约会强奸:修订间差异

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大部份有關性侵犯的研究都是針對美國白人中產階級家庭的族群。不過非裔及拉丁美洲裔被约会强奸或熟人強姦的比例更高<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Halpern|first=Carolyn Tucker|last2=Spriggs|first2=Aubrey L.|last3=Martin|first3=Sandra L.|last4=Kupper|first4=Lawrence L.|title=Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization from Adolescence to Young Adulthood in a Nationally Representative Sample|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054139X09001219|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=45|issue=5|pages=508–516|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.03.011|pmc=3138151|pmid=19837358|date=November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Leary|first=K. Daniel|last2=Slep|first2=Amy M. Smith|last3=Avery-Leaf|first3=Sarah|last4=Cascardi|first4=Michele|title=Gender Differences in Dating Aggression Among Multiethnic High School Students|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054139X07004351|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=42|issue=5|pages=473–479|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.09.012|pmid=18407042|date=May 2008}}</ref>,而且有其特殊的危險因素<ref>{{Cite journal|last=PhD|first=Audrey Hokoda|last2=BA|first2=Dina B. Galván|last3=PhD|first3=Vanessa L. Malcarne|last4=PhD|first4=Donna M. Castañeda|last5=PhD|first5=Emilio C. Ulloa|date=2007-06-28|title=An Exploratory Study Examining Teen Dating Violence, Acculturation and Acculturative Stress in Mexican-American Adolescents|journal=Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma|volume=14|issue=3|pages=33–49|doi=10.1300/J146v14n03_03|issn=1092-6771}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ulloa|first=Emilio C.|last2=Jaycox|first2=Lisa H.|last3=Marshall|first3=Grant N.|last4=Collins|first4=Rebecca L.|date=2004-06-01|title=Acculturation, gender stereotypes, and attitudes about dating violence among Latino youth|journal=Violence and Victims|volume=19|issue=3|pages=273–287|issn=0886-6708|pmid=15631281|doi=10.1891/vivi.19.3.273.65765}}</ref>。2013年的研究指出非裔(11.5%)及拉丁美洲裔(12.2%)女高中生被性侵的比例較白人女高中生(9.1%)要高<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Eaton|first=Danice K.|last2=Kann|first2=Laura|last3=Kinchen|first3=Steve|last4=Shanklin|first4=Shari|last5=Flint|first5=Katherine H.|last6=Hawkins|first6=Joseph|last7=Harris|first7=William A.|last8=Lowry|first8=Richard|last9=McManus|first9=Tim|date=2012-06-08|title=Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States, 2011|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6104a1.htm|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, D.C.: 2002)|volume=61|issue=4|pages=1–162|issn=1545-8636|pmid=22673000}}</ref>。
大部份有關性侵犯的研究都是針對美國白人中產階級家庭的族群。不過非裔及拉丁美洲裔被约会强奸或熟人強姦的比例更高<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Halpern|first=Carolyn Tucker|last2=Spriggs|first2=Aubrey L.|last3=Martin|first3=Sandra L.|last4=Kupper|first4=Lawrence L.|title=Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization from Adolescence to Young Adulthood in a Nationally Representative Sample|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054139X09001219|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=45|issue=5|pages=508–516|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.03.011|pmc=3138151|pmid=19837358|date=November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Leary|first=K. Daniel|last2=Slep|first2=Amy M. Smith|last3=Avery-Leaf|first3=Sarah|last4=Cascardi|first4=Michele|title=Gender Differences in Dating Aggression Among Multiethnic High School Students|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054139X07004351|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=42|issue=5|pages=473–479|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.09.012|pmid=18407042|date=May 2008}}</ref>,而且有其特殊的危險因素<ref>{{Cite journal|last=PhD|first=Audrey Hokoda|last2=BA|first2=Dina B. Galván|last3=PhD|first3=Vanessa L. Malcarne|last4=PhD|first4=Donna M. Castañeda|last5=PhD|first5=Emilio C. Ulloa|date=2007-06-28|title=An Exploratory Study Examining Teen Dating Violence, Acculturation and Acculturative Stress in Mexican-American Adolescents|journal=Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma|volume=14|issue=3|pages=33–49|doi=10.1300/J146v14n03_03|issn=1092-6771}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ulloa|first=Emilio C.|last2=Jaycox|first2=Lisa H.|last3=Marshall|first3=Grant N.|last4=Collins|first4=Rebecca L.|date=2004-06-01|title=Acculturation, gender stereotypes, and attitudes about dating violence among Latino youth|journal=Violence and Victims|volume=19|issue=3|pages=273–287|issn=0886-6708|pmid=15631281|doi=10.1891/vivi.19.3.273.65765}}</ref>。2013年的研究指出非裔(11.5%)及拉丁美洲裔(12.2%)女高中生被性侵的比例較白人女高中生(9.1%)要高<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Eaton|first=Danice K.|last2=Kann|first2=Laura|last3=Kinchen|first3=Steve|last4=Shanklin|first4=Shari|last5=Flint|first5=Katherine H.|last6=Hawkins|first6=Joseph|last7=Harris|first7=William A.|last8=Lowry|first8=Richard|last9=McManus|first9=Tim|date=2012-06-08|title=Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States, 2011|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6104a1.htm|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, D.C.: 2002)|volume=61|issue=4|pages=1–162|issn=1545-8636|pmid=22673000}}</ref>。


