新西兰泥蜗：修订间差异

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2018年9月13日 (四) 17:38的版本

  此條目介紹的是the invasive mudsnail Potamopyrgus antipodarum。关于another mud snail from New Zealand，请见「Amphibola crenata」。
New Zealand mudsnail
right side view of Potamopyrgus antipodarum
科学分类 编辑
界： 动物界 Animalia
门： 軟體動物門 Mollusca
纲： 腹足纲 Gastropoda
目： 玉黍螺目 Littorinimorpha
科： 泰特螺科 Tateidae
属： Potamopyrgus Potamopyrgus
种：
New Zealand mudsnail P. antipodarum
二名法
Potamopyrgus antipodarum
異名
  • Amnicola antipodanum 约翰·爱德华·格雷, 1843
  • Amnicola corolla Gould, 1847
  • Hydrobia jenkinsi E. A. Smith, 1889
  • Paludestrina jenkinsi (E. A. Smith, 1889)
  • Potamopyrgus jenkinsi (Edgar Albert Smith（英语：Edgar Albert Smith）, 1889)
  • Potamopyrgus jenkinsi aculeata Overton, 1905
  • Rissoa vana Hutton, 1873
  • Rissoina fuscozona Suter, 1908
  • Rissoina vana (Hutton, 1873)

新西兰泥蜗（學名：Potamopyrgus antipodarum）[3][4]是一個有鳃和口蓋（英语：Operculum (gastropod)）的Tateidae科微小淡水腹足纲软体动物物种。本物種在多個國家或地區已成為了入侵物种，而且其數量已達至舉足輕足的比例。

型態描述

Shells of Potamopyrgus antipodarum f. carinata (left)
and Potamopyrgus antipodarum (right).
Scale bar is 0.5 cm.
A group of mudsnails of all growth sizes from juvenile to adults, compared to an 10美分硬币, which is 18 mm in diameter.

The 手性 (腹足綱) of Potamopyrgus antipodarum is elongated and has dextral coiling. The shell has 7 or 8 whorl (mollusc)（英语：whorl (mollusc)）. Between whorls are deep grooves.

It is an operculum (gastropod)（英语：operculum (gastropod)） snail, with a 'lid' that can seal the opening of its shell. The operculum is thin and corneus with an off-centre nucleus from which paucispiral markings (with few coils) radiate. The aperture (mollusc)（英语：aperture (mollusc)） is oval and its height is less than the height of the spire (mollusc)（英语：spire (mollusc)）.

Some morphs, including many from the Great Lakes, exhibit a keel in the middle of each whorl; others, excluding those from the Great Lakes, exhibit 外殼膜 ornamentation such as spines for anti–predator defense.[5][6][7][8]

Shell colors vary from gray and dark brown to light brown.

The average height of the shell is approximately 5 mm ( in); maximum size is approximately 12 mm ( in). The snail is usually 4–6 mm in length in the 五大湖, but grows to 12 mm in its native range.[5][7][8]

Taxonomy

This species was originally described as Amnicola antipodarum in 1843 by 约翰·爱德华·格雷:

Inhabits New Zealand, in fresh water. Shell ovate, acute, subperforated (generally covered with a brown earthy coat); whorls rather rounded, mouth ovate, axis 3 lines; operculum horny and subspiral: variety, spire rather longer, whorls more rounded. This species is like Paludina nigra of Quoy and Gaimard, but the operculum is more spiral. Quoy described the operculum as concentric, but figured it subspiral. Paludina ventricosa of Quoy is evidently a Nematura.[2]

Forms

  • Potamopyrgus antipodarum f. carinata (J. T. Marshall, 1889)

Distribution

This species was 特有種 to 新西兰. It lives in freshwater streams and lakes in New Zealand and adjacent small islands.[9]

Nonindigenous distribution

New Zealand mudsnail has spread widely and has become 歸化 (生物學) and an 入侵物种 in many areas including: Australia, Tasmania, Asia (Japan,[10] in Garmat Ali River in Iraq since 2008[11]), Europe (since 1859 in England), and North America (USA and Canada: Thunder Bay in Ontario since 2001, British Columbia since July 2007[10]), most likely due to inadvertent human intervention.

Invasion in Europe

Potamopyrgus antipodarum occurs in nearly the whole of Europe. It does not occur in Iceland, Albania, Bulgaria or the former Yugoslavia.[15]

It is considered as about the 42nd the worst alien species in Europe and the second the worst alien gastropod in Europe.[19]

Distribution within the USA

Distribution of Potamopyrgus antipodarum within the USA in 2009.

