石蛾
毛翅目![]() 化石时期:
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科学分类 ![]() | |
界: | 动物界 Animalia |
门: | 节肢动物门 Arthropoda |
纲: | 昆虫纲 Insecta |
(未分级): | 双髁类 Dicondylia |
亚纲: | 有翅亚纲 Pterygota |
演化支: | 伴翅类 Metapterygota |
下纲: | 新翅下纲 Neoptera |
演化支: | 真变态类 Eumetabola |
(未分级): | 内生翅类 Endopterygota |
总目: | 蝎蛉总目 Panorpida |
(未分级): | 类脉类 Amphiesmenoptera |
目: | 毛翅目 Trichoptera Kirby,1813 |
石蛾是节肢动物门昆虫纲毛翅目(Trichoptera)物种的通称,是一群具有水生幼虫和陆生成虫的昆虫。大约有14,500种被描述的物种,其中大部分可以根据成年口器分为完须亚目(Integripalpia)和环须亚目(Annulipalpia)。 完须亚目的幼虫构建一个便携式外壳,以便在它们四处寻找食物时保护自己,而环须亚目的幼虫构建一个固定式外壳,它们留在里面等待食物来到它们身边。第三个小的亚目尖须亚目(Spicipalpia)的分类地位仍不清楚,分子分析表明它可能不是单系的。成虫是小蛾状昆虫,有两对毛状膜质翅膀。毛翅目与鳞翅目(飞蛾和蝴蝶)密切相关,它们的翅膀上有鳞片,这两个目共同形成总目-类脉总目。
水生幼虫存在于各种各样的栖息地,如溪流、河流、湖泊、池塘,春季渗漏和临时水域(春季池)[1]。许多物种的幼虫使用虫丝制作保护外壳,这些保护外壳通常用砾石、沙子及树枝,咬掉的植物碎片或其他碎片加强。幼虫表现出各种摄食策略,不同的物种是捕食者,叶子粉碎者,藻类食草动物或来自水体和底栖生物的颗粒的收集者。大多数成虫的寿命短暂,在成虫期它们不进食。
在飞蝇钓中,人造蝇是模仿成虫,而幼虫和蛹则用作诱饵。常见和广泛的属例如钩翅石蛾属(Helicopsyche)和纹石蛾属(Hydropsyche)在这项运动中很重要。石蛾可用作生物指标,因为它们对水污染敏感并且足够大以便在现场进行评估水质。在艺术方面,法国艺术家休伯特·杜普拉特 (Hubert Duprat) 的创作作品是为石蚕幼虫提供小颗粒金和宝石,让它们制作成装饰外壳。
进化和系统发育
[编辑]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Lepido02.jpg/170px-Lepido02.jpg)
化石历史
[编辑]在可追溯到三叠纪的岩石中发现了石蛾化石[2]。最大数量的化石遗骸是幼虫的外壳,它们由耐用的材料制成,保存良好。身体的化石非常罕见,最古老的是早期和中三叠世,大约2.3亿年前,翅膀是另一种化石来源[3]。在三叠纪期间,这个群体演变为具有完全水生幼虫的群体似乎已经发生了一段时间[4]。在巴西海洋沉积物中发现类似于石蛾幼虫外壳的化石可能会将这个目的起源推到二叠纪早期[3]。
演化
[编辑]几乎所有的成虫都是陆生的,但它们的幼虫和蛹都是水生的。他们与几个远亲相关的群体共享这一特征,即蜻蜓、蜉蝣目、石蝇、桤木和草蛉[4]。所有这些群体的祖先都是陆地的,具有开放的气管系统,当它们进入水中以避免被捕食时,会为它们的水生幼虫趋同演化出不同类型的鳃[4]。
目前世界上毛翅目已有45个科14,500种物种被发表[5],但还有更多的种类仍有待被描述。大多数可以以成虫口器的基础上分为完须亚目或环须亚目。成虫的特征取决于两性的触肢,翼静脉和生殖器,后两个特征在不同的超科间的变异即很大,以至于亚目之间的差异并不明确[6]。环须亚目的幼体是蛓型若虫(自由生活,良好的硬化若虫,长腿掠食者与背腹扁平的身体和突出的口器)。完须亚目的幼体是多足若虫(硬化不良的碎屑动物,除了胸腿外还有腹部前肢,永久性地生活在贴身的外壳中)[6] 。第三个亚目尖须亚目的亲缘关系尚不清楚; 幼虫是自由生活的,没有任何外壳,而是用虫丝制造网状陷阱。
系统发生树
[编辑]此进化树基于2008年一项DNA和蛋白质序列分析的研究绘制,显示毛翅目与鳞翅目的亲缘关系密切,两者互为姐妹群,而双翅目和长翅目则是与毛翅目亲缘关系第二接近的类群[7][8][9][10]。
内翅总目(Endopterygota)的一部分
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毛翅目内部类群的亲缘关系演化树,此图基于2002年一项分析rDNA序列,核延伸因子基因的序列,以及线粒体细胞色素氧化酶的序列的分子系统发生学研究绘制。 完须亚目和环须亚目均为图中的演化支,但尖须亚目内类群的演化关系仍不清楚,有可能不是单系群[11]。
毛翅目 |
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下级分类
[编辑]本科包括以下属:
- Anomalopsychidae
- Antipodoeciidae
- Apataniidae
- Atriplectididae
- Baissoferidae
- Barbarochthonidae
- Beraeidae
- Brachycentridae
- Burmapsychidae
- Calamoceratidae
- Calocidae
- Chathamiidae
- Cladochoristidae
- Coenoesucidae
