使用者:ItMarki/美式標音系統

美式標音系統
類型	全音素文字
使用時期	1880年代至今
語言	用於任何語言的語音轉錄
相關書寫體系
父體系	拉丁語字母，以希臘字母擴充 美式標音系統

美式標音系統（英語：Americanist phonetic notation）是一個語音轉錄系統，最初由歐洲和美國的人類學家和語言科學家（其中大部分都是新語法學派分子）研發，目的是對美洲原住民語言和歐洲語言作語音和音位轉寫。到現在，研究斯拉夫語族、烏拉爾語系、閃米特語族、高加索諸語言、印度語言或非洲語言的語言學家仍是經常使用該系統。然而，研究烏拉爾語系的語言學家更常使用一個變體，稱為烏拉爾音標。

和國際音標（IPA）相比，美式標音系統更常用附加符號。IPA追求使用最少量的附加符號辨別最多的語音，而它只在齒-齦區別中使用這些符號。美式標音系統依賴附加符號以辨別所轉錄的語言中的許多音素區別。另一方面，美式標音系統會使用單字母表達舌冠塞擦音，而IPA則需要二合字母。在其他方面，美式標音系統變得越來越像IPA，棄用了許多較為晦澀的字母。

與IPA的區別

美式標音系統的某些符號最初與國際音標中的一模一樣，但現已成為棄用國際音標符號比如，⟨ι⟩。隨着時間推移，美式標音系統與IPA越來越相似。愛德華·薩丕爾早期和後期作品的差別便能體現這一點。然而，兩者系統依然由顯著區別，包括：

• ⟨y⟩代表[j]、⟨ñ⟩代表[ɲ]、⟨c⟩或⟨¢⟩代表[t͡s]、⟨ƛ⟩代表[t͡ɬ]、⟨ł⟩代表[ɬ]
• 硬齶齒齦音⟨č ǰ š ž⟩，有時還有齦硬齶音⟨ć ś ź ń⟩
• 齒音和硬齶音（不包括齒無噝擦音⟨θ ð⟩）的前移符號（反短音符），以及捲舌音和小舌音（不包括小舌音⟨q⟩）的後移符號（圓點）
• ⟨r⟩或⟨ř⟩表示閃音，⟨r̃⟩表示顫音
• 反尾形符表示鼻音化
• 元音上的圓點表示央化，兩點（分音符）表示前移（適用於前圓唇元音和後不圓唇元音）
• 元音上的尖音符和重音符表示重音

歷史

約翰·威斯利·鮑威爾在有關美國語族的出版物中使用一套早期符號，但這些符號都來自其他語音學家和美國作家的作品。人類學家法蘭茲·鮑亞士使用了另一套稍微不同的符號。1916年，美國人類學協會的一份出版物大大擴展了鮑亞士的字母系統。布盧姆菲爾德及博林（1927年）和赫爾佐克等人（1934年）的文章討論並修改這個字母系統。美式標音系統有時出現於《美國人類學家》《國際美國語言學期刊》和《語言》這些期刊中。

阿伯克龍比（1991:44-45）就美式標音系統作出以下論述：

美國的標音系統歷史值得深入討論。倫納德·布龍菲爾德在早期書籍《語言學簡介》（An Introduction to the Study of Language，1914年）和更著名的《語言》（Language，1935年）的英國版中使用了IPA。但自此以後，許多美國語言學家都異常抗拒IPA，尤其是對某些符號。

1952年，查爾斯·沃格林在紐約的人類學研討會中講了一件有趣的事情。他說，在1930年代初，一位「親切的丹麥人」教他語音學，讓他使用「ship」中「sh」音的IPA符號，等等。一會兒後，他在某篇關於一個美國原住民語言的作品中使用了這些符號，準備給愛德華·薩丕爾看。薩丕爾看了這篇作品時直接「火冒三丈」，要求沃格林以後用「š」（s wedge），而不是那個IPA符號。

