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耶穌的歷史性

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維基百科,自由的百科全書

耶穌的歷史性主要關注文獻來源在何種程度上表明拿撒勒人耶穌是作為一個歷史人物而存在的。它不僅根據時間和地點的背景去研究「歷史中發生的真實事件」,而且同樣研究現代的觀察者如何知道「歷史中發生的真實事件」的。[1]第二個問題是緊密地與分析第一手資料的可靠性以及其它歷史證據的歷史研究實踐、方法聯繫在一起的。它還關注耶穌是否是一個拿細耳人問題。[2][3]

幾乎所有當代研究古代史的學者都同意《聖經》裏描述的耶穌是史實人物,耶穌基督是公元三十年左右生活於今日巴勒斯坦地區一帶的歴史人物、接受施洗者約翰受洗並且被釘死在十字架上,及耶穌基督是《聖經》裏提及的那個人物且對人類文明造成深遠影響等這幾點,迨無爭議,這些內容已經成為學界共識,研究古代歷史的學者,不論是否是基督徒,都同意這些內容。在2011年一篇回顧現代學術界狀況的文章中,巴特·葉爾曼寫道:「耶穌當然是史實人物,幾乎所有夠格的古代史學者,不論是否是基督徒,都會同意這點的。」[4]李察·A·伯里奇(一名英格蘭教會的牧師與聖經學者)則說道:「有些人主張耶穌基督是教會虛構的人物、耶穌未曾存在過,對此,我必須說,我沒聽過有任何值得敬重且持批判觀點的學者依舊有這樣的主張。」[5]

使用歷史調查的標準衡量方法,幾乎所有的新約學者和近東歷史學家都認為,耶穌毫無疑義地是史實人物[6][7][8][9],雖然他們對耶穌的信仰、教導以及福音書中描述的耶穌生命細節的準確性有不同的看法。[10]:168–173雖然學者批評耶穌文獻的宗教偏見和合理方法的欠缺,但這些批評者幾乎都普遍支持耶穌的歷史性,並拒絕基督神話理論,該理論認為耶穌不曾在歷史中存在過。[11][12][13]

「耶穌的歷史性」與「歷史中的耶穌」的相關研究不同,後者指的是對耶穌生命的學術重構,主要是建立在對福音文本的批判性分析上。[14][15][16]相反,歷史性作為一個研究主題與歷史本身不同,它涉及到兩個不同的根本問題。首先,它關注社會變革的系統過程;其次,它關注社會背景和文獻來源的作者意圖,通過這些元素,我們可以建立歷史事件的真相,從而將神話記錄與事實情況分離開來。[17]

文獻來源

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公元一世紀的猶太行省

關於耶穌的生活和教導的主要記載是他死後幾年由第三方敘述的。基督教的聖經代表了成為基督教經典的文獻來源,而且,在第一世紀存在許多與耶穌相關的偽經。[18]這些來源的真實性和可靠性已被許多學者質疑,並且福音書中提到的事件很少被普遍接受。[10]:181

非基督文獻來源也用於研究和建立耶穌的歷史性,其中包括猶太來源,如弗拉維奧·約瑟夫斯,以及羅馬來源,如塔西佗。這些來源通常與基督教的來源(如保羅書信對觀福音)相提並論,它們通常是相互獨立的(例如猶太來源並不引用羅馬來源),並且它們之間的相似性和差異性被用於鑑證過程。[19][20][21][22]

弗拉維奧·約瑟夫斯的《猶太古史》寫於公元93-94年左右,它在第1820篇中提到聖經的耶穌。一般學者的看法是,那個較長的、稱為弗拉維安的證詞(Testimonium Flavianum)段落總的來說很可能不是真實的,但人們普遍認為,它最初是由一個真正的核心構成,然後才遭到基督教的篡改或偽造。[23][24]約瑟夫斯另一處提到耶穌的地方,研究約瑟夫斯的學者認為,「很少有人質疑約瑟夫斯」在《猶太古代史》的20篇9.1處中提到耶穌的地方的「真實性」,而且只有少數學者有爭議。[25][26]在第20篇第9章中,總共有三處提到「耶穌」的名字:「耶穌,稱為基督」(即「彌賽亞」);「耶穌,(猶太大祭司)達姆內斯(Damneus)之子」,(兩者都在第1段中);和「耶穌(另一位猶太大祭司)迦瑪列(Gamaliel)之子」(在第4段中)。

羅馬歷史學家塔西佗在他的編年史,大約寫於公元116年)的15篇44章提到一個名為 「Christus」的人以及他被彼拉多處決的事件。[27]塔西佗對基督徒持有消極的評價,因此這段文字極不可能被一個基督徒抄寫者偽造的。[28] 塔西佗對耶穌的提及現在被廣泛地接受作為對基督被釘十字架的獨立的確認,[29]雖然一些學者以各種不同的理由質疑這段文字的真實性。[30][31][32][33][34][35][36]