- Conoesucidae
- Cretapsychidae
- Dipseudopsidae
- Dysoneuridae
- Ecnomidae
- Electralbertidae
- Glossosmatidae
- Glossosomatidae
- Agapetus Curtis, 1834
- Anagapetus Ross, 1938
- Campsiophora Flint, 1964
- Canoptila Mosely, 1939
- Cariboptila Flint, 1964
- Catagapetus McLachlan, 1884
- Ceraclea Leach, 1815
- Cubanoptila Sykora, 1973
- Culoptila Mosely, 1954
- Dajella Sukatsheva, 1990
- Dauroglos Melnitsky & Ivanov, 2020
- Electragapetus Ulmer, 1912
- Glossosoma Curtis, 1834
- Itauara Mueller, 1888
- Klapalekia Botosaneanu, 1955
- Lipoglossa Martynov, 1930
- Mastigoptila Flint, 1967
- Matrioptila Ross, 1956
- Merionoptila Schmid, 1959
- Mexitrichia Mosely, 1937
- Mortoniella Ulmer, 1906
- Mystroglossa Kobayashi, 1982
- Mystrophora Klapálek, 1892
- Mystrophorella Kloet & Hincks, 1944
- Nepaloptila Kimmins, 1964
- Padunia Martynov, 1910
- Poeciloptila Schmid, 1991
- Protoptila Banks, 1904
- Scotiotrichia Mosely, 1934
- Siberocretopetus Melnitsky & Ivanov, 2020
- Synagapetus McLachlan, 1879
- Temburongpsyche Malicky, 1995
- Tolhuaca Schmid, 1964
- 瘤石蛾科 Goeridae
- Helicophidae
- Alloecella Banks, 1939
- Alloecentrellodes Flint, 1979
- Austrocentrus Schmid, 1964
- Eosericostoma Schmid, 1955
- Helicopha Mosely, 1953
- Heloccabus Neboiss, 2002
- Microthremma Schmid, 1955
- Pseudosericostoma Schmid, 1957
- Zelolessica McFarlane, 1956
- 钩翅石蛾科 Helicopsychidae
- Hydrobiosidae
- 纹石蛾科 Hydropsychidae
- Hydropsychoidea
- Hydroptilidae
- Hydrosalpingidae
- Kalophryganidae
- Kambaitipsychidae
- Kokiriidae
- Lepidochlamidae
- Lepidostomatidae
- Leptoceridae
- Limnephilidae
- Limnocentropodidae
- Limnophilidae
- Molannidae
- Necrotauliidae
- Ningxiapsychidae
- Odontoceridae
- Oeconesidae
- Ogmomyiidae
- Petrothrincidae
- Philopotamidae
- Philorheithridae
- Phryganeidae
- Phryganopsychidae
- Pisuliidae
- Plectrotarsidae
- Polycentropidae
- Polycentropodidae
- Prorhyacophilidae
- Protobaikalopsychidae
- Pseudoneureclipsidae
- Psychomyidae
- Psychomyiidae
- Ptilocolepidae
- 流石蛾科 Rhyacophilidae
- Rhyacophiloidea
- Rossianidae
- Sericostomatidae
- Stenopsychidae
- Tasimiidae
- Taymyrelectronidae
- Terminoptysmatidae
- Thremmatidae
- Uenoidae
- Vitimotauliidae
- Xiphocentronidae
- Yantarocentridae
- 科的地位未定的属:
- Abacarioides Marlier, 1961
- Achirocentra Marlier, 1961
- Achorema Mosely, 1941
- Acropsilopteryx Schmid, 1952
- Acroptera Hwang, 1957
- Acrunoecia Ulmer, 1907