我堅信那位「親切的丹麥人」其實是漢斯·J·烏爾達爾。他是丹尼爾·瓊斯最出色的學徒之一，之後和路易·葉爾姆斯列夫創始了言理學。烏爾達爾深入研究了加利福尼亞州的語言，特別是東北邁杜語和南方邁杜語（邁杜語的分支）。他所寫的大多數文章都沒有在他生前發布。諷刺的是，這些作品在烏爾達爾死後被加州大學出版社出版時，編輯引言說它們「的拼寫法都經過了重寫」：烏爾達爾所用的IPA符號都被移除或替換成其他符號。

奇怪的是，IPA符號對於美國標音系統符號有明顯優勢，比如「長s」和「s wedge」。瓊斯指出為求易讀性，語音學家都應儘量避免使用附加符號。許多美國語言學家的作品乍看都像是充斥了附加符號。

有人可能想知道為什麼美國語言學家都這麼排斥IPA。我想為這個似乎不理智的態度提供一個理由。尋根究底，這個憎恨來自大多數美國大學都有的語言部門，而英國大學是沒有的。語言部門一般有權有勢、有錢有人。就語言學和語音學而言，他們以規範語言學著稱，有些人則覺得他們則不太有學問。他們在出版物和期刊中會用IPA標記讀音。我相信美國語言學部門成員最不想遇到的一件事是被誤認為是語言部門的成員，但如果他在作品中使用IPA，則必定會招致這個懷疑。

字母

輔音

美式標音系統沒有一個中心機構。 西方瀕危語言文獻研究所（WIELD）推薦以下用法：

前移是⟨C̯⟩，後移是⟨C̣⟩。輔音延長是⟨C꞉⟩或⟨CC⟩。聲門音化的例子包括⟨č̓⟩或⟨m̓⟩（擠喉音與聲門化的其他類型歸為同一類）。齶音化是⟨Cʸ⟩。唇音化、軟齶化、送氣、清音和前鼻化與IPA的相同。咽音、會厭音和聲門音，以及內爆音和搭嘴音與IPA的相同 。。

WIELD建議的美式標音系統輔音

			雙唇音	唇齒音	齒音	齒齦音	捲舌音	齒齦後音	齦齶音	硬齶音	軟齶音	小舌音	咽音	聲門音
塞音		清	p		t̯	t	ṭ			k̯	k	q		ʔ
		濁	b		d̯	d	ḍ			ɡ̯	ɡ	ɡ̇
塞擦音	中央音	清		pf	tθ	c	c̣	č	ć		kx	qx̣
					c̯
		濁			dð	dz	dẓ	ǰ	dź
					dz̯
	邊音	清				ƛ
		濁				λ
擦音	中央音	清	ɸ	f	θ	s	ṣ	š	ś	x̯	x	x̣	ħ	h
					s̯
		濁	β	v	ð	z	ẓ	ž	ź	ɣ̯	ɣ	ɣ̇	ʕ	ɦ
					z̯
	邊音	清				ł				łʸ
		濁				ɮ
鼻音			m		n̯	n	ṇ		ń	ñ	ŋ	ŋ̇
顫音						r̃						ʀ
彈音					r̯	r	ṛ
近音		中央音		ʋ		ɹ	ɹ̣			y	ẉ
		唇音化								ẅ	w
		邊音			l̯	l	ḷ			lʸ

美式標音系統與IPA的區別可分為幾大類：使用附加符號分別從齒齦音和軟齶音得出其他舌冠音和舌背音；將c j λ ƛ用作塞擦音；將y用作輔音；以及將r用作彈音。

注意：

• 在齒擦音中，⟨θ ð⟩是無噝擦音，而⟨s̯ z̯⟩是有噝擦音。

Rhotics table

Most languages only have one phonemic rhotic consonant (only about 18% of the world's languages have more than one rhotic). As a result, rhotic consonants are generally transcribed with the ⟨r⟩ character. This usage is common practice in Americanist and also other notational traditions (such as the IPA). This lack of detail, although economical and phonologically sound, requires a more careful reading of a given language's phonological description to determine the precise phonetics. A list of rhotics is given below.

Common rhotic conventions

	Alveolar	Retroflex/Uvular
Approximant	r	ṛ
Flap	ř	ṛ̌
Tap	ᴅ	ᴅ̇
Trill	r̃	ṛ̃

Other flaps are ⟨ň⟩, ⟨l͏̌⟩, etc.