歷史學家米高·格蘭特英語Michael Grant寫道:如果我們將一個用於判斷其它包含着歷史材料的古代作品的標準應用於新約,那麼,我們不能再拒絕耶穌的存在,也不能拒絕大量異教徒人物的存在,這些人物作為歷史人物從來沒有被質疑過。

福音書的歷史可靠性

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一份11世紀的拜占庭手稿包含了路加福音的開篇。

福音書的歷史可靠性是指四個新約福音作為歷史文獻的可靠性和歷史特徵。一些學者認為四福音的作者是假託的、未知的[37],在這四個成為經典的福音書中,並沒有甚麼歷史可靠性。[38][39][40][41][42]

大多數古代學者都同意耶穌存在,[43][44][45][46]但是學者關於聖經在耶穌敘述時描述的特定事件的歷史性有不同看法。[10]:181只有兩個「幾乎是普遍同意」的事件,這就是:耶穌接受施洗約翰的洗禮,並在一年或三年後,他被羅馬總督本丟·彼拉多釘十字架。在歷史真實性上有爭議的元素包括:耶穌誕生的兩個記載,神跡事件(將水變成酒,行走在水面上和復活),以及關於被釘十字架的某些細節。[47][48]

對觀福音書是有關耶穌的歷史資訊以及他創立的宗教運動的主要資訊來源。[49]這些用希臘語寫成的宗教福音書——馬太福音馬可福音路加福音——敘述了一個名為耶穌、說亞蘭語的猶太人的生命、事工、被釘十字架和復活的事件。關於文本的起源有不同的假設,因為新約的福音書是用希臘語寫成並用於希臘社會的,[50]後來譯成敘利亞語,拉丁語和科普特語,[51]儘管有人說馬太福音的一個版本可能是用亞拉姆語寫成的。[52]

第四個福音,即約翰福音,與前三個福音書有很大的不同。歷史學家在研究福音書的可靠性時通常研究使徒行傳的歷史可靠性,因為使徒行傳似乎是與路加福音出於同一作者。[53]

歷史學家通過將真實的、可靠的資訊與可能的發明、誇張和變更等部分區分開來,從而對福音書進行了批判性的分析。[54]由於新約中的文本變體(20-40萬)比它的使徒書信的變體(約14萬)還多,[55]因此學者使用文本批評的方法來確定哪些福音變體在理論上可被視為「本源的」。為了回答這個問題,學者必須質疑這些問題:誰寫了福音書,當他們寫福音書時,他們寫作的目的是什麼,[56]作者使用了什麼文獻來源,這些來源有多可靠,這些來源在時間上距離他們敘述的故事有多遠,這些來源後來是否發生了改變。學者還可以考察文檔的內部證據,看看文檔是否錯誤地引用了希伯來Tanakh的文本,是否出現了不正確的地理資訊,是否作者在隱藏資訊,或者,是否作者在虛構某個預言。[57]最後,學者轉向外部文獻來源,包括早期教會領袖、教會以外的作家(主要是猶太作家和希臘-羅馬史學家)的證詞,他們更可能會批評教會;學者同時也需考慮考古證據。

通常被接受為歷史的事件

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學者們對福音書敘事中提到的耶穌生平的細節以及他的教導的意義持有廣泛不同的意見,只有兩個「幾乎普遍同意」的事件,這就是:耶穌接受施洗者約翰的洗禮,並在一年或三年後,被羅馬總督本丟·彼拉多釘十字架[58][59][60]

古代馬達巴地圖的局部顯示兩個可能的受洗地點。
布隆齊諾描繪的三個釘子的十字架,沒有繩索,由一個下部的足台支撐着,大約作於1545年。

根據新約學者詹姆斯·鄧恩,幾乎所有現代學者都認為耶穌受洗和被釘十字架在歷史上是確定的。他說「耶穌生平的這兩個事實幾乎是得到普遍確認的」,並且「幾乎是無可置疑的,這兩個事件是試圖澄清什麼是耶穌的使命,為什麼這是耶穌的使命等問題的明顯出發點」。約翰·P·邁爾將耶穌釘十字架視為歷史事實,並指出,基於尷尬標準,基督徒不會虛構他們的領袖痛苦地死亡的事件。[61]尷尬標準同樣也用來支持施洗約翰施洗耶穌的歷史性,因為這個事件是早期基督教會從來不想虛構的故事。[62][63]基於這個標準,同時考慮到約翰是為了罪的減輕而受洗,並且考慮到耶穌被視為沒有罪的,因此發明這個故事是毫無目的,而且還可能帶來一個尷尬——因為,這個故事把約翰置於耶穌之上。[64][65]

艾米·吉爾·萊文總結了這種情況,指出人們「對於耶穌生活的基本輪廓存在一種共識」,因為大多數學者都同意耶穌是由施洗約翰施洗的,在一到三年的時間裏與猶太當局辯論關於上帝的話題,聚集追隨者,並被羅馬總督彼拉特(在位時間公元26-36年)釘十字架。[66]關於他之前的生活、童年、家庭和居住地點則有很多爭議。對於這些問題,正典四福音幾乎完全沉默。[67][68][69]