- Acrunoeciella Martynov, 1909
- Adelomyia Ulmer, 1912
- Adoptysma Novokshonov, 1994
- Aerogaster Kolenati, 1858
- Aetesis Wallengren, 1891
- Afragapetus Mosely, 1939
- Afritrichia Mosely, 1939
- Allagapetus Martynov, 1936
- Allegophylax Banks, 1916
- Allotriogamatis Wallengren, 1891
- Amathus Stephens, 1836
- Amblypteryx Stephens, 1836
- Amechanites Haupt, 1956
- Amphipsychella Martynov, 1935
- Amukia Martynov, 1935
- Anabolioides Martynov, 1909
- Anseriglossa Ross, 1956
- Antarctopsyche Ulmer, 1907
- Aopsyche Ross, 1938
- Apatelia Wallengren, 1886
- Apatelina Martynov, 1936
- Apatidea McLachlan, 1874
- Apolopsyche Banks, 1916
- Aratrichia Mosely, 1948
- Archapatania Martynov, 1935
- Archotaulius Handlirsch, 1906
- Arctopsychodes Ulmer, 1915
- Argyrobothrus Barnard, 1934
- Aristopsyche Tillyard, 1919
- Asotocerus McLachlan, 1866
- Aspatherium Kolenati, 1848
- Astenophylodes Mosely, 1936
- Astoplectron Banks, 1914
- Astratodes Martynov, 1928
- Astratus McLachlan, 1874
- Athripsodina Kimmins, 1963
- Atomyiella Tsuda, 1936
- Atomyiodes Ulmer, 1911
- Atopsaura Ross, 1953
- Atopsychodes Mosely, 1949
- Australomyia Schmid, 1950
- Austrecnomina Korboot, 1964
- Axiomaldia Melnitsky & Ivanov, 2020
- Ayabeopsyche Tsuda, 1942
- Badallus Navás, 1918
- Baicalodes Martynov, 1924
- Baliotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Bathytinodes Iwata, 1927
- Bellendrona
- Brachycentriella Iwata, 1927
- Brethesella Navás, 1920
- Caenotaulius Thomson, 1891
- Calamodontus Botosaneanu & Wichard, 1983
- Caldra Navás, 1924
- Carpathopsyche Botosaneanu, 1952
- Catadice McLachlan, 1880
- Cathayamodus Gao et al., 2016
- Celanopsyche Fischer, 1970
- Ceylanopsyche Fischer, 1970
- Chaetopterygella Martynov, 1916
- Chaetotaulius Kolenati, 1848
- Cheumatopsychodes Marlier, 1961
- Chimarrhafra Lestage, 1936
- Chimarrhodes Müller, 1887
- Chloropsyche McLachlan, 1880
- Colpomera McLachlan, 1862
- Conchindusia Vyalov & Sakacheva, 1976
- Conia McFarlane, 1956
- Conuxia McFarlane, 1966
- Coprindusia Ivanov, 2006
- Cordillopsyche Banks, 1913
- Crenogenes Imhoff, 1838
- Cretahelicopsyche Wichard et al., 2018
- Cretolype Ivanov, 2006
- Crunobiella Martynov, 1928
- Crunobiodes Martynov, 1928
- Crunoeciella Ulmer, 1905
- Cunia Navás, 1917
- Cyllene Chambers, 1873
- Desmotaulius Kolenati, 1848
- Dicentropus Ulmer, 1905
- Dilophia Kolenati, 1859
- Dinogoerodes Martynov, 1928