Common alternate symbols

There are many alternate symbols seen in Americanist transcription. Below are some equivalent symbols matched with the symbols shown in the consonant chart above.

• ⟨¢⟩ may be used for ⟨c⟩.
• ⟨č̣⟩ may be used for ⟨c̣⟩.
• ⟨j⟩ may be used for ⟨ʒ⟩.
• ⟨ǰ⟩ may be used for ⟨ǯ⟩.
• ⟨ƚ⟩ may be used for ⟨ł⟩.
• ⟨ɸ⟩ may be used for ⟨φ⟩.
• ⟨G⟩ may be used for ⟨ġ⟩.
• ⟨X⟩ may be used for ⟨x̣⟩.
• ʸ may be used for fronted velars (e.g., kʸ = k̯, gʸ = g̑).
• Some transcriptions superscript the onset of doubly articulated consonants and the release of fricatives, e.g. ⟨ᵍɓ⟩, ⟨t̓ᶿ⟩.
• There may be a distinction between laminal retroflex ⟨č̣ ṣ̌ ẓ̌⟩ and apical retroflex ⟨c̣ ṣ ẓ⟩ in some transcriptions.
• The fronting diacritic may be a caret rather than an inverted breve, e.g. dental ⟨ṱ⟩ and palatal ⟨k̭⟩.
• Many researchers use the x-caron (x̌) for the voiceless uvular fricative.
• The use of the standard IPA belted l (ɬ) for the voiceless lateral fricative is becoming increasingly common.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows. There was, however, little standardization of rhotics, and ⟨ṛ⟩ may be either retroflex or uvular, though as noted above ⟨ṛ⟩ or ⟨ṛ̌⟩ may be a retroflex flap vs ⟨ṛ̃⟩ as a uvular trill. Apart from the ambiguity of the rhotics below, and minor graphic variants (ȼ g γ for c ɡ ɣ and the placement of the diacritic in g̑ γ̑), this is compatible with the WIELD recommendations. Only precomposed affricates are shown below; others may be indicated by digraphs (e.g. ⟨dz⟩).

Typical NAPA consonant values (not prescriptive)

		Bilabial	Labio- dental	Inter- dental	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palato- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyn- geal	Glottal
Stop (oral)	voiceless	p			t̯	t	ṭ		k̯	k	q		ʔ
	voiced	b			d̯	d	ḍ		g̑	g	ġ
Affricate	voiceless					ȼ		č
	voiced							ǰ
Lateral affricate	voiceless					ƛ
	voiced					λ
Fricative	voiceless	ɸ	f	θ	s̯	s	ṣ	š	x̯	x	x̣	ħ	h
	voiced	β	v	ð	z̯	z	ẓ	ž	γ̑	γ	γ̇	ʕ	ɦ
Lateral fricative	voiceless					ł
Nasal		m	ṃ			n	ṇ		ñ	ŋ	ŋ̇
Rhotic						r	ṛ				ṛ
Lateral						l	ḷ
Glide		(w)							y	(w)

Ejectives and implosives follow the same conventions as in the IPA, apart from the ejective apostrophe being placed above the base letter.

Pike

Pike (1947) provides the following set of symbols:

Pike (1947) consonant values

		Bilabial	Labio- dental	Inter- dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Alveolo- palatal	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyn- geal	Glottal
Stop (oral)	voiceless	p		t̯	t	ṭ		k̯	k	ḳ (q)	ḳ̣	ʔ
	voiced	b		d̯	d	ḍ		g̯	g	g̣ (G)
Affricate	voiceless	pᵽ		t̯θ	ts (ȼ)		tš (č)		kx
	voiced	bb̶		d̯ꟈ	dz (ʒ)		dž (ǰ)		gg̶
Lateral affricate	voiceless				tƚ (ƛ)
	voiced				dl (λ)
Flat fricative	voiceless	ᵽ	f	θ	θ̣			x̯	x	x̣	ḥ	h
	voiced	b̶	v	ꟈ	ꟈ̣			g̶̯	g̶	g̶̣		ɦ
Sibilant	voiceless	w̱̟ (W̟)			s	ṣ , ṣ̌	š
	voiced	w̟			z	ẓ , ẓ̌	ž
Lateral fricative	voiceless				ƚ̟
	voiced				l̟
Nasal	voiceless	m̱ (M)			ṉ (N)		ṉ̃ (Ñ)		ŋ̱ (Ŋ)
	voiced	m			n	ṇ	ñ		ŋ
Lateral	voiceless				ƚ (L)		ƚʸ
	voiced				l	ḷ	lʸ
Flap	voiceless				ṟ̌
	voiced				ř , l͏̌	ṛ̌
Trill	voiceless	p̃			ṟ̃
	voiced	b̃			r̃					ṛ̃