== 影響 ==
研究者認為约会强奸對受害人的影響類似熟人強姦,不過其他人若不認為那是強姦,或沒有認真看待,會使受害人更難恢復<ref name=":0" />。

受害人已認識一段時間,認為可以信任的人,更容易犯下強姦行為。不過有些人由於其認知,他們會有偏見,對約會強姦、受害人及加害者有刻板印象<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Irina|date=2007-03-01|title=What is a typical rape? Effects of victim and participant gender in female and male rape perception|journal=British Journal of Social Psychology|language=en|volume=46|issue=1|pages=225–245|doi=10.1348/014466606X101780|pmid=17355727|issn=2044-8309|url=http://roar.uel.ac.uk/1059/1/Anderson%2C%20I%20%282007%29%20BJSP%2046%20%281%29%20225.pdf}}</ref>,此情形常常會為约会强奸合理化,並且責罵受害人,特別是女性受害者,認為是因為她們的服裝挑逗或是曾經有浪漫關係,才會造成约会强奸的結果<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Barbara E.|last2=Kuck|first2=Douglas L.|last3=Schander|first3=Patricia R.|date=1997-06-01|title=Rape Myth Acceptance and Sociodemographic Characteristics: A Multidimensional Analysis|journal=Sex Roles|language=en|volume=36|issue=11–12|pages=693–707|doi=10.1023/A:1025671021697|issn=0360-0025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lonsway|first=Kimberly A.|last2=Fitzgerald|first2=Louise F.|date=1994-06-01|title=Rape Myths In Review|url=http://pwq.sagepub.com/content/18/2/133|journal=Psychology of Women Quarterly|language=en|volume=18|issue=2|pages=133–164|doi=10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x|issn=0361-6843}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lonsway|first=Kimberly A.|last2=Fitzgerald|first2=Louise F.|title=Attitudinal antecedents of rape myth acceptance: A theoretical and empirical reexamination.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=68|issue=4|pages=704–711|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.68.4.704|year=1995}}</ref>。
{{transh}}
One of the main problems of date rape attributions is the type of relationship that the victim and the offender shared. The more intimate the relationship between both partners, the more probable that witnesses will consider the sexual assault as consensual rather than a serious incident.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monson|first=Candice M.|last2=Byrd|first2=Gary R.|last3=Langhinrichsen-Rohling|first3=Jennifer|date=1996-09-01|title=To Have and to Hold Perceptions of Marital Rape|url=http://jiv.sagepub.com/content/11/3/410|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|language=en|volume=11|issue=3|pages=410–424|doi=10.1177/088626096011003007|issn=0886-2605}}</ref>
{{transf}}
==相關條目==
==相關條目==
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*{{link-en|強姦的形式|Types of rape}}
*{{link-en|強姦的形式|Types of rape}}
*{{le|灰色強姦|Gray rape}}
*{{le|灰色強姦|Gray rape}}