First detected in the 美国 in 爱达荷州's 斯内克河 in 1987, the mudsnail has since spread to the Madison River（英语：Madison River）, Firehole River（英语：Firehole River）, and other watercourses around 黃石國家公園; samples have been discovered throughout the western United States.[8] Although the exact means of transmission is unknown, it is likely that it was introduced in water transferred with live game fish（英语：game fish） and has been spread by 壓艙水 or contaminated recreational equipment such as wading gear.[20]

The New Zealand mudsnail has no natural predators or parasites in the United States, and consequently has become an invasive species. Densities have reached greater than 300,000 individuals per m² in the Madison River. It can reach concentrations greater than 500,000 per m², endangering the 食物鏈 by outcompeting native snails and water insects for food, leading to sharp declines in native populations.[21] Fish populations then suffer because the native snails and insects are their main food source.

Mudsnails are impressively resilient. A snail can live for 24 hours without water. They can however survive for up to 50 days on a damp surface,[22] giving them ample time to be transferred from one body of water to another on fishing gear. The snails may even survive passing through the digestive systems of fish and birds.[23]

Mudsnails have now spread from Idaho to most western states of the U.S., including 怀俄明州, 加利福尼亚州, 内华达州, 俄勒冈州, 蒙大拿州, and 科羅拉多州. Environmental officials for these states have attempted to slow the spread of the snail by advising the public to keep an eye out for the snails, and bleach or heat any gear which may contain mudsnails. Rivers have also been temporarily closed to fishing to avoid anglers spreading the snails.[24][25]

The snails grow to a smaller size in the U.S. than in their native habitat, reaching 6 mm (¼ in) at most in parts of Idaho, but can be much smaller making them easy to overlook when cleaning fishing gear.

Clonal species like the New Zealand mudsnail can often develop clonal lines with quite diverse appearances, called 多态性 (生物学)s. Until 2005, all the snails found in the western states of the U.S. were believed to be from a single line. However a second morph has been identified in Idaho's Snake River. It grows to a similar size but has a distinctive appearance. (It has been nicknamed the salt-and-pepper mudsnail due to the final whorl being lighter than the rest of the shell.) This morph has apparently been present in the area for several years before being identified correctly as a distinct morph of Potamopyrgus antipodarum. It dominates the typical morph where they overlap, and has a much higher prevalence of males.[26]

In 1991 the New Zealand mudsnail was discovered in 安大略湖,[27] and has now been found in four of the five 五大湖. In 2005 and 2006, it was found to be widespread in Lake Erie.[28] By 2006 it had spread to Twin Ports（英语：Twin Ports） Harbour and the freshwater estuary of the Saint Louis River（英语：Saint Louis River）.[29] It was found to be inhabiting 密歇根湖, after scientists took water 樣品 (物質) in early summer of 2008.[30] The snails in the Great Lakes represent a different line from those found in western states, and were probably introduced indirectly through Europe.[26]

In 2009, the species was discovered in Capitol Lake（英语：Capitol Lake） in Olympia, Washington. The lake has been closed to all public use, including boating and other recreation, since 2009.[31] A heavy cold snap in 2013, combined with a drawdown in water level in preparation, was roughly estimated to have killed 40–60% of the mudsnail population.[32][33]

In 2010, the 洛杉磯時報 reported that the New Zealand mudsnail had infested watersheds in the 聖莫尼卡山, posing serious threats to native species and complicating efforts to improve stream-water quality for the endangered Southern California Distinct Population Segment（英语：Distinct Population Segment） of 虹鱒.[34] According to the article, the snails have expanded "from the first confirmed sample in Medea Creek in 阿古拉山 (加利福尼亚州) to nearly 30 other stream sites in four years." Researchers at the Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission believe that the snails' expansion may have been expedited after the mollusks traveled from stream to stream on the gear of contractors and volunteers.[35]

截至2010年9月21日 (2010-09-21) In Colorado, Boulder Creek and Dry Creek have infestations of New Zealand mudsnails. The snails have been present in Boulder Creek since 2004 and were discovered in Dry Creek in September 2010. Access to both creeks has been closed to help avoid spread of the snails. In the summer of 2015 an industrial-scale wetland rehabilitation project was undertaken in northeast Boulder to rid the area of a mud snail infestation.