Voiceless, voiced and syllabic consonants may also be C̥, C̬ and C̩, as in IPA. Aspirated consonants are Cʻ or C̥ʰ / C̬ʱ. Non-audible release is indicated with superscripting, Vꟲ.

Fortis is C͈ and lenis C᷂. Labialization is C̮ or Cʷ; palatalization is Ꞔ, C⁽ⁱ⁾ or Cʸ; velarization is C⁽ᵘ⁾, and pharyngealization is C̴.

Other airstream mechanisms are pulmonic ingressive C^←, ejective Cˀ, implosive Cˁ, click C˂, and lingual ejective (spurt) C˃.

Anthropos

The journal Anthropos published the alphabet to be used in their articles in 1907. Although European, it is the same basic system that Sapir and Boas introduced to the United States. Transcription is italic, without other delimiters.

Anthropos alphabet (1907)

		Labial		Coronal ("Dental")			Palatal	Dorsal ("Guttural")			Pharyn- geal	Epi- glottal	Glottal
		Bilabial	Labio- dental	Inter- dental	Alveolar	Retroflex		Pre- velar	Velar	Uvular
Plosive	voiceless	p		t̯	t	ṭ	c	k̯	k	ḳ			ʼ
	voiced	b		d̯	d	ḍ	j	g̯	g	g̣		ꜣ
Affricate	voiceless	p̌ (pf)		t͏̯̌ (t̯s̯)	t͏̌ (ts)	ṭ̌ (ṭṣ)	č (tš)	ǩ̯ (k̯x̯)	ǩ (kx)	ḳ̌ (ḳx̣)
	voiced	b̌ (bv)		d͏̯̌ (d̯z̯)	d͏̌ (dz)	ḍ̌ (ḍẓ)	ǰ (dž)	ǧ̯ (g̯y)	ǧ (gÿ)	ǧ̣ (g̣ỵ̈)
Fricative	voiceless	ff (f̯)	f	s̯	s	ṣ	š	x̯	x	x̣	ḥ	h́	h
	voiced	w	v	z̯	z	ẓ	ž	y	ÿ	ỵ̈		ꜣ
Rhotic				r̯ ꭈ̯	r ꭈ	ṛ ꭈ̣		ꭉ̯ ꭊ̯	ꭉ ꭊ	ꭉ̣ ꭊ̣
Lateral flap					𝼑
Lateral liquid				l̯	l	ḷ	(ĺ)		ɫ
Lateral affricate	voiceless				t̪ (t̰)				k̪ (k̰)
	voiced				d̪ (d̰)				g̪ (g̰)
Lateral fricative	voiceless				s̪ (s̰)				x̪ (x̰)
	voiced				z̪ (z̰)				y̪ (y̰)
Nasal		m ꬺ (ṁ)		n̯	n	ṇ	(ń)	ꬻ̯	ꬻ (ṅ)	ꬻ̣
Prenasalized?	voiceless	p̰			t̰				k̰
	voiced	b̰			d̰				g̰
Ejective		p̓			t̕				k̓
Ingressive		p			ʇ	ʇ̣	ɔ		ʞ

Palatalized consonants are written with an acute – t́ d́ ć j́ ś ź ĺ ń etc. Semivowels are i̯ u̯ ü̯ o̯ e̯ etc.

