "King of Gutium, King of the Four Quarters".

The Weidner Chronicle (written c. 500 BCE), portrays the Gutian kings as uncultured and uncouth:

Naram-Sin destroyed the people of Babylon, so twice Marduk summoned the forces of Gutium against him. Marduk gave his kingship to the Gutian force. The Gutians were unhappy people unaware how to revere the gods, ignorant of the right cultic practices. Utu-hengal, the fisherman, caught a fish at the edge of the sea for an offering. That fish should not be offered to another god until it had been offered to Marduk, but the Gutians took the boiled fish from his hand before it was offered, so by his august command, Marduk removed the Gutian force from the rule of his land and gave it to Utu-hengal.

Decline from the late 22nd century BCE onwards[编辑]

Utu-Khegal, Prince of the Summerian city of Uruk, praying for victory against the Gutian king Tirigan.

The Sumerian ruler Utu-Khegal, Prince of the Summerian city of Uruk is similarly credited on the King List with defeating the Gutian ruler Tirigan, and removing the Guti from the country in circa 2050 BCE (short chronology).[11]

Following this, Ur-Nammu of Ur ordered the destruction of Gutium. However – according to a Sumerian epic – Ur-Nammu died in battle with the Gutians, after having been abandoned by his own army.

A Babylonian text from the early 2nd millennium refers to the Guti as having a "human face, dogs’ cunning, [and] monkey's build".[4]

Biblical scholars believe that the Guti may be the "Koa" (qôa), named with the Shoa and Pekod as enemies of Jerusalem in Ezekiel 23:23,[15] which was probably written in the 6th Century BCE. Qôa also means "male camel" in Hebrew, and in the context of Ezekiel 23, it may be a deliberate, insulting distortion of an endonym such as Quti.[來源請求]

Physical appearance[编辑]

Barbarian prisoner of the Akkadian Empire, nude, fettered, drawn by nose ring, with pointed beard and vertical braid. 2350-2000 BCE, Louvre Museum.

According to the historian Henry Hoyle Howorth (1901), Assyriologist Theophilus Pinches (1908), renowned archaeologist Leonard Woolley (1929) and Assyriologist Ignace Gelb (1944), the Gutians were pale in complexion and blond. But this was asserted on the basis of assumed broad links to peoples mentioned in the Old Testament.[16][17][18][19] This identification of the Gutians as fair haired first came to light when Julius Oppert (1877) published a set of tablets he had discovered which described Gutian (and Subarian) slaves as namrum or namrûtum, one of its many meanings being "light colored".[20][21] This racial character of the Gutians as light skinned can't be equated to being blond. But yet it was also claimed by Georges Vacher de Lapouge in 1899 and later by historian Sidney Smith in his Early history of Assyria (1928).[22][23]

Ephraim Avigdor Speiser however criticised the translation of namrum as "light colored". An article was published by Speiser in the Journal of the American Oriental Society criticizing Gelb's translation and consequent interpretation.[24] Gelb in response accused Speiser of circular reasoning.[25] In response Speiser claimed the scholarship regarding the translation of namrum or namrûtum is unresolved.[26]

Modern connection theories[编辑]

The historical Guti have been regarded by many scholars as having contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Kurds.[27][28][29][30][31][32] However, Kurds are an Iranian people[33] yet the first known Indo-Iranians in the region were the Mitanni, who established a kingdom in northern Syria five centuries after the fall of Gutium.[34] The Mitanni are believed to have spoken an Indo-Aryan language,[35] or perhaps a pre-split Indo-Iranian language.[36][37] The current view, that the separation of Iranian peoples from Indo-Aryans occurred between 1800 and 1600 BCE, makes it nearly impossible that the Gutians were linguistically or culturally Kurdish.[38]

In the late 19th-century, Assyriologist Julius Oppert sought to connect the Gutians of remote antiquity with the later Gutones (Goths), whom Ptolemy in 150 CE had known as the "Guti", a tribe of Scandia.