==參考資料==
==參考資料==
{{Reflist|35em}}
{{Reflist|35em}}

2019年2月14日 (四) 15:53的版本

约会强奸(Date rape)也稱為約會強暴,是熟人強姦英语acquaintance rape的一種,這二個詞語有時會互換使用,但约会强奸多半是指雙方已有或曾有浪漫關係,或是已有肢體親密,有可能會進行性行為(也有可能是已進行過性行為)的情形。而熟人強姦也包括雙方沒有浪漫關係,也不預期會進行性行為的情形,例如同事或是鄰居[1][2][3][4][5][6]。约会强奸特別常出現在大學校園,有時是在有酒類或是其他约会强奸藥物的場合[7],因此也是藥物性侵英语drug-facilitated sexual assault(DFSA)。

若將约会强奸的「约会」泛指預先約定時間地點會面,但约会强奸也可以指在社交場合發生的強姦,加害者也可能是互聯網網友[8][9][10]。以下的內容主要是以雙方已有或曾有浪漫關係的约会强奸為主。

簡介

约会强奸是熟人強姦英语acquaintance rape的一種,在發生性侵害時,兩人已有或曾有浪漫關係,或是有可能會進行性行為的情形。但加害者以肢體或是心理的威脅下讓受害者在違背其意願下進行性行為,或是用酒類或是藥物,讓受害者無法表達其意願的情形下進行性行為[11]。依照美國美国司法统计局(BJS)的資料,约会强奸的案例比其他種類的強姦要多[12]。约会强奸常發生在大學生,可能有配合酒類飲料或是约会强奸藥物,以降低其難度。十六歲到二十四歲的女性是目標群體之一[13][14]

在大部份的约会强奸中,加害者和被害人彼此認識[15],有一個研究發現,有84%约会强奸(或是约会强奸未遂)的被害人之前就認識加害者[16]。不過「约会强奸」是比較新的概念。在歷史上,曾認為约会强奸沒有比被陌生人强奸來的嚴重,但自1980年代起,在一些國家中约会强奸成為主要的強姦類型,因此也開始意識到這是嚴重的社會問題。不過也有些有關约会强奸的爭議,有些人認為大家過份的關注此問題,而且大部份约会强奸的「被害人」其實願意進行性行為,並且有表示同意。也有些人認為约会强奸被嚴重低估了,所有聲稱被约会强奸的被害人都是在無意願下進行性行為的受害者 [16]。一般而言,社會大眾會認為被認識的人強迫發生性行為,比較不可信,也沒有比被陌生人强姦要嚴重[17],而兩人曾有浪漫關係,或是有可能會進行性行為的情形,又比較不容易認定有约会强奸的事實。

美國研究者Mary Koss認為约会强奸是特殊的熟人強姦,兩人有某種程度的浪漫關係,若雙方同意的話,是有可能進展到性行為的[18]。熟人強姦的範圍較廣,兩人的關係可能是僱主及員工、房東及房客、服務提供者及消費者、司機及乘客,也有可能是鄰居或是親屬。《The Encyclopedia of Murder and Violent Crime》定義约会强奸是"rape occurring during a prearranged social engagement"[19]

美國法律理論家和經濟學家理查德·A·波斯纳,在1992年出版的《性與理性英语Sex and Reason》書中,有提到對於约会强奸的越來越多關注,也表示美國社會中女性地位的改變,他提到約會是現代社會中的一個特徵,若社會的性道德是在放縱及抑制當中變化的話,可預期社會上會出現约会强奸的情形[20]。Sara Alcid在2013年的文章《Navigating Consent: Debunking the "Gray Area" Myth》中,她認為大眾已錯誤的將約會視為是「會永久性同意發生性行為」的情境[21]

受害人

研究者Mary Koss認為受害人的年齡集中在十六歲至二十四歲[16]

