User:Longway22/中轉區

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The page is mainly for personal purpose of wikiproject be in the Use.Please Preventing the page from rule of sysops and systems. 本頁面為主筆中轉維基編輯界面，非正式閱覽維基計劃之用途。

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Cossack

The early Cossacks consisted of fallen European aristocrats and nomadic thieves [Note 3], forming autonomous communities with rich river lands, plundering the northern coast of the Black Sea and the Sea of ​​Azov, and eastern Europe. Fighted Islamic forces as a forerunner of the Christian world in.

In the second half of the 16th century, Cossacks were protected by neighboring countries and officially recognized as a corps. Ukraine's Zaporozhian Cossacks became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic, and Don Cossacks became dependent on Russia's Tsardom. However, the two countries often rebelled against the protectorates as they used the Cossacks as a military force and implemented policies to reduce their autonomy and make the Cossacks their own.

The largest rebellions were the Khmelnytsky Rebellion in 1648 and the Razin Rebellion in 1670. The latter ended in the failure of Don Cossacks, and the Don area became Russian territory. The former, on the other hand, created the nation of Zaporozhian Cossacks in Ukraine and promoted the decline of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic. The Kosak nation received Russian protection to maintain independence, but became a shield against the Polish Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire, and the Crimean Khanate, contributing to Russia's strengthening in Eastern Europe.

They inhabited sparsely populated areas in the 第聶伯河、頓河、捷列克河和烏拉爾河流域, and played an important role in the historical and cultural development of both 烏克蘭和俄羅斯。The various Cossack groups were organized along military lines, with large autonomous groups called . Each host had a territory consisting of affiliated villages called 哥薩克村. The Cossack way of life persisted into the twentieth century, though the sweeping societal changes of the 1917年俄國革命 disrupted Cossack society as much as any other part of Russia; many Cossacks migrated to other parts of Europe following the establishment of the Soviet Union, while others remained and assimilated into the Communist state. Cohesive Cossack-based units were organized and fought for both Germany and the Soviet Union during 二戰.

十月革命

俄国白军

古拉格

烏克蘭仍在人間

and many of the Cossack traditions were suppressed during the years of rule under 斯大林 and his successors. During the 经济改革 era in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s, descendants of Cossacks moved to 再活化他們的民族性傳統。

Military Frontier

Background

King Matthias Corvinus's anti-Ottoman defense system in 1500

The Ottoman wars in Europe caused the border of the Kingdom of Hungary – and subsequently that of the Habsburg monarchy – to shift towards the northwest. Much of the old Croatian territory either became Ottoman land or bordered the new Ottoman domain.

In 1435, in an attempt to strengthen the defences against the Ottomans and Venice, King Sigismund founded the so-called tabor, a military encampment, each in Croatia, Slavonia and Usora. In 1463 King Matthias Corvinus founded the banovina of Jajce and Srebrenik, and in 1469 the military captaincy of Senj, modeled after the Ottoman captaincies in the Province of Bosnia. All these actions aimed to improve defence, but ultimately proved unsuccessful. But, they did lead to development of the Pandur infantry and the Hussar cavalry.

Vlachs known as "Martolos" and "Voynuks" were the most dangerous military element under Ottomans, while Vlachs and Serbs which fled from the Ottomans in the 15th century had a similar military tradition which Habsburgs begin to use on their side of the border. They were joined by some Vlachs from Bosnia and thus under the Habsburgs a special system of land ownership and military organization was created ie Military Frontier. This military border was an area of some major war campaigns, but mostly consisted of eternal clashes between the Ottoman Vlachs and the Habsburg Vlachs.

Legacy

Many Serbs emigrated to the north toward the southern regions of Hungary during the period when the territory of Serbia was largely under Ottoman rule. In order to attract Serbs into Hungary, emperor Leopold I decreed that they would be allowed to elect their own ruler, or Vojvoda, from which the name Vojvodina derives. In 1690, about 30,000 to 70,000 Serbs settled eastern Slavonia, Bačka and Banat in what became known as the Great Serbian Migrations. Later the Habsburgs did not allow Serbs to elect their own vojvoda; they incorporated the region into the military frontiers of eastern Slavonia and the Banat. However, the strong Serb presence in the region resulted in Vojvodina serving as the cradle of the Serbian renaissance during the 19th century.