- Diploglossa Martynov, 1934
- Dipseudopsodes Lestage, 1936
- Doliocypta Banks, 1939
- Dolochorema Banks, 1913
- Dolophiliella Banks, 1930
- Dophnea Wallengren, 1891
- Dromophila Heyden, 1850
- Ecnomiella Mosely, 1935
- Ecnomodellina Ulmer, 1962
- Ecnomodes Ulmer, 1911
- Ecnopsyche Banks, 1914
- Eoagapetus Martynov, 1934
- Eocosraoecus Wiggins & Richardson, 1989
- Eomystra Martynov, 1934
- Eothremma Martynov, 1933
- Episetodes Martynov, 1936
- Eremopsyche Banks, 1901
- Eruodes Martynov, 1913
- Esperona Navás, 1915
- Ethiopsyche Marlier, 1962
- Eudinarthrum Martynov, 1913
- Eustenace Banks, 1916
- Ferghanopsyche Martuinov, 1937
- Folindusia Berry, 1927
- Friga Milne, 1934
- Galta Navás, 1916
- Gatlinia Ross, 1948
- Glyphocentron Schmid, 1982
- Goerinella Ulmer, 1915
- Gynapatania Forsslund, 1942
- Halesinus Ulmer, 1907
- Haplosetina Navás, 1931
- Heliconis Dziedzielewicz & Klapálek, 1908
- Helictomerus McLachlan, 1865
- Hemipterna McLachlan, 1874
- Himalophanes Banks, 1940
- Hoffmanseggia Kolenati, 1848
- Homoeoplectron Ulmer, 1905
- Hormocerus Kolenati, 1859
- Hyalopsychodes Betten, 1909
- Hydrocheumatopsyche Marlier, 1962
- Hydropneuma Enderlein, 1929
- Hydrorchestria Kolenati, 1848
- Hylepsyche Banks, 1916
- Hyperrhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Hypnotranus Wallengren, 1891
- Hypochiona Wallengren, 1891
- Hypodinarthrum Martynov, 1913
- Hyporhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Ignasala Navás, 1932
- Indodinarthrum Martynov, 1936
- Isocentropus Navás, 1917
- Javanotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Jyrvia Milne, 1934
- Karaungira Novokshonov & Sukacheva, 1994
- Karomana Schmid, 1993
- Khandalina Navás, 1934
- Kitagamia Iwata, 1927
- Kizakia Iwata, 1927
- Kubuneopsych Tsuda, 1942
- Lagenopsyche Müller, 1879
- Lamonganotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Lanagapetus Mosely, 1938
- Lasiostoma Rambur, 1842
- Leptocellodes Ulmer, 1911
- Leptocerodes Lestage, 1936
- Lithacodes Martynov, 1909
- Litostola Wallengren, 1891
- Macrotaulius Schmid, 1952
- Madeophylax Huryn & Wallace, 1984
- Madioxyethira Schmid, 1960
- Marsupus Hagen, 1855
- Mesocolepus Melnitsky & Ivanov, 2020
- Mesopaduniella Lestage, 1926
- Mesotaulius Handlirsch, 1906
- Metadinarthrum Martynov, 1913
- Metapsilopteryx Botosaneanu, 1957
- Metarhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Molanneria Martynov, 1910
