討論:中國發明

Untitled

看了英文頁面再來看這個頁面，覺得很汗！—以上未簽名的留言由Leaflucy（對話｜貢獻）於2008-12-28T16:51:18加入。

列表的排序問題

本條目似乎翻譯自英文版，但是條目內容應該重新整理，用英文名首字母排序對中文用戶很不方便 ——Albus Ecneics (自由言論) 2010年3月21日 (日) 05:25 (UTC)

先等我翻完吧。排版是小事，還有其他只能繞過的技術問題。--Zanhsieh (留言) 2010年3月30日 (二) 04:20 (UTC)

四大發明

本條目中關於四大發明的內容比四大發明條目還詳細，建議將主要內容合併到四大發明，讓本條目更符合維基百科:摘要格式——Albus Ecneics (自由言論) 2010年3月21日 (日) 05:34 (UTC)

(＋)支持，不過還是請留下部分敘述供參考。—安可(居住地：酒館-職業：詩與歌之演者) ~更新日期： 2010年7月14日 (三) 14:44 (UTC)

(＋)支持，應該留下部分敘述如英文維基百科。Srzh2 (留言) 2010年10月27日 (三) 11:43 (UTC)

部分遺漏項目

• （已翻譯）Tuned bells: The earliest complete set of tuned bells, sixteen in all, were found in Tomb 8 of Marquis Su of Jin at Qucun, southern Shanxi. A 355-character inscription on all sixteen bells collectively describes Marquis Su's participation in a military campaign led by the Zhou king. The tomb has been dated by AMS radiocarbon techniques to 815–786 BC. Tuned bells which could produce two precise musical pitches (if struck at the center or struck on one side near the edge) existed in China during the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). Of the sixty-four bronze bells found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng interred by 433 BC, forty-seven of them produce two notes with minor third intervals while sixteen produce two notes with major third intervals. Metal bells in China had their origins in metal grain scoops and measures; after the 6th century BC, the entire ancient Chinese system of measurement in standard length, width, weight, and volume was based on musical pitches of the tuned zhong vessel weighing 120 catties, as described in the Guoyu. A 2.1 m (7 ft) long stringed tuner known as a jun was used to gauge the standard measure of length of the metal zhong. Bells in ancient China served essentially as tuning forks in a standard set of twelve bells (one for each note), which were eventually replaced by twelve pitch pipes (easier to manufacture). In order to craft properly-tuned bells, a set of conditions had to be met: specific proportions of different metals in the alloy; elasticity and thickness of material; the specific gravity; diameters at different points; the contours of the bells' curves; the temperature reached in casting the bell and the cooling rate, etc.
• （已翻譯）Cardinal direction, use of colors for: In ancient China, the use of five different soil colors corresponding to the four cardinal directions were used in construction of altars and mounds. The earliest archaeologial evidence of such example comes from a Spring and Autumn Period (722–481 BC) burial site located at Shuangdun, Anhui. The mentions of the "five colors" are recorded in the Shujing and Zuozhuan, while the earliest information on correlative colors associated with each four cardinal directions and center; east (blue), south (red), west (white), north (black) and center (yellow), comes from the Kaogongji, an independent work complied in the Warring States Period (403–221 BC) before being attached to the Rites of Zhou in place of the original missing section "Winter Office" (lost in its entirety) by the mid 2nd century BC.
• 卡瓦列里原理/祖暅原理：本數學原理，描述了所有等高處橫截面積相等的兩個同高立體，其體積也必然相等。在西方該原理是以意大利數學家博納文圖拉·卡瓦列里（1598-1647年）之名所命名，但它最早於漢朝（前202-後220年）《九章算術》（最晚於179年成書）一書所描述，並由魏朝（220-265年）數學家劉徽所評註。
• Chinese remainder theorem: The Chinese remainder theorem, including simultaneous congruences in number theory, was first created by the mathematician Sunzi in the 3rd century AD, whose Mathematical Classic by Sun Zi (孫子算經, Sunzi suanjing) posed the problem: "There is an unknown number of things, when divided by 3 it leaves 2, when divided by 5 it leaves 3, and when divided by 7 it leaves a remainder of 2. Find the number." This method of calculation was used in calendrical mathematics by Tang Dynasty (618–907) mathematicians such as Li Chunfeng (602–670) and Yi Xing (683–727) in order to determine the length of the "Great Epoch", the lapse of time between the conjunctions of the moon, sun, and Five Planets (those discerned by the naked eye). Thus, it was strongly associated with the divination methods of the ancient Yijing. Its use was lost for centuries until Qin Jiushao (c. 1202–1261) revived it in his Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections of 1247, providing constructive proof for it.
• （已翻譯）Coin, knife and spade-shaped: Robert S. Wicks states that the cowry shell was used as a primitive form of currency during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–c. 1050 BC). During the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC) the use of bronze coins in various shapes and sizes, such as circular coins with either a rounded or square hole in the center (to fit a string through), came into general use. The knife-shaped and spade-shaped coins, styles unique to China, also came into use during the Zhou period; as proven by archaeological excavations, these coin were common in the State of Yan, State of Qi, State of Zhao, State of Han, State of Chu, State of Liang, and State of Qin, with dates ranging from the Spring and Autumn Period (722–481 BC) to the Warring States Period (403–221 BC). The historian Sima Qian (145–86 BC) in his Records of the Grand Historian (91 BC) wrote that in ancient times, tortoise shells, cowry shells, knives, and gold were used as forms of currency.