雖然一般認為约会强奸是有傷害性、破壞性、會改變一生的經驗,但Mufson和Kranz的研究發現[22]缺乏支持是受害人無法復原的一個重要因素。他們會拒絕透露有關加害者的資訊,特別是他們曾經歷過约会强奸或熟人強姦,且感受羞辱和自責的情緒[23][24]

不過,有些情境是讓受害人可以求助,並且讓大家知道加害者的資訊。可能會因為希望不要再有其他人受害,而願意揭露加害者的資訊,也就是將事情說出來。另外,有關受害人身邊人們的關切也可能讓加害者自願認罪,或是加害者因為喝酒而大意說出實情[25]

少數族群的受害人

大部份有關性侵犯的研究都是針對美國白人中產階級家庭的族群。不過非裔及拉丁美洲裔被约会强奸或熟人強姦的比例更高[26][27],而且有其特殊的危險因素[28][29]。2013年的研究指出非裔(11.5%)及拉丁美洲裔(12.2%)女高中生被性侵的比例較白人女高中生(9.1%)要高[30]

影響

研究者認為约会强奸對受害人的影響類似熟人強姦,不過其他人若不認為那是強姦,或沒有認真看待,會使受害人更難恢復[16]

受害人已認識一段時間,認為可以信任的人,更容易犯下強姦行為。不過有些人由於其認知,他們會有偏見,對約會強姦、受害人及加害者有刻板印象[31],此情形常常會為约会强奸合理化,並且責罵受害人,特別是女性受害者,認為是因為她們的服裝挑逗或是曾經有浪漫關係,才會造成约会强奸的結果[32][33][34]