- Molassoterrindusia Jäckel & Gregor, 2014
- Monopseudopsis Walker, 1852
- Mormonia Curtis, 1834
- Mpuga Schmid, 1993
- Muangpaipsyche Malicky & Silalom, 2012
- Muroglossa Ross, 1956
- Musarna Walker, 1860
- Myanpsyche Wichard, 2021
- Myspoleo Barnard, 1934
- Naganagapetus Tsuda, 1942
- Nais Brauer, 1857
- Nais Rambur, 1842
- Nanoagraylea Botosaneanu, 1995
- Necropsis Hong, 1983
- 线长角蛾属 Nematopogon Kolenati, 1858
- Neoleptonema Ulmer, 1907
- Neophryganea Martynov, 1924
- Nesopsyche McLachlan, 1866
- Ngoya Schmid, 1993
- Noleca Mosely, 1939
- Nolga Navás, 1930
- Nolganema Navás, 1934
- Notiomyia Banks, 1905
- Nyctegersia Wallengren, 1891
- Oeceotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Oecetodella Ulmer, 1930
- Oecetodes Ulmer, 1907
- Oeconessus McLachlan, 1862
- Oestropsis Brauer, 1868
- Oligoplectrodes Martynov, 1909
- Olostomis Percheron, 1836
- Oncocerus Kolenati, 1859
- Oopterygia Martynov, 1930
- Orthochlamys Montrouzier, 1864
- Orthotrichiella Ulmer, 1951
- Ostracindusia Vyalov, 1973
- Oxydroptila Martynov, 1935
- Oxytrichia Mosely, 1939
- Paleodicella Sukatsheva, 2014
- Paracnomina Kimmins, 1959
- Paradinarthrum Martynov, 1913
- Paraethaloptera Martynov, 1935
- Paragapetus Banks, 1914
- Paralenarchus Schmid, 1952
- Parapatania Forsslund, 1942
- Parapotamorites Martynov, 1935
- Pararhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Pasirotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Pelindusia Vyalov & Sakacheva, 1976
- Pellopsyche Banks, 1903
- Petrotrichia Ulmer, 1910
- Pettostomis Kolenati, 1859
- Phanostoma Brauer, 1875
- Philopotamopsis Iwata, 1927
- Phryganeolitha Germar, 1813
- Phryganomyia Banks, 1907
- Piscindusia Jarzembowski, 1995
- Placocentropus Schmid, 1955
- Plecophlebus Cockerell, 1917
- Plesiopsyche Navás, 1931
- Plethotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Pleurograpta Wallengren, 1891
- Podomacronema Banks, 1920
- Polytrichia Sibley, 1926
- Potamoryza Barnard, 1934
- Potomaria Stephens, 1836
- Praecosmoecus Martynov, 1914
- Primerenca Navás, 1915
- Prolenarchus Schmid, 1952
- Propaduniella Lestage, 1926
- Prosoponia Stephens, 1836
- Prosrhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Protarra Ross, 1956
- Protoclipsis Wichard, Müller & Fischer, 2022
- Protoglossa Ross, 1956
- Pseudagapetus McLachlan, 1879
- Pseudohalesus Martynov, 1928
- Pseudoleptocerus Ulmer, 1907