• Decimal fractions: As proven by inscriptions from the 13th century BC, the decimal system existed in China since the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–c. 1050 BC). The earliest evidence of a decimal fraction, where the fraction's denominator is a power of ten, appears on an inscription of a standard measure of volume used by the mathematician and astronomer Liu Xin (c. 46 BC–23 AD), dated precisely 5 AD. The first significant piece of Chinese literature to feature decimal fractions was the The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. This text was first mentioned in 179 AD, although Liu Hui (fl. 3rd century AD) asserts that some of its material predates the infamous Qin book burning in 213 BC (i.e. older than the oldest surviving Chinese mathematical treatise, the Book on Numbers and Computation, 202–186 BC). Liu Hui used decimal fractions with measurements and as solutions to equations. At first decimal fractions were written in word form, since it was Han Yan (fl. late 8th century) of the Tang Dynasty (607–907) who first used modern decimal notation to write out decimal fractions. Decimal fractions were vital to the work of Song (960–1279) mathematicians such as Yang Hui (1238–1298) and Qin Jiushao (c. 1201–1261). Jamshīd al-Kāshī (1380–1429), director of the astronomical observatory at Samarkand, adopted the use of decimal fractions; they were first mentioned in Europe by Christoff Rudolff of Augsburg in his Exempel-Buechlin of 1530, yet not given serious attention until the 1585 work of the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin (1548–1620).
• 八股文：八股文是過去有志考入朝廷參政之科舉應試書生必須熟練的一種文體。而八股文其名得自其分成八部份的架構：破題、承題、起講、起股、中股、後股、束股、以及大結。它最早是由北宋（960-1279年）宰相王安石（1021-1086年）變法時啟用，並沿用至明（1368-1644年）、清（1644-1912年）兩代。在科舉考試中，每名應考人需為《四書》（依朱熹集註）寫三篇、依《五經》古體寫四篇八股文。
• （不譯，已經由台灣大學教授證明是李約瑟本人誤判）Endocrinology, isolation of sex and pituitary hormones from urine: A group of leading scholars under Liu An (179–122 BC), a King of Huainan during the Western Han (202 BC–9 AD), compiled the Huainanzi by 139 BC, which coined the phrase 'autumn minerals' for crystals similar to hoar-frost of autumn and that had "white color and solidity." In 25 BC, the minister Gu Yong gave a speech to the court railing against magicians, Daoists, and alchemists, saying of Daoists: "from dark and muddy [that is, concentrated] urine they can make a hard white ice-like [crystalline] substance." The Tang Dynasty (618–907) poet Bai Juyi (722–846) mentioned that his poet friend Yuan Zhen (779–831) had prepared the 'autumn mineral' drug for his illness. The first explicit recipe for making the 'autumn mineral' is found in Song Dynasty (960–1279) author Zhang Shengdao's Valuable Tried and Tested Prescriptions of 1025, with ten other recipes found in thirty-nine other books between then and 1833. The oldest recipe mentioned called for 568 liters (150 gallons) of male urine to be placed in a giant evaporating pan with an earthenware still mounted on the top. After heating, a dry, powdered residue could be obtained, which was then heated over a stove of charcoal to achieve sublimation; the product of this, only 85 g (3 oz), was ground into a powder, mixed with the skin of palm dates, and made into pills the size of mung beans. Another process published in 1110 specified the use of gypsum (containing calcium sulfate) as well as saponin from the beans of Gleditschia sinensis to extract hormones from urine, a process of using natural soaps which was not discovered elsewhere until the use of digitonin by Adolf Windaus (1876–1959) in 1909. In 1927, Selmar Ascheim (1878–1965) and Bernhard Zondek (1891–1966) discovered that urine of pregnant women had a high concentration of steriod sex hormones; a subsequent discovery was made that urine contained sex hormones of androgens and estrogens, as well as the pituitary hormone gonadotrophin. In modern medicine, the extraction of these hormones from urine is a standard practice, yet centuries before this the Chinese had used it to treat hypogonadism, impotence, spermatorrhea, dysmenorrhea, leukorrhea, and even stimulating the growth of beards (since they knew that castration resulted in the loss of ability to grow a beard).