相關條目

參考資料

  1. ^ Dziuba-Leatherman, Jennifer. Acquaintance and Date Rape: An Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood. 1994: 1. ISBN 978-0313291494. 
  2. ^ Horvath, Miranda. Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. Willan. 2011: 117. ISBN 978-1843925194. 
  3. ^ Belgrave, Faye Z. African American Psychology: From Africa to America. SAGE Publications. 2013: 501. ISBN 978-1412999540. 
  4. ^ Parrot, Andrea. Coping With Date Rape and Acquaintance Rape. Rosen Publishing Group. 1998: 30. ISBN 978-0823928613. 
  5. ^ Wiehe, Vernon R. Intimate Betrayal: Understanding and Responding to the Trauma of Acquaintance Rape. SAGE Publications. 1995: 3–4. ISBN 978-0803973619. 
  6. ^ Kaminker, Laura. Everything You Need to Know About Dealing With Sexual Assault. Rosen Pub Group. 2002: 16–18. ISBN 978-0823933037. 
  7. ^ Smith, Merril D. The Encyclopedia of Rape. Greenwood. 2004: 54. ISBN 978-0313326875. 
  8. ^ 性侵害知多少_約會強暴. scc.yuntech.edu.tw. [2017-03-05]. 
  9. ^ 約會強暴IQ大考驗. www.cute.edu.tw. [2017-03-05]. 
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  11. ^ Baumeister, Roy F. Encyclopedia of Social Psychology. 217–218: SAGE Publications. 2007: 217. ISBN 978-1412916707. 
  12. ^ Hammond, Elizabeth M.; Berry, Melissa A.; Rodriguez, Dario N. The influence of rape myth acceptance, sexual attitudes, and belief in a just world on attributions of responsibility in a date rape scenario. Legal and Criminological Psychology. 2011-09-01, 16 (2): 242–252. ISSN 2044-8333. doi:10.1348/135532510X499887 (英语). 
  13. ^ Loiselle, Marci; Fuqua, Wayne R. Alcohol's effects on women's risk detection in a date-rape vignette. Journal of American College Health. 2007-04-01, 55 (5): 261–266. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.494.4194可免费查阅. ISSN 0744-8481. PMID 17396398. doi:10.3200/JACH.55.5.261-266. 
  14. ^ Frintner, Mary Pat; Rubinson, Laurna. Acquaintance Rape: The Influence of Alcohol, Fraternity Membership, and Sports Team Membership. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy. 1993-12-01, 19 (4): 272–284. ISSN 0161-4576. doi:10.1080/01614576.1993.11074089. 
  15. ^ Smith, Merril D. Encyclopedia of Rape. Greenwood Press. 2004: 55. ISBN 978-0313326875. 
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Kuersten, Ashlyn K. Women and the Law: Leaders, Cases, and Documents. ABC-CLIO. 2003: 143–144. ISBN 978-0874368789. 
  17. ^ Ward, Colleen. Attitudes toward Rape: Feminist and Social Psychological Perspectives (Gender and Psychology series). SAGE Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-0803985940. 
  18. ^ Moorti, Sujata. Color of Rape: Gender and Race in Television's Public Spheres. New York: State University of New York Press. 2001: 48. ISBN 978-0791451335. 
  19. ^ Hickey, Eric W. The Encyclopedia of Murder and Violent Crime. SAGE Publications. 2003: 388. ISBN 978-0761924371. 
  20. ^ Posner, Richard. Sex and Reason. Harvard University Press. 2002: 387. ISBN 978-0674802797. 
  21. ^ Alcid, Sara. Navigating Consent: Debunking the "Gray Area" Myth. everydayfeminism.com. Everyday Feminism. 4 January 2017 [2 June 2018]. 
  22. ^ Mufson, Susan C. S. W.; Kranz, Rachel. Straight Talk About Date Rape. New York, NY, USA: Checkmark Books. 1997-08-01. ISBN 9780816037520 (English). 
  23. ^ Rape in America: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 1995-06-01. ISBN 9780874367300 (English). 
  24. ^ Koss, Mary P.; Dinero, Thomas E.; Seibel, Cynthia A.; Cox, Susan L. Stranger and Acquaintance Rape: Are There Differences In the Victim's Experience?. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1988-03-01, 12 (1): 1–24. ISSN 0361-6843. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1988.tb00924.x (英语). 
  25. ^ Dunn, P. C.; Vail-Smith, K.; Knight, S. M. What date/acquaintance rape victims tell others: a study of college student recipients of disclosure. Journal of American College Health. 1999-03-01, 47 (5): 213–219. ISSN 0744-8481. PMID 10209915. doi:10.1080/07448489909595650. 
  26. ^ Halpern, Carolyn Tucker; Spriggs, Aubrey L.; Martin, Sandra L.; Kupper, Lawrence L. Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization from Adolescence to Young Adulthood in a Nationally Representative Sample. Journal of Adolescent Health. November 2009, 45 (5): 508–516. PMC 3138151可免费查阅. PMID 19837358. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.03.011. 
  27. ^ O'Leary, K. Daniel; Slep, Amy M. Smith; Avery-Leaf, Sarah; Cascardi, Michele. Gender Differences in Dating Aggression Among Multiethnic High School Students. Journal of Adolescent Health. May 2008, 42 (5): 473–479. PMID 18407042. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.09.012. 
  28. ^ PhD, Audrey Hokoda; BA, Dina B. Galván; PhD, Vanessa L. Malcarne; PhD, Donna M. Castañeda; PhD, Emilio C. Ulloa. An Exploratory Study Examining Teen Dating Violence, Acculturation and Acculturative Stress in Mexican-American Adolescents. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma. 2007-06-28, 14 (3): 33–49. ISSN 1092-6771. doi:10.1300/J146v14n03_03. 
  29. ^ Ulloa, Emilio C.; Jaycox, Lisa H.; Marshall, Grant N.; Collins, Rebecca L. Acculturation, gender stereotypes, and attitudes about dating violence among Latino youth. Violence and Victims. 2004-06-01, 19 (3): 273–287. ISSN 0886-6708. PMID 15631281. doi:10.1891/vivi.19.3.273.65765. 
  30. ^ Eaton, Danice K.; Kann, Laura; Kinchen, Steve; Shanklin, Shari; Flint, Katherine H.; Hawkins, Joseph; Harris, William A.; Lowry, Richard; McManus, Tim. Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States, 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, D.C.: 2002). 2012-06-08, 61 (4): 1–162. ISSN 1545-8636. PMID 22673000. 
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外部連結