- Pseudonema McLachlan, 1862
- Pseudopotamorites Forsslund, 1936
- Pseudosetodes Ulmer, 1905
- Psiadosporus Wallengren, 1891
- Psiloneura Banks, 1914
- Psychomyiellina Lestage, 1926
- Psychomyiodes Ulmer, 1922
- Ptyopteryx Kolenati, 1848
- Qinquania Hong, 1982
- Quarelia Martynov, 1913
- Quaria Milne, 1934
- Quissa Milne, 1936
- Rhamphocentron Schmid, 1982
- Rheophylax Sibley, 1926
- Rhyacophylax Müller, 1879
- Rhynchorheithrus Schmid, 1964
- Ripaeglossa Ross, 1956
- Sanctipaulus Pinto, 1956
- Saranganotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Secrindusia Vialov & Sukacheva, 1976
- Seselpsyche Malicky, 1993
- Setodellina Lestage, 1919
- Setodina Banks, 1907
- Sinion Barnard, 1934
- Sinoglossa Ross, 1956
- Sogdopsyche Martuinov, 1937
- Sortosella Sukatcheva, 2004
- Spathidopteryx Kolenati, 1848
- Sperotrichia Marlier, 1978
- Sphagocentron Schmid, 1982
- Spilotaulius Thomson, 1891
- Stasiasmus McLachlan, 1880
- Stathmophorus Kolenati, 1848
- Stenophyliella Mosely, 1936
- Stenophylina Mosely, 1936
- Sumatronotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Synagotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Synaptopsyche Ulmer, 1951
- Tagapetus Ross, 1951
- Terrindusia Vialov, 1973
- Tetracentron Brauer, 1865
- Thylakion Barnard, 1934
- Tinodes Stephens, 1829
- Tobikera Matsumura, 1931
- Trawaspsyche Malicky, 2004
- Triassopsyche Tillyard, 1917
- Trichophila Kimmins, 1952
- Trichophylax Mosely, 1936
- Trichopterella Cockerell, 1924
- Trichostoma Pictet, 1834
- Tuanwangica Zhang, 1985
- Turanopsyche Martuinov, 1937
- Uenotrichia Tsuda, 1942
- Ulmeria Navás, 1918
- Ventrarma Navás, 1924
- Veteropsyche Botosaneanu, Johnson & Dillon, 1998
- Vigarrha Navás, 1922
- Xinjiangia Hong, 1983
- Xirocentron Schmid, 1982
- Xylophthoron Hagen, 1864
- Ymymia Milne, 1934
- Yrula Milne, 1934
- Zelobiosella Mosely, 1953
- Zelomyia McFarlane, 1956
分布
[编辑]石蛾遍布全球,在更温暖的地区更加多样化。它们与淡水水体有关,幼虫存在于湖泊,池塘,河流,溪流和其他水体中[12]。陆地石蛾(Enoicyla pusilla)则生活在森林地面的潮湿的底部。在英国,它们生活在位于伍斯特郡及其周围的橡树林中。
生态
[编辑]石蛾幼虫(石蚕)在淡水栖息地的所有饲养行会都可以被找到。大多数早期幼虫和一些晚期幼虫都是收集者-聚集者,从底栖生物中拾取有机物碎片。其他物种是收集者-过滤者,使用丝网或腿上的毛发从水中筛分有机颗粒。有些物种是刮食者,以阳光下的水下物体上生长的藻类和其他附生生物为食。其他的是碎片食草动物,从活植物材料中咀嚼碎片,而其他物种则是吃碎木屑,啃烂木头或咀嚼已被细菌和真菌预处理过的枯叶; 后一组的大部分营养素来自吃细菌和真菌。掠食性物种要么主动捕猎它们的猎物,通常是其他昆虫,小甲壳类动物和蠕虫,要么等待粗心的无脊椎动物过于接近。少数物种在死亡动物或鱼类上机会性地进食,一些长角石蛾科(Leptoceridae)的幼虫以淡水海绵为食[13]。