• Equal temperament: During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), the music theorist and mathematician Jing Fang (78–37 BC) extended the 12 tones found in the 2nd century BC Huainanzi to 60. While generating his 60-divisional tuning, he discovered that 53 just fifths is approximate to 31 octaves, calculating the difference at ${\tfrac {177147}{176776}}$; this was the exact same value for 53 equal temperament calculated by the German mathematician Nicholas Mercator (c. 1620–1687) as 3⁵³/2⁸⁴, a value known as Mercator's Comma. The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) music theorist Zhu Zaiyu (1536–1611) elaborated in three separate works beginning in 1584 the tuning system of equal temperament; in an unusual event in music theory's history, the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin (1548–1620) discovered the mathematical formula for equal temperament at roughly the same time (within 1 to 25 years of Zhu), yet he did not publish his work and it remained unknown until 1884; therefore, it is debatable who discovered equal temperament first, Zhu or Stevin. In order to obtain equal intervals, Zhu divided the octave (each octave with a ratio of 1:2, which can also be expressed as 1:2^12/12) into twelve equal semitones while each length was divided by the 12th root of 2. He did not simply divide the string into twelve equal parts (i.e. 11/12, 10/12, 9/12, etc.) since this would give unequal temperament; instead, he altered the ratio of each semitone by an equal amount (i.e. 1:2 ^11/12, 1:2^10/12, 1:2^9/12, etc.) and determined the exact length of the string by dividing it by ¹²√2 (same as 2^1/12). The Harmonie Universelle (1636) written by Marin Mersenne (1588–1648) was the first publication in Europe outlining equal temperament, a new system of tuning that was passionately defended by J.S. Bach (1685–1750) in his Well-Tempered Clavier of 1722.
• Flare, military signalling: The earliest recorded use of a flare for signalling purposes was the 'signal bomb' used by the Song Dynasty (960–1279) Chinese as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) besieged Yangzhou in 1276. These soft-shelled bombs, timed to explode in mid-air and perhaps producing a vibrant colored burst like contemporary Chinese fireworks produced, were used to send messages to a detachment of troops far in the distance.
• Gaussian elimination: First published in the West by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) in 1826, the algorithm for solving linear equations known as Gaussian elimination is named after this Hanoverian mathematician, yet it was first expressed as the Array Rule in the Chinese Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, written at least by 179 AD during the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) and commented on by the 3rd century mathematician Liu Hui.
• Horner scheme: Although named after English mathematician William George Horner (1786–1837), the Horner scheme, an algorithm used to estimate the root of an equation and evaluate polynomials in monomial form, was actually first invented in China to find the cube root of the number 1,860,867 (the answer given being 123). This is found in the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) work The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, commmented on by Liu Hui (fl. 3rd century) in 263 AD. The original Nine Chapters found the root of equations through continued fractions, just like the later Italian mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813), while Liu Hui achieved this by increasing decimals, just like William George Horner in his work of 1819.
• （已翻譯）Map, economic: A set of seven geographical maps from the State of Qin, dated to the 4th century BC during the Warring States Period (403–221 BC), display a region centered around the Jialing River. Mei-ling Hsu writes that since two of these maps feature labeled sites where timber was gathered and the measured distances between these timber sites, they can be viewed as economic maps. These predate the economic maps of the Roman geographer Strabo (c. 64 BC–c. 24 AD).
• 最早印刷地圖：一如在中國考古發掘所證明，已知最早的中國地圖是在前四世紀，由秦朝製圖家所繪，然而中國最早印刷地圖，要一直到宋朝（960-1279年）才出現。該《十五國風地理之圖》由博物學家楊甲所編，收錄於1155年成書的《六經圖》中。
• （已翻譯）Military strategy treatise: The earliest known book on military strategy, The Art of War, was written by Sun Wu (c. 544–496 BC), better known as Sunzi ("Master Sun"), during the 6th century BC. The earliest known reference to Sunzi was in the 2nd century BC text of the Huainanzi (compiled no later than 122 BC), while a biography of Sunzi was featured in Sima Qian's (c. 145–86 BC) Records of the Grand Historian compiled from 109 to 91 BC. The oldest known copy of Sunzi's Art of War (on bamboo strips) was found in a 1972 archaeological excavation at Mount Yinque (near Linyi, Shandong) of a Western Han (202 BC–9 AD) tomb dated c. 140–118 BC. The oldest version of another famous Art of War by Sunzi's descendant Sun Bin (d. 316 BC) was also found in the same tomb.