From October 1990, eight months before Croatia declared independence (June 25, 1991) from Yugoslavia, the Serbs who lived in the region of the former Military Frontier (Vojna Krajina) started an insurrection and adopted the name (Krajina) for their unrecognised Republic of Serbian Krajina. The occupied territory was virtually identical to the Military Frontier's territory, however also including some territories that were never a part of former Military Frontier, such as northern Dalmatia with town of Knin. Other territories that had constituted the Military Frontier remained under control of Republic of Croatia. Croatian forces regained control over Serb occupied territories after Operation Storm in 1995 (see the Croatian War of Independence for more information).

Jewish emancipation（german）

Overview

Before Jewish emancipation began in the 18th century, laws supporting Jews were not as common. Poland was an exception. It passed the 卡利什法 in 1264.  There were discussions about the civil integration of Jews in England as early as the beginning of the 18th century. 約翰·托蘭德 wrote Reasons for Naturalizing the Jews in Great Britain and Ireland in 1714.  In 1753, both houses in London approved the Naturalizing Bill, but it had to be withdrawn due to pressure from public opinion.

Human rights granted regardless of religious affiliation became the hallmark of the secularized民族國家 : first in the USA with the 弗吉尼亚权利法案 in 1776, then in France after the 法國大革命 of 1789. On September 27, 1791, 國民議會 proclaimed equal rights for all French Jews人權和公民權宣言. In the German areas under French influence by 拿破崙 , the Jews were unconditionally emancipated,  for example in the 貝格大公國 , in the 威斯特法倫王國及萊茵河左岸地區。

Black Sea

Historical names and etymology

The principal Greek name Póntos Áxeinos is generally accepted to be a rendering of the Iranian word *axšaina- ("dark coloured"). Ancient Greek voyagers adopted the name as Á-xe(i)nos, identified with the Greek word áxeinos (inhospitable). The name Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos (Inhospitable Sea), first attested in Pindar (约475 BC), was considered an ill omen and was euphemized to its opposite, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos (Hospitable Sea), also first attested in Pindar. This became the commonly used designation in Greek, although in mythological contexts the "true" name Póntos Áxeinos remained favoured.

Strabo's Geographica (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often simply called "the Sea" (ὁ πόντος ho Pontos). He thought that the sea was called the "Inhospitable Sea Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos by the inhabitants of the Pontus region of the southern shoreline before Greek colonisation due to its difficult navigation and hostile barbarian natives (7.3.6), and that the name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians colonised the region, bringing it into the Greek world.

Popular supposition derives "Black Sea" from the dark colour of the water or climatic conditions. Some scholars understand the name to be derived from a system of colour symbolism representing the cardinal directions, with black or dark for north, red for south, white for west, and green or light blue for east. Hence "Black Sea" meant "Northern Sea". According to this scheme, the name could only have originated with a people living between the northern (black) and southern (red) seas: this points to the Achaemenids (550–330  BC).

In the Greater Bundahishn, a Middle Persian Zoroastrian scripture, the Black Sea is called Siyābun. In the tenth-century Persian geography book Hudud al-'Alam, the Black Sea is called Georgian Sea (daryā-yi Gurz). The Georgian Chronicles use the name zğua sperisa ზღუა სპერისა (Sea of Speri) after the Kartvelian tribe of Speris or Saspers. Other modern names such as Chyornoye more and Karadeniz (both meaning Black Sea) originated during the 13th century. A 1570 map Asiae Nova Descriptio from Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum labels the sea Mar Maggior (Great Sea), compare Latin mare major.

English writers of the 18th century often used Euxine Sea (/ˈjuːksɪn/ or /ˈjuːkˌsaɪn/). During the Ottoman Empire, it was called either Bahr-e Siyah or Karadeniz, both meaning "Black Sea" in Turkish, with the former consisting of Perso-Arabic .

Another assumption is related to the Turkish. Turkic peoples marked the directions with colours. In ancient Turkish mythology, black represents the north, white represents the west, blue represents the east, red represents the south and yellow represents the center. According to Chinese sources, the horses with red colour in the Xiongnus were in the south, and the black ones were in the north; they sent gray horses to the East and white horses to the West. In Old Uyghur, the north was represented by the qara yılan ("black snake") and the south was the qızıl sagızgan ("red magpie"). When the Turkomans entered Anatolia, the Black Sea was in the north and therefore it was called Kara ("black"); the Mediterranean was in the west (according to the direction of Turkomans entering Anatolia), hence it was named Ak ("white"). (Also the Red Sea was named Red because it was in the south.) Since the Black Sea was controlled mostly by the Turks for centuries, it can easily have been borrowed by other languages in the Black Sea coast. In addition, the emergence of the name coincides with the arrival of the Turks in Anatolia.