Vowels

WIELD recommends the following conventions. It doesn't provide characters for distinctions that aren't attested in the literature:

WIELD recommendations for NAPA (semi)vowels

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
Glide		y	ẅ			ẉ	w
Close	higher	i	ü	ɨ	ʉ	ï	u
	lower	ɪ	ʊ̈	ᵻ	ʊ̇		ʊ
Mid	higher	e	ö	ə	ȯ	ë	o
	lower	ɛ	ɔ̈	ɛ̇	ɔ̇	ʌ	ɔ
Open	higher	æ	ɒ̈	æ̇		ɑ	ɒ
	lower	a		a

No distinction is made between front and central for the lowest unrounded vowels. Diphthongs are e.g. ⟨ai⟩ or ⟨ay⟩, depending on phonological analysis. Nasal vowels are e.g. ⟨ą⟩. Long vowels are e.g. ⟨a꞉⟩. A three-way length distinction may be ⟨a a꞉ a꞉꞉⟩ or ⟨a aꞏ a꞉⟩. Primary and secondary stress are e.g. ⟨á⟩ and ⟨à⟩. Voicelessness is e.g. ⟨ḁ⟩, as in the IPA. Creak, murmur, rhoticity et al. are as in the IPA.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows:

Typical NAPA vowel values (not prescriptive)

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
Glide		y					w
High	(higher)	i	ü	ɨ	ʉ	ï	u
	lower	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᵾ	ɪ̈	ᴜ
Mid	higher	e	ö	ə		ë	o
	lower	ɛ	ɔ̈	ʌ			ɔ
Low		æ		a/ɑ
Lower-Low		a		ɑ			ɒ

Pike

Pike (1947) presents the following:

Pike (1947) vowel values

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
Glide		y					w
High	(higher)	i	ü	ɨ	ʉ	ï	u
	lower	ι	ᴜ̈			ϊ	ᴜ
Mid	higher	e	ö	ə		ë	o
	lower	ɛ	ɔ̈	ʌ			ɔ
Low		æ
Lower-Low		a		ɑ			ɒ

Nasalization is V̨ or Vⁿ. A long vowel is V꞉ or Vꞏ; half-long is V‧ (raised dot). Positional variants are fronted V˂, backed V˃, raised V˄ and lowered V˅.

Anthropos

Vowels are inconsistent between languages. ï ë etc. may be used for unrounded central vowels, and the ⟨a⟩-based letters are poorly defined, with height and rounding confounded.

Anthropos (semi)vowels

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
Semivowel		i̯	ü̯	ī̯	ū̯	ï̯	u̯
High	higher	i	ü	ī (ï)	ū	ï	u
	lower	i̠	ü̠	ī̠	ū̠	ï̠	u̠
Mid	higher	ẹ	ọ̈	ẹ̄	ọ̄	ẹ̈	ọ
	mid	e	ö	ē (ë)	ō	ë	o
	lower	e̠	ö̠	ē̠	ō̠	ë̠	o̠
Low	higher	a̤̣					a̰̣
	mid	a̤ ạ		ä		a̰ a̠
	lower			a

There are actually three heights of low front and back vowels. ā is also seen for a low back vowel.

Reduced (obscure) vowels are i̥ e̥ ḁ etc. There are also extra-high vowels ị ụ etc.

Bloch & Trager

Bloch & Trager (1942) proposed the following schema, which was never used. They use a single dot for central vowels and a dieresis to reverse backness. The only central vowels with their own letters are ⟨ɨ⟩, which already has a dot, and ⟨ᵻ⟩, which would not be distinct if formed with a dot.

Bloch & Trager vowel symbols

	Front		Central		Back
	unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
High	i	ü	ɨ	u̇	ï	u
Lower-high	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᴜ̇	ɪ̈	ᴜ
Higher-mid	e	ö	ė	ȯ	ë	o
Mean-mid	ᴇ	ꭥ̈	ᴇ̇	ꭥ̇	ᴇ̈	ꭥ
Lower-mid	ɛ	ɔ̈	ɛ̇	ɔ̇	ɛ̈	ɔ
Higher-low	æ	ω̈	æ̇	ω̇	æ̈	ω
Low	a	ɒ̈	ȧ	ɒ̇	ä	ɒ

Kurath

Kurath (1939) is as follows. Enclosed in parentheses are rounded vowels. Apart from ⟨ʚ, ꭤ⟩ and some differences in alignment, it is essentially the IPA.