• Pagoda, hybrid of the stupa and que tower: The pagoda, a Buddhist monument where sacred relics are housed, was first developed in ancient India as a dome-like structure with a circular base commonly referred to as the stupa. After Buddhism spread to China during the Eastern Han (25–220 AD) period, the Chinese adopted this idea of a religious structure to house sacred Buddhist relics, yet they sinicized its design by fusing it with the design of the square-based que tower, a common building type in traditional Chinese architecture. The unique Chinese pagoda thus became a multi-storied tower rather than an elongated dome-like structure as seen in the original stupa.
• Pi calculated as ${\tfrac {355}{113}}$: The ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Indians, and Greeks had long made approximations for π by the time the Chinese mathematician and astronomer Liu Xin (c. 46 BC–23 AD) improved the old Chinese approximation of simply 3 as π to 3.1547 as π (with evidence on vessels dating to the Wang Mang reign period, 9–23 AD, of other approximations of 3.1590, 3.1497, and 3.1679). Next, Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) made two approximations for π, by proportioning the celestial circle to the diameter of the earth as ${\tfrac {736}{232}}$ = 3.1724 and using (after a long algorithm) the square root of 10, or 3.162. In his commentary on the Han Dynasty mathematical work The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, Liu Hui (fl. 3rd century) used various algorithms to render multiple approximations for pi at 3.142704, 3.1428, and 3.14159. Finally, the mathematician and astronomer Zu Chongzhi (429–500) approximated pi to an even greater degree of accuracy, rendering it ${\tfrac {355}{113}}$, a value known in Chinese as Milü ("detailed ratio"). This was the best rational approximation for pi with a denominator of up to four digits; the next rational number is ${\tfrac {52163}{16604}}$, which is the best rational approximation. Zu ultimately determined the value for π to be between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927. Zu's approximation was the most accurate in the world, and would not be achieved elsewhere for another millennium, until Madhava of Sangamagrama and Jamshīd al-Kāshī in the early 15th century.