像蜉蝣、石蝇和蜻蜓,但在较小程度上,石蛾是良好水质的指标; 它们死于有被污染水的溪流[14]。 它们是食物网的重要组成部分,幼虫和成虫都被许多鱼吃掉。新孵出的成虫特别容易受到影响,因为它从蛹中出来后会挣扎到水面,并且它会晾干它的翅膀。鱼类发现这些新成虫很容易吃掉,而且在一年中的正确时间可以模仿它们当作垂钓者的钓鱼鱼铒[15]。
成虫阶段的石蛾可能只存活几个星期; 许多物种成虫不会进食并在繁殖后很快死亡,但已知一些物种以花蜜为食[16]。 有翅昆虫是夜间活动的,为夜间飞行的鸟类、蝙蝠、小型哺乳动物、两栖动物和节肢动物提供食物。幼虫阶段持续时间更长,通常持续一年或更长时间,并对环境产生更大的影响[17] 。
水下建筑师
[编辑]外壳
[编辑]石蛾以其幼虫创造的便携式外壳而闻名。大约有三十个科,完须亚目成员,采取这种策略。这些幼虫吃碎屑,大部分腐烂的植物材料,它们进食的腐烂叶子碎片倾向于积聚在空洞中,在缓慢移动的溪流中,石块,和树根后面。这些外壳在幼虫前往这些资源之间时为其提供保护[18]。
该外壳是由丝绸制成的管状结构,由幼虫口附近的唾液腺分泌,并在卵孵化后不久开始。根据幼虫的基因构成,可以在其结构,材料的性质和设计中加入各种增强物; 这意味着石蛾幼虫可以从它们的外壳被辨认到科的水平,甚至属的水平。使用的材料包括沙粒,较大的岩石碎片,树皮,枝条,叶子,种子和软体动物外壳。它们整齐地排列并粘在丝质管的外表面上。随着幼虫的生长,在前面添加了更多的材料,幼虫可以在管中转动并修剪后端,使其不会沿着基底(substrate)拖动[18]。
石蛾外壳在两端开放,幼虫通过后端抽吸含氧水,流过鳃,并将其从更宽的前端泵出。幼虫在管内移动,这有助于保持水流; 水的氧含量越低,幼虫需要的活性越高。这种机制使得石蛾幼虫能够生活在氧含量过低的水域中,在那里的水中含氧量都难以支持石蝇和蜉蝣幼虫[16]。
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幼虫的便携式外壳,由碎石组成。
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幼虫用植物材料制成的外壳
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沼石蛾科(Limnephilidae)幼虫的外壳由咬下的植物碎片组成
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一种沼石蛾(Limnephilus flavicornis)以蜗牛壳制成的外壳
发育和形态
[编辑]石蛾幼虫是水生的,在腹部下面有六对气管鳃。尽管有些物种的雌性进入水中选择地点,但是在出现的树枝或植被或水面上将卵放在水面上。虽然大多数物种产卵,但Triplectides属中的一些是卵胎生的。有些物种在陆地上产卵,虽然大多数与淡水有关,但一些像Symphitoneuria被发现沿海咸水中。 Philanisus plebeius雌性产卵进入潮间海星的体腔[19]。 幼虫长且大致呈圆柱状,与鳞翅目非常相似但缺乏前肢[19]。在携带外壳的物种中,头部受到重度的硬化,而腹部则是柔软的; 触角很短,口器适合咬。通常十个腹部区段中的每一个都具有一对具有单个跗关节的腿。在带外壳的物种中,第一段带有三个乳突,一个在上面,两个在两侧,它们将幼虫锚在管子的中心。
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在远离水源的叶子上的卵块
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蛹带有桨状的游泳足
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蛹
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从水生蛹羽化而出的Parachiona picicornis成虫
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Daternomina属物种的雄性成虫
参考资料
[编辑]- ^ Glenn B. Wiggins, Larvae of the North American Caddisfly General (Trichoptera), 2nd. ed. (Toronto: University Press, 1996), p. 3
- ^ Daly, Howell V.; Doyen, John T.; Purcell, Alexander H. Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity 2nd. Oxford University Press. 1998: 320. ISBN 0-19-510033-6.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Mouro, Lucas D.; Zatoń, Michał; Fernandes, Antonio C.S.; Waichel, Breno L. Larval cases of caddisfly (Insecta: Trichoptera) affinity in Early Permian marine environments of Gondwana 6. 2015 [2018-08-18]. doi:10.1038/srep19215. (原始内容存档于2018-10-19) (英语).