	Front	Half- front	Central	Half- back	Back
High	i (y)		ɨ (ʉ)		ɯ (u)
Lower high		ɪ (ʏ)	ᵻ (ᵾ)	ɤ (ᴜ)
Higher mid	e (ø)	ɘ			(o)
Mid			ə	(ɵ)
Lower mid	ɛ (ʚ)		ɜ (ɞ)	ʌ
Higher low	æ		ɐ		(ɔ)
Low	a		ɑ		ꭤ (ɒ)

Chomsky & Halle

Chomsky & Halle (1968) proposed the following schema, which was hardly ever used. In addition to the table, there was ⟨ə⟩ for an unstressed reduced vowel.

Chomsky & Halle vowel symbols

		[−back]		[+back]
		[−round]	[+round]	[−round]	[+round]
[+high −low]	[+tense]	i	ü	ᵻ̄	u
	[−tense]	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᴜ
[−high −low]	[+tense]	e	ȫ	ʌ̄	ō
	[−tense]	ɛ	ö	ʌ	o
[−high +low]	[+tense]	ǣ	ꭢ̄	ā	ɔ̄
	[−tense]	æ	ꭢ	a	ɔ

Tone and prosody

Pike (1947) provides the following tone marks:

• High: V́ or V¹
• Mid: V̍ or V²
• Norm: V̄ or V³
• Low: V̀ or V⁴

Stress is primary ˈCV or V́ and secondary ˌCV or V̀.

Short or intermediate and long or final 'pauses' are |, ||, as in IPA.

Syllable division is CV.CV, as in IPA, and morpheme boundaries are CV-CV.

Historical charts of 1916

The following charts were agreed by committee of the American Anthropological Association in 1916.

The vowel chart is based on the classification of H. Sweet. The high central vowels are differentiated by moving the centralizing dot to the left rather than with a cross stroke. IPA equivalents are given in a few cases that may not be clear.

	narrow			wide
	back	mixed	front	back	mixed	front
high	ï	ı᷸ (= ˙ı)	i	ɩ̈	ɩ᷸ (= ˙ɩ)	ɩ
mid	α [ʌ]		e	a		ε
low					ȧ	ä
high round	u	u̇	ü	υ	υ̇	ϋ
mid round	o	ȯ	ö	ɔ	ɔ̇	ɔ̈
low round	ω	ω̇	ω̈