• Rudder, stern-mounted and vertical axial: Lawrence V. Mott, who defines a steering oar as a rudder, states the ancient Egyptian use of stern-mounted rudders can be traced back to the 6th dynasty (2350-2200 BC). Mott states that the method of attachment for rudders in the Arab, Chinese, and European worlds differed from each other, leading him to doubt the spread of the Chinese system of attachment by socket-and-jaws or block and tackle (versus European pintle-and-gudgeon invented by c. 1180 AD). In regards to Mott's definition of a steering oar as a rudder, Joseph Needham, Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes, K.S. Tom, Chung Chee Kit, S.A.M. Adshead, Paul Johnstone and Sean McGrail state that a steering oar is not a rudder; the steering oar has the capacity to interfere with handling of the sails (limiting any potential for long ocean-going voyages) while it was fit more for small vessels on narrow, rapid-water transport; the rudder did not disturb the handling of the sails, took less energy to operate by its helmsman, was better fit for larger vessels on ocean-going travel, and first appeared in China. Leo Block writes of the use of the steering oar in the ancient Mediterranean world (specifically in regards to the Phoenicians, 1550–300 BC): "A single sail tends to turn a vessel in an upwind or downwind direction, and rudder action is required to steer a straight course. A steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the steering oar was required to steer a straight course; this slowed down the vessel because a steering oar (or rudder) course correction acts like a break." The oldest depicted rudders at the back of a ship, without the use of oars or a steering oar, comes from several ceramic models of Chinese ships made during both the Western and Eastern eras of the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD). According to the scholars Zhang Zunyan and Vassilios Christides, there is literary evidence to suggest that the axial stern rudder existed in China since the 1st century BC, while Gang Deng asserts the first reference was made in the Huainanzi of the 2nd century BC, and K.S. Tom says the first clear reference dates to the 5th century AD. However, K.S. Tom points to the fact that all Chinese pottery models of ships before this Guangzhou tomb model show steering oars instead of a rudder, which he states is strong evidence for the rudder's invention only by the 1st century AD. Jacques Gernet states that while the Chinese had invented the rudder in the 1st century AD, it was not completely fixed to the sternpost of Chinese ships until the end of the 4th century. The bulkhead ship design of the junk, which appeared roughly the same time as the rudder, provided the essential vertical components for the hinged axial rudder. Deng points out that an Eastern Han (25–220) model distinctly shows a rudder located in its own separate cabin, suggesting that helmsmanship had already become an established profession. Following the invention of the balanced rudder pivoted on an axis, Tom and Deng state that the Chinese then innovated the fenestrated rudder by the Song Dynasty (960–1279), with deliberate puncturing and boring out of holes in shapes such as diamonds, which, according to Tom, made the rudder "easier to steer, reduced turbulence drag, did not affect efficiency and was hydrodynamically sound."
• （已翻譯）Star catalogue: China's earliest known astronomers were Gan De of the Qi State and Shi Shen of the Wei State, who created the earliest known star catalogues during the 4th century BC, roughly two centuries before the star catalogue of the Greek astronomer and mathematician Hipparchus (c. 190–c. 120 BC). The star catalogue became a permanent feature of Chinese astronomy and some were quite large, such as the star catalogue of astronomer Zhang Heng (78–139) who catalogued 2,500 stars, placing them in a 'brightly shining' category, and recognized 124 constellations.
• 最古老的印刷星圖:雖然身兼天文學家、朝廷官員、工程師於一身的蘇頌（1020-1011年）所製星圖在世界上肯定不是最古老的，然而它卻是世上最早、付諸刊印的星圖。其星圖（渾象紫微垣星圖、渾象東北方中外官星圖、渾象西南方中外官星圖、渾象北極星圖、渾象南極星圖……等14幅）與其鐘錶報時的研究一併收錄在其著作《新儀象法要》中。該書於1092年完稿，於1094年刊印，並在後來12、17、以及19世紀皆有增補修訂。蘇頌星圖亦採用了與其同時代的沈括（1031-1095年）科研成果，將北極星位置修正3度（即介於-350度和勾陳一之間)。
• Steel made from cast iron through oxygenation: The Chinese, who had been producing cast iron from the late Spring and Autumn Period (722–481 BC), produced steel by the 2nd century BC through a process of decarburization, i.e. using bellows to pump large amounts of oxygen on to molten cast iron. This was first described in the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) book Huainanzi, compiled by scholars under Prince Liu An (179–122 BC). The Chinese called this technique "the hundred refinings method," since the process was repeated over and over to incrementally strengthen the steel. The back of swords were often made of more elastic wrought iron while the cutting edge of the blade itself was made of strong steel. For steel, they used both quenching (i.e. rapid cooling) and tempering (i.e. slow cooling) methods of heat treatment. Much later, the American inventor William Kelly (1811–1888) brought four Chinese metallurgists to Eddyville, Kentucky in 1845, whose expertise in steelmaking influenced his ideas about air injection to reduce carbon content of iron; his invention anticipated the Bessemer process of Henry Bessemer (1813–1898).