Faravahar background
Faravahar background
大伊朗地區歷史
現代國家興起前
現代之前
伊斯蘭之前
俾什达迪王朝 神话时期
凯扬王朝 神话时期
史前（英语：Prehistoric Iran）
埃蘭文明 前3200年－前2800年
埃蘭王朝 前2800年－前550年
吉罗夫特文化（英语：Jiroft culture）
卢卢比人（英语：Lullubi）
古提人
塞尔提亚人（英语：Cyrtian）
科杜内（英语：Corduene）
巴克特里亞-馬爾吉阿納 前2200年－前1700年
馬納王國 前10–前7世紀
米底王國 前728年－前550年
斯基泰王国 前652年–前625年
阿契美尼德王朝 前550年－前330年
塞琉古帝國 前330年－前150年
希腊-巴克特里亚王国 前250年－前125年
帕提亞帝國 前224年－公元248年
公元后
貴霜帝國 30–275年
萨珊王朝 224–651年
阿夫里格王朝 305–995年
嚈噠帝國 425–557年
喀布爾-夏希王朝 565–879年
達布依王朝 642–760年
阿兰王国 8世纪–9世纪–1238/1239年
伊斯蘭
宗法哈里發 637–651年
奧瑪雅哈里發國 661–750年
阿拔斯王朝 750–1258年
塔希爾王朝 821–873年
阿拉菲德王朝 864–928年
薩法爾王朝 861–1003年
薩曼王朝 875–999年
萨吉德王朝 889/890–929年
齊亞爾王朝 928–1043年
白益王朝 934–1055年
萨拉里德王朝 941–1062年
加兹尼王朝 975–1187年
古爾王朝 879–1215年之前
塞爾柱帝國 1037–1194年
花剌子模王朝 1077–1231年
伊兒汗國 1256–1353年
卡爾提德王朝 1231–1389年
莫扎法爾王朝 1314–1393年
丘拜尼王朝 1337–1357年
札剌亦兒王朝 1339–1432年
帖木儿帝国 1370–1506年
黑羊王朝 1407–1468年
白羊王朝 1378–1508年
萨非王朝 1501–1722年
莫臥兒帝國 1526–1857年
漢達基王朝 1722–1729年
阿夫沙爾王朝 1736–1750年
桑德王朝 1750–1794年
杜蘭尼王朝 1794–1826年
卡扎尔王朝 1794–1925年

References[编辑]