	Stops					Spirants			Affricates			Nasals		Laterals			Lateral Affricates			Rolled Consonants
	Surd	Sonant	Intermed.	Aspirated	Glot- talized	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*
Bilabial (rounded)	pw	bw	ʙw	pwʽ	p̓w , pwǃ	ƕ	w	ƕǃ	pƕ	bw	pƕǃ	ᴍw	mw
Bilabial (unrounded)	p	b	ʙ	pʽ	p̓ , pǃ	φ	β	φǃ	pφ	bβ	pφǃ	ᴍ	m
Dento- labial						f	v	fǃ	pf	bv	pfǃ
Inter- dental						θ	ϑ	θǃ	tθ	dϑ	tθǃ
Linguo- dental	t̯	d̯	ᴅ̯	t̯ʽ	t̯̓ , t̯ǃ	s̯	z̯	s̯ǃ	t̯s	d̯z	t̯sǃ	ɴ̯	n̯	ƚ̯ , ʟ̯	l̯	ƚ̯ǃ	t̯ƚ	d̯l	t̯ƚǃ	ʀ̯	r̯	ʀ̯ǃ
Linguo- alveolar	t	d	ᴅ	tʽ	t̓ , tǃ	s	z	sǃ	ts	dz	tsǃ	ɴ	n	ƚ , ʟ	l	ƚǃ	tƚ	dl	tƚǃ	ʀ	r	ʀǃ
Cerebral	ṭ	ḍ	ᴅ̣	ṭʽ	ṭ̓ , ṭǃ	ṣ	ẓ	ṣǃ	ṭs	ḍz	ṭsǃ	ɴ̣	ṇ	ƚ̣ , ʟ̣	ḷ	ƚ̣ǃ	ṭƚ	ḍl	ṭƚǃ	ʀ̣	ṛ	ʀ̣ǃ
Dorso- dental	τ̯	δ̯	Δ̯	τ̯ʽ	τ̯̓ , τ̯ǃ	σ̯	ζ̯	σ̯ǃ	τ̯σ	δ̯ζ	τ̯σǃ	ν̯	ν̯	ᴧ̯	λ̯	ᴧ̯ǃ	τ̯ᴧ	δ̯ᴧ	τ̯ᴧǃ
Dorsal	τ	δ	Δ	τʽ	τ̓ , τǃ	σ	ζ	σǃ	τσ	δζ	τσǃ	ν	ν	ᴧ	λ	ᴧǃ	τᴧ	δᴧ	τᴧǃ
Dorso- palatal	τ̣	δ̣	Δ̣	τ̣ʽ	τ̣̓ , τ̣ǃ	σ̣	ζ̣	σ̣ǃ	τ̣σ	δ̣ζ	τ̣σǃ	ν̣	ν̣	ᴧ̣	λ̣	ᴧ̣ǃ	τ̣ᴧ	δ̣ᴧ	τ̣ᴧǃ
Anterior c-sounds	(τy)	(δy)	(Δy)	(τyʽ)	(τ̓ , τyǃ)	cy	jy	cyǃ	tcy	djy	tcyǃ	( ν y)	( ν y)	(ᴧy)	(λy)	(ᴧyǃ)	(τᴧy)	(δᴧy)	(τᴧyǃ)
Mid c-sounds	(ty)	(dy)	(ᴅy)	(tyʽ)	(t̓ , tyǃ)	c	j	cǃ	tc	dj	tcǃ	(ɴy)	(ny)	(ƚy , ʟy)	(ly)	(ƚyǃ)	(tƚy)	(dly)	(tƚyǃ)
Posterior c-sounds	(ṭy)	(ḍy)	(ᴅ̣y)	(ṭyʽ)	(ṭ̓ , ṭyǃ)	c̣	j̣	c̣ǃ	ṭc	ḍj	ṭcǃ	(ɴ̣y)	(ṇy)	(ƚ̣y , ʟ̣y)	(ḷy)	(ƚ̣yǃ)	(ṭƚy)	(ḍly)	(ṭƚyǃ)
Anterior palatal	k̯	g̯	ɢ̯	k̯ʽ	k̯̓ , k̯ǃ	x̯	γ̯	x̯ǃ	k̯x	g̯γ	k̯xǃ	ᴎ̯	ŋ̯				k̯ƚ	g̯l	k̯ƚǃ	Ρ̯	ρ̯	ρ̯ǃ
Mid- palatal	k	g	ɢ	kʽ	k̓ , kǃ	x	γ	xǃ	kx	gγ	kxǃ	ᴎ	ŋ				kƚ	gl	kƚǃ	Ρ	ρ	ρǃ
Back palatal, velar	ḳ (q)	g̣	ɢ̣	ḳʽ	ḳ̓ , ḳǃ	x̣	γ̣	x̣ǃ	ḳx	g̣γ	ḳxǃ	ᴎ̣	ŋ̣				ḳƚ	g̣l	ḳƚǃ	Ρ̣	ρ̣	ρ̣ǃ
Glottal	ʼ			ʼʽ		ʽ , h	a (any vowel)		ʼʽ											(a̓)
Laryngeal	ʼ̣			ʼ̣ʽ		ḥ	(any vowel with laryngeal resonance)		ʼ̣ḥ

Notes:

• surd = voiceless; sonant = voiced; intermed. = partially voiced
• In the glottalized stop column, the phonetic symbol appearing on the left side (which is a consonant plus an overhead single quotation mark) represents a weakly glottalized stop (i.e. weakly ejective). The symbol on the right side is strongly glottalized (i.e. it is articulated very forcefully). Example: [k̓ ] = weakly glottalized, [kǃ] = strongly glottalized. (Cf. kʼ = [k] followed by glottal stop.) This convention is only shown for the glottalized stops, but may be used for any of the glottalized consonants.
• "Laryngeal" refers to either pharyngeal or epiglottal.