• Stirrup: There are authors who point out that it is unclear whether the stirrup was invented by northern nomads or the sedentary Chinese. Liu Han (1961) credited the invention of the stirrup to nomadic invaders of northern China. Archaeologial evidence shows that horse riders in India had a small loop for a single toe to be inserted by roughly the 1st century AD. However, the first true depiction of the stirrup is featured on a Jin Dynasty (265–420) Chinese tomb figurine dated 302 AD, yet this was a single stirrup and was perhaps used only for initially mounting the horse. It should be noted that the latter was found in Changsha, Hunan, far from the northern border. The first validated depiction of a rider with a pair of saddle stirrups for both feet comes from a Jin Chinese tomb figurine dated 322. The first actual specimens of stirrups comes from a Chinese tomb in southern Manchuria that is dated 415. The stirrup was not widely used by Chinese cavalry until the 5th century. By the 6th century, the use of the stirrup had spread as far west as the Byzantine Empire, where both the stirrup and Celtic horseshoe were adopted.
• （崔知悌著述需考證）以甲狀腺激素來治療甲狀腺腫：在西元前239年的《呂氏春秋》中提到，遠離海岸的淡水地方，禿頭與甲狀腺腫的人較多。後來直到1860年，卡斯柏·阿道夫·夏丁（Gaspard Adolphe Chatin，1813-1901年）才將甲狀腺腫與土壤食水中缺碘建立起關係。碘於1896年由尤金·鮑曼（Eugen Baumann）在甲狀腺裏發現，在當時1890年代甲狀腺萃取物被用於治療患者。而遠在此之前，唐朝（618年-907年）名醫甄權（歿於643年）所著《古今錄驗方》中即給出自閹公羊取得甲狀腺以治療甲狀腺腫大患者;而甲狀腺賀爾蒙可以以藥丸（藥丸載體以壓碎棗仁製成）或整個甲狀腺去除脂肪吞服。另一劑王燾提供的處方是利用風乾的甲狀腺磨成粉並佐酒吞服。與同時代的名醫崔知悌（全盛時期650年）在其文獻中分開辨識了骨瘤－是種無法治癒、觸手堅硬的腫脹物－以及真正的甲狀腺腫－依其描述是種位於頸部可治癒、可移動的腫脹物。古人亦採用了來自豬、水牛、以及梅花鹿的甲狀腺並成功治癒了甲狀腺腫。而根據《神龍本草經》所述，古人自西元前1世紀（葛洪，284-364年，大約在340年亦建議使用一味來自馬尾藻類海草的藥方）便利用富含碘的海藻以治療甲狀腺腫，而在西方，同樣的處方來自不知名人士在民間流傳，一直到意大利巴勒莫的羅傑留斯（Rogerius）於其1180年所著《手術實踐》（Practica Chirurgiae）中收錄才見天日。
• （14世紀之後敘述，待見原書考證）廁紙：廁紙最早是在589年隋朝（581-618年）時期官員顏之推（531-591年）所提及，並在後來的朝代裏有着持續使用的充分證據。在851年唐朝（618-907）年間，一位來自中東的大食回教旅人評注道，當時的中國人不愛乾淨，在上廁所時使用紙張而非清水來清潔自己。到了14世紀元朝（1271-1368）中葉，文獻指出單在江淮，每年就生產高達上億包的廁紙，而每包數量數千張到上萬張。明朝（1368-1644）劉若愚所著文獻《酌中志》亦指出，皇帝已在使用薰過香的廁紙。
• Tomb, structural design imitating real life residences: The ancient Chinese built imperial tombs which by structural design imitated the actual living spaces and residences of the deceased tomb occupants when they were alive, a representation of their earthly life which would continue to serve them in the afterlife. For example, Fu Xinian writes that the tomb of Tang Dynasty (618–907) crown prince Li Chongrun (682–701) at the Qianling Mausoleum had a specific number and layout of "underground chambers, ventilation shafts, compartments, and air wells" which would have corresponded to the exact number and layout of "courtyards, main halls, rooms, and corridors" of his real palatial residence at Chang'an.
• （已翻譯）Traction trebuchet catapult: The earliest type of trebuchet catapult was the traction trebuchet, developed first in China by the 5th or 4th century BC, the beginning of the Warring States Period (403–221 BC); to operate the trebuchet, a team of men pulled on ropes attached to the butt of the shorter segment of a long wooden beam separated by a rotating axle fixed to a base framework, allowing the longer segment of the beam to lunge forward and use its sling to hurl a missile; by the 9th century a hybrid of the traction and counterweight trebuchet, employing manpower and a pivoting weight, was used in the Middle East, Mediterranean Basin, and Northern Europe; by the 12th century, the full fledged counterweight trebuchet was developed under the Ayyubid dynasty of Islamic Syria and Egypt (described by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi) and used in the Third Crusade; by the 13th century, the counterweight trebuchet found its way into Song Dynasty (960–1279) China via the Mongol invaders under Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294) who used it in the Siege of Xiangyang (1267–1273).
• Trip hammer: The ancient Chinese used pestle and mortar to pound and decorticate grain, which was superseded by the treadle-operated tilt hammer (employing a simple lever and fulcrum) perhaps during the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BC) but first described in a Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) dictionary of 40 BC and soon after by Yang Xiong (53 BC–18 AD) in his Fangyan dictionary written in 15 BC; the next stage in this evolution of grain-pounding devices was to apply hydraulic power, which the author Huan Tan (43 BC–28 AD) mentioned in his Xinlun of 20 AD, although he also described trip hammers powered by the labor of horses, oxen, donkeys, and mules. After Huan Tan's book was written, numerous references to trip hammers powered by waterwheels were made in subsequent Chinese dynasties and in Medieval Europe by the 12th century. However, trip hammers were also attested by both literary (Pliny, Natural History 18.97) and archaeological evidence in fairly widespread use in the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD.