Ecology

Habitat

The snail tolerates siltation（英语：siltation）, thrives in disturbed watersheds, and benefits from high nutrient flows allowing for filamentous green algae growth. It occurs amongst macrophytes and prefers littoral（英语：littoral） zones in lakes or slow streams with silt and organic matter substrates, but tolerates high flow environments where it can burrow into the sediment.[5][8][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44]

In the Great Lakes, the snail reaches densities as high as 5,600 per m² and is found at depths of 4–45 m on a silt and sand substrate.[5][7][8]

This species is euryhaline（英语：euryhaline）, establishing populations in fresh and 汽水 (水域). The optimal 鹽度 is probably near or below 5 分率, but Potamopyrgus antipodarum is capable of feeding, growing, and reproducing at salinities of 0–15 ppt and can tolerate 30–35 ppt for short periods of time.[5][8][45][46][47][48]

It tolerates temperatures of 0–34 °C.[5][8][49]

Feeding habits

Potamopyrgus antipodarum is a nocturnal grazer-放牧, feeding on plant and animal detritus（英语：detritus）, epiphytic and periphytic 藻類, sediments and 矽藻s.[5][8][50][51][52][53]

Life cycle

Potamopyrgus antipodarum is 卵胎生 and 单性生殖. This means that they can reproduce 无性生殖; females "are born with developing embryos in their reproductive system." Native populations in New Zealand consist of 染色體倍性 sexual and 同源多倍体 parthenogenically cloned females, as well as sexually functional males (less than 5% of the total population). All introduced populations in North America are clonal, consisting of genetically identical females.[8]

As the snails can reproduce both sexually and asexually, the snail has been used as a model organism for studying the costs and benefits of sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction allows all members of a population to produce offspring and avoids the costs involved in finding mates. However, asexual offspring are 分子選殖, so lack variation. This makes them susceptible to parasites, as the entire clonal population has the same resistance mechanisms. Once a strain of parasite has overcome these mechanisms, it is able to infect any member of the population. Sexual reproduction mixes up resistance genes through 染色體互換 and the random assortment of gametes in 减数分裂, meaning the members of a sexual population will all have subtly different combinations of resistance genes. This variation in resistance genes means no one parasite strain is able to sweep through the whole population. New Zealand mudsnails are commonly infected with 吸蟲綱 parasites, which are particularly abundant in shallow water, but scarce in deeper water. As predicted, sexual reproduction dominates in shallow water, due to its advantages in parasite resistance. Asexual reproduction is dominant in the deeper water of lakes, as the scarcity of parasites means that the advantages of resistance are outweighed by the costs of sexual reproduction.[54]

Each female can produce between 20 and 120 胚胎s.[20] The snail produces approximately 230 young per year. Reproduction occurs in spring and summer, and the life cycle is annual.[5][8][9][48][55][56] The rapid reproduction rate of the snail has caused the numbers of individuals to increase rapidly in new environments. The highest concentration of New Zealand mudsnails ever reported was in 苏黎世湖, 瑞士, where the species colonized the entire lake within seven years to a density of 800,000 per m².[8][57]

Parasites

The parasites of this species include at least 11 species of Trematoda.[8][58] Common parasites of this snail include trematodes of the genus Microphallus（英语：Microphallus）.[8][59][60]

In their native habitat, these parasites sterilize many snails, keeping the populations to a manageable size. However, elsewhere in the world in the absence of these parasites, they have become an invasive pest species.[8]

Other interspecific relationship

Potamopyrgus antipodarum can survive passage through the 消化道 of fish and birds and may be transported by these animals.[23]

It can also float by itself or on mats of Cladophora spp., and move 60 m upstream in 3 months through positive rheotactic behavior.[5] It can respond to chemical stimuli in the water, including the odor of predatory fish, which causes it to migrate to the undersides of rocks to avoid predation.[8][61]

參考文獻

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參看

延伸閱讀

  • Kerans, B. L, M. F. Dybdahl, M. M. Gangloff and J. E. Jannot. 2005. Potamopyrgus antipodarum: distribution, density, and effects on native macroinvertebrate assemblages in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24(1):123–138.
  • Strzelec, M. 2005. Impact of the introduced Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gastropods) on the snail fauna in post–industrial ponds in Poland. Biologia (Bratislava) 60(2):159–163.
  • de Kluijver, M. J.; Ingalsuo, S. S.; de Bruyne, R. H. (2000). Macrobenthos of the North Sea [CD-ROM]: 1. Keys to Mollusca and Brachiopoda. World Biodiversity Database CD-ROM Series. Expert Center for Taxonomic Identification (ETI): Amsterdam, The Netherlands. ISBN 3-540-14706-3. 1 cd-rom.

外部連結

维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源：新西兰泥蜗
分類單元識別碼
取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=新西兰泥蜗&oldid=51271334”