Variation between authors

Following are symbols that differ among well-known Americanist sources.

	Powel 1880	Boas 1911	AAA 1916	Sapir 1934	Sturtevant 1978	WIELD 2020	IPA
plosives
		kꞏ	ky	kʸ	kʸ	k̯, kʸ	c
		gꞏ	gy	gʸ	gʸ	ɡ̯, ɡʸ	ɟ
		q	q, ḳ		q	q
		g̣	g̣		ġ	ɡ̇	ɢ
		↋	ʼ	ʔ	ʔ	ʔ	ʔ
affricates
			tθ		θ̂	tθ	t͜θ
			dϑ		ð̂	dð	d͜ð
			ts	c	c	c	t͜s
			dz	ʒ	ʒ	dz	d͜z
	tc		tc	č	č	č	t͜ʃ
	dj		dj	ǯ	ǯ	ǰ	d͡ʒ
		ʟ	tł, tʟ	ƛ	ƛ	ƛ	t͡ɬ
		ʟ̣	dl	λ	λ	λ	d͡ɮ
fricatives
	ç	ç	θ		θ	θ	θ
	ȼ	ȼ	ϑ		δ	ð	ð
	c	c	c		š	š	ʃ
	j	j	j		ž	ž	ʒ
	q	x̣	x		x	x	x
	x	γ	γ		γ	ɣ	ɣ
		x	x̣		x̣	x̣	χ
		γ̣	γ̣		γ̇	ɣ̇	ʁ
					ḥ	ħ	ħ
nasals
	ñ	ñ	ñ	ŋ	ŋ	ŋ	ŋ
		ṇ̃	ṇ̃		ŋ̇	ŋ̇	ɴ
		m̥	ᴍ		M	m̥	m̥
		n̥	ɴ		N	n̥	n̥
		ñ̥	ɴ̃		Ṇ		ŋ̊
laterals		ł	ł, ʟ		ł	ł	ɬ
trills	ɹ		ṛ			ʀ	ʀ

	Powel 1880	Boas 1911	AAA 1916	Sapir 1934	Sturtevant 1978	WIELD 2020	IPA
aspiration	Cʽ	Cʽ	Cʽ, Cʰ		Cʰ	Cʰ	Cʰ
glottalization	Cʼ (bʼ)	C!	Cʼ	Cʼ	C̓	Cʼ	Cʼ, Cˀ
palatalization		Cꞏ	Cy, Cy	Cʸ	Cʸ	Cʸ	Cʲ
labialization		Cᵘ	Cw, Cw	Cʷ	Cʷ	Cʷ	Cʷ
length		V̄?	V̄	Vꞏ (V:)	Vꞏ (V:)	V꞉ (a꞉ a꞉꞉ or aꞏ a꞉)	Vː (Vːː)
nasalization	Vⁿ	Vⁿ	V̨		Ṽ	V̨	Ṽ

	Powel 1880	Boas 1911	AAA 1916	Sapir 1934	Sturtevant 1978	WIELD 2020	IPA
vowels
	ǐ	i	i, ī		i	i	i
	i		ɩ, i		ɪ	ɪ	ɪ
	ě	e	e, ē		e	e	e
	e		ɛ, e		ɛ	ɛ	ɛ
	ä		ä, ă		æ	æ	æ
	u	u	u, ū		u	u	u
	ǔ		υ, u		ᴜ	ʊ	ʊ
	o	o	o, ō		o	o	o
	ǒ		ɔ, o		ŏ	ɔ	ɔ
	ɔ	â	ω		ɔ	ɒ	ɒ
			ï		ɨ	ɨ, ï	ɨ, ɯ
	û	ᴇ	ə		ə	ə	ə
			ɑ, ȧ		ʌ	ʌ?	ɐ

See also

• Phonetic transcription
• International Phonetic Alphabet
• English Phonetic Alphabet
• Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
• Teuthonista
• Phonetics
• Phonology

External links

• Recommendations of WIELD for Americanist notation

Bibliography

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• ———— (1947) Phonemics: A Technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
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