  1. ^ ETCSL. The Sumerian King List 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期2010-08-30.. Accessed 19 Dec 2010.
  2. ^ ETCSL. The Cursing of Agade Accessed 18 Dec 2010.
  3. ^ ETCSL - Sumerian king list
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Van De Mieroop, Marc. GUTIANS. Encyclopædia Iranica. [29 March 2012]. 
  5. ^ Patton, Laurie L., et al. (2004) The Indo-Aryan Controversy
  6. ^ Henning, W.B. The first Indo-Europeans in history. Ulmen, G.L. (编). Society and History, Essays in Honour of Karl August Wittfogel. The Hague: Mouton. 1978: 215–230. ISBN 978-90-279-7776-2. 
  7. ^ Gamkrelidze, T.V.; Ivanov, V.V. Первые индоевропейцы на арене истории: прототохары в Передней Азии [The first Indo-Europeans in history: the proto-Tocharians in Asia Minor]. Journal of Ancient History. 1989, (1): 14–39. 
  8. ^ Gamkrelidze, T.V.; Ivanov, V.V. Индоевропейская прародина и расселение индоевропейцев: полвека исследований и обсуждений [Indo-European homeland and migrations: half a century of studies and discussions]. Journal of Language Relationship. 2013, 9: 109–136. 
  9. ^ Mallory, J.P.; Mair, Victor H. The Tarim Mummies. London: Thames & Hudson. 2000: 281–282. ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6. 
  10. ^ Eller, Jack David. Kurdish History and Kurdish Identity. 1999: 153. ISBN 978-0472085385. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 ETCSL - The victory of Utu-ḫeĝal
  12. ^ Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie By Erich Ebling, Bruno
  13. ^ Year-names for Sharkalisharri
  14. ^ Martin Sicker, 2000, The Pre-Islamic Middle East, p. 19,
  15. ^ See, for example, J. D. Douglas & Merrill C. Tenney, 2011, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary (3rd ed.), HarperCollins, p. 1897.
  16. ^ "The Early History of Babylonia", Henry H. Howorth, The English Historical Review, Vol. 16, No. 61 (Jan. 1901), p.32.
  17. ^ The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia, Theophilus Goldridge Pinches, Kessinger Publishing, 2005 (reprint), p. 158
  18. ^ The Sumerians, Leonard Woolley, Clarendon Press, 1929, p. 5.
  19. ^ Hurrians and Subarians, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Gelb, 1944, p.88.
  20. ^ Gelb, 1944, p. 43
  21. ^ Gelb, 1944, p. 88 - further translates a tablet passage as "a light (-coloured) slave girl who is pleasing to your eye."
  22. ^ Der Arier und seine bedeutung für die gemeinschaft, Georges Vacher de Lapouge, M. Diesterweg, 1939.
  23. ^ Early history of Assyria, Vol. 1, 1928, p. 72: "...one notable physical trait the Subaraeans and Gutians shared. Documents of the period of the Babylonian Amorite or First Dynasty mention slaves from Gutium and Subir (that is, Subartu), and specify that they shall be of fair complexion".
  24. ^ Were the ancient Gutians really blond and Indo-Europeans?, JAOS 50 (1930) p.338.
  25. ^ Gelb 1944, p.43: "Speiser's...reaction against the normal interpretation of namrum as 'light (-colored)' was caused by... assumption that Hurrians or Subarians belonged to the Armenoid race, which according to them could hardly be called light-colored".
  26. ^ Hurrians and Subarians, E. A. Speiser, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 68, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1948), p. 12.
  27. ^ Omran Yahya Feili; Arlene R. Fromchuck. Michael Curtis , 编. The Middle East Reader. Transaction Books. 1986: 123. ISBN 9781412837798. 
  28. ^ Jamie Stokes (编). Kurds. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Facts on File. 2009: 380. 
  29. ^ William Linn Westermann. Peoples of the Near East Without a National Future. Council on Foreign Relations. 1944: 8. 
  30. ^ D. P. Erdbrink. Reviewed Work: Türken, Kurden und Iraner seit dem Altertum by E. von Eickstedt. Central Asiatic Journal (Harrassowitz Verlag). 1968, 12 (1): 64–65. JSTOR 41926760. 
  31. ^ Prokhorov, Aleksandr Mikhaĭlovich. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 1982. 
  32. ^ Art and Archaeology. 1931. 
  33. ^ Izady, Mehrdad R. The Kurds: A Concise Handbook. Taylor & Francis. 1992. ISBN 978-0-8448-1727-9. 
  34. ^ M. Mayrhofer, Die Arier im Vorderen Orient – ein Mythos? Sitzungsberichte der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 294,3, Vienna 1974; M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, Heidelberg 1986–2000, vol. IV
  35. ^ M. Mayrhofer, Die Arier im Vorderen Orient – ein Mythos? Sitzungsberichte der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 294,3, Vienna 1974; M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, Heidelberg 1986–2000, vol. IV
  36. ^ Robert Drews, "The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East", Princeton University Press, Chariot Warfare. p. 61
  37. ^ Annelies Kammenhuber, "Die Arier im vorderen Orient" (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universistätsverlag, 1968. p. 238. On p. 238 she indicates they spoke a "noch ungeteiltes Indo-Iranisch".
  38. ^ Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, The Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World. Princeton University Press.

Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics Template:Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia


| title = | status = | image = | image_caption = | image_width = | name = | birthname = | real_name = | CH_calendar_BD = | gender = | timezone = UTC+8 | personality_type= | alignment = | hobbies = | blog = | email = | QQ = | twitter = | subpages = | joined_date = | first_edit = | admin = | custom_header = | custom_label1 = | custom_data1 = | custom_label2 = }}


取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Discardpath/沙盒&oldid=60070945”