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被忽略 (帮助) - ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Wiggins, Glenn B. Caddisflies: The Underwater Architects. University of Toronto Press. 2015: Introduction [2018-08-18]. ISBN 978-1-4426-5617-8. (原始内容存档于2019-09-22).
- ^ Gullan, P.J.; Cranston, P.S. The Insects: An Outline of Entomology 4th. Wiley. 2010: 522–523. ISBN 978-1-118-84615-5.
- ^ 6.0 6.1 Schmid, F. Genera of the Trichoptera of Canada and Adjoining Or Adjacent United States. NRC Research Press. 1998: 6–7. ISBN 978-0-660-16402-1.
- ^ Whiting, Michael F.; Whiting, Alison S.; Hastriter, Michael W.; Dittmar, Katharina. A molecular phylogeny of fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera): origins and host associations. Cladistics. 2008, 24 (5): 1–31 [2018-08-18]. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2008.00211.x. (原始内容存档于2018-05-01).
- ^ Yeates, David K.; Wiegmann, Brian. Endopterygota Insects with complete metamorphosis. Tree of Life. [24 May 2016]. (原始内容存档于2016-05-26).
- ^ Whiting, Michael F. Mecoptera is paraphyletic: multiple genes and phylogeny of Mecoptera and Siphonaptera. Zoologica Scripta. 2002, 31 (1): 93–104 [2018-08-18]. doi:10.1046/j.0300-3256.2001.00095.x. (原始内容存档于2013-01-05).
- ^ Wiegmann, Brian; Yeates, David K. The Evolutionary Biology of Flies. Columbia University Press. 2012: 5. ISBN 978-0-231-50170-5.
- ^ Kjer, K.M.; Blahnik, R.J.; Holzenthal, R.W. Phylogeny of Trichoptera (caddisflies): characterization of signal and noise within multiple datasets. Systematic Biology. 2002, 50 (6): 781–816. JSTOR 3070865. doi:10.1080/106351501753462812.
- ^ Trichoptera: Caddisflies. Discover Life. [20 May 2017]. (原始内容存档于2018-08-18).
- ^ Resh, Vincent H.; Cardé, Ring T. Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press. 2003: 1150. ISBN 978-0-08-054605-6.
- ^ Spellman, Frank R.; Drinan, Joanne. Stream Ecology and Self Purification: An Introduction. CRC Press. 2001: 153. ISBN 978-1-4200-3167-6.
- ^ Crafts, Carol B. Caddisfly (Order: Trichoptera). Stressed stream analysis. Providence College. [14 May 2017]. (原始内容存档于2016-08-03).
- ^ 16.0 16.1 Spellman, Frank R. Ecology for Nonecologists. Rowman & Littlefield. 2008: 159–160. ISBN 978-0-86587-197-7.
- ^ Spellman, Frank R.; Drinan, Joanne. Stream Ecology and Self Purification: An Introduction. CRC Press. 2001: 115–117. ISBN 978-1-4200-3167-6.
- ^ 18.0 18.1 Wiggins, Glenn B. 1.2. Caddisflies: The Underwater Architects. University of Toronto Press. 2015 [2018-08-18]. ISBN 978-1-4426-5617-8. (原始内容存档于2019-09-22).
- ^ 19.0 19.1 Neboiss, A.; Dean, J.C. Trichoptera. The Insects of Australia. Volume 2 2nd. Melbourne University Press. 1991: 787–816.
外部链接
[编辑]- (英文)自然探索者 - 在亚利桑那州的一些非常有趣的石蛾物种的视频。
- (英文)石蛾和飞钓 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) - 照片,有限的物种生活史描述。
- (英文)石蛾成虫和石蛾幼虫 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) — 诊断照片和信息
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