• 可折疊傘：雖然形似太陽的遮陽傘在古巴比倫、希臘和羅馬普遍存在，不過史上第一個有關於帶機械滑桿、可折疊傘的書面證據，可追溯到國祚不長的新朝（9-23年），當時王莽（約9-23年）在21年時要求匠人將之安裝在儀式用四輪馬車上。漢朝（前202-220年）學者服虔於2世紀時註釋道可折疊的傘備有可蜷曲的關節，供其延展或縮回。實際上王莽時期（或稍晚時期）可折疊雨傘殘骸已於考古挖掘漢代樂浪郡（位於今北朝鮮）王光墓時出土。然而，有強烈的證據支持可折疊傘早在前6世紀周朝（前1122-256）時期就已出現，一如考古發掘出土，可追溯到那時的洛陽青銅製帶溝槽、滑座、插銷的複雜樞紐所建議。到了魏朝（220-265年），常見傘面已由絲綢製變換到桑樹皮厚油紙製，雖然當時仍能找到絲綢製傘。

「中國發明與發現列表」

是否有必要把維基英文的List of Chinese discoveries結合到這裏，或另創條目？Srzh2 (留言) 2010年11月5日 (五) 06:56 (UTC)

個人是認為另創條目為妥--Zanhsieh (留言) 2010年11月5日 (五) 14:13 (UTC)

外部連結已修改

各位維基人：

我剛剛修改了中國發明中的3個外部連結，請大家仔細檢查我的編輯。如果您有疑問，或者需要讓機械人忽略某個連結甚至整個頁面，請訪問這個簡單的FAQ獲取更多信息。我進行了以下修改：

• 向 http://www.ihns.ac.cn/members/wjhu/Data/hu_wj_fayao.htm 中加入存檔連結 https://web.archive.org/web/20070627081150/http://www.ihns.ac.cn/members/wjhu/Data/hu_wj_fayao.htm
• 向 http://ship.nmmst.gov.tw/shipold/shipold01_05.asp 中加入存檔連結 https://web.archive.org/web/20091112205927/http://ship.nmmst.gov.tw/shipold/shipold01_05.asp
• 向 http://economy.guoxue.com/print.php/9785 中加入存檔連結 https://web.archive.org/web/20110711134822/http://economy.guoxue.com/print.php/9785

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祝編安。—InternetArchiveBot (報告軟件缺陷) 2017年6月12日 (一) 02:18 (UTC)

外部連結已修改

各位維基人：

我剛剛修改了中國發明中的1個外部連結，請大家仔細檢查我的編輯。如果您有疑問，或者需要讓機械人忽略某個連結甚至整個頁面，請訪問這個簡單的FAQ獲取更多信息。我進行了以下修改：

• 向 http://irri.org/news-events/hot-topics/hybrid-rice 中加入存檔連結 https://web.archive.org/web/20120213220420/http://irri.org/news-events/hot-topics/hybrid-rice

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祝編安。—InternetArchiveBot (報告軟件缺陷) 2017年6月17日 (六) 17:31 (UTC)