學者將對其他情節的肯定性有不同程度的看法。有些人認為關於耶穌和他的追隨者有八個元素可以被視為歷史事實,即:[70]

  • 耶穌受了施洗約翰的洗禮。
  • 他召喚門徒。
  • 他在聖殿帶來爭議。
  • 耶穌在耶路撒冷附近被羅馬人釘死。
  • 耶穌是加利利人。
  • 他的活動只限於加利利猶地亞
  • 耶穌死後,他的門徒繼續傳教。
  • 他的一些門徒受到迫害。

學術界並不普遍同意這個擴展清單。[71]

米書拿(約公元200年)可能提到了耶穌,並反思了早期猶太傳統將耶穌描繪為巫師或魔術師。[72][73][74]其他提到耶穌和他被處決的地方是塔木德,其目的是抹黑他的行為,但不否認他的存在。[75][76]

自18世紀以來,對歷史中的耶穌進行了三次學術探索,每次都有不同的特點,並且基於不同的研究標準,這些研究標準往往是在那個階段中發展起來的。[77][78]在這些過程中構建的耶穌形象往往彼此不同,而且也不同於福音書中描述的教條性的形象。

在21世紀,對歷史中的耶穌的第三次探索見證了耶穌學術構造的形象之分解。[79][80]

目前,對歷史中的耶穌的現代學術研究關注的是歷史上耶穌的可能性。[81][82]

在第三次探索中,主流的耶穌形象可以根據主題而分為幾類:啟示的先知,有領導魄力的治療師,憤世嫉俗的哲學家,猶太的彌賽亞和社會變革的先知,[83][84]但是,每個形象上都存在學術上的分歧,對於構建這些形象的學術方法也存在着分歧。[85][86]然而,在形象之間有重疊的屬性,學者不認同某些屬性時可能對其他屬性有所認同。[87]

在第二次探索期間發展出了尷尬標準,並適用於耶穌的受洗事件。

雖然對耶穌的存在抱有廣泛的學術共識,對他的生命大致輪廓也存在着基本共識,但在每次探索中對耶穌形象的構建經常彼此不同,和福音書中描繪的形象也不一樣。 在肖像之間有重疊的屬性,雖然有時候兩個學者可能同意一些屬性,但他們可能會不同意其他屬性,沒有一個歷史中的耶穌形象能滿足廣大的學者群體。[88]

一個大多數人贊同的觀點是,幾乎所有在現代研究古代的學者都同意耶穌是史實的人物,大多數聖經學者和古典歷史學家認為,「耶穌未曾存在」的理論,已經有效地被駁倒了。[89]今天沒有證據表明,在古代反對基督教的人曾否認耶穌的存在。[90][91]傑弗里·布萊尼英語Geoffrey Blainey指出,「少數學者認為耶穌⋯⋯甚至不存在」,他們「正確地指出,和耶穌同時代的著作對他的提及是極其罕見的。」[92] 巴特·埃爾曼承認,「耶穌沒有被任何和他同時代的羅馬文獻來源所提及」,但他卻堅持,其他來源的確支持耶穌的存在,[93]而李察·卡里爾和拉斐爾·拉塔斯特則斷言,沒有新約之外耶穌存在的獨立證據。[94][95]

某些學者,特別是歐洲學者,最近聲稱,雖然耶穌的存在有很多可能性,但是很難確認這個耶穌是聖經中的耶穌,人們應該在這個問題上作更多學術研究和討論。[96]

基督神話理論

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耶穌復活 諾埃爾·科佩爾(1700)——一些神話理論家將耶穌看成是一個死亡-復活的神。

基督神話理論認為耶穌從未存在,並且認為,如果他確實存在,那麼他與基督教的建立以及福音書中的記載幾乎沒有任何關係。[97][98][99]

現階段這個理論在當今學者中幾乎沒有得到什麼支持[100],是基本上已經被淘汰的學說;然而,歷史上,這種神話主義觀點在學術界[101][102][103][104][105]中有不同程度的影響力,有些甚至成為主流學術研究的一部分,例如大衛·施特勞斯的觀點。[106]在一個短暫的時期內,這個理論在蘇聯很受歡迎,謝爾蓋·科瓦列夫、亞歷山大·卡茲丹、艾布拉姆·拉諾維奇、尼古拉·魯緬采夫、羅伯特·威佩和 尤里·弗蘭采夫都支持這個觀點。[107] 然而,後來,包括卡日丹在內的幾位學者收回了對神話耶穌的看法,到80年代末,在蘇聯學術界中幾乎不存在對這一理論的支持。[108]

最近,李察·卡里爾在他的《耶穌的歷史性:為什麼我們可能有理由去懷疑》(On the Historicity of Jesus: Why We Might Have Reason for Doubt)一書中指出,沒有足夠的「貝葉斯概率」,也就是證據,能相信耶穌的存在。此外,他認為,耶穌的形象可能最初只是通過私人的啟示和隱藏在聖經中的資訊而來的,然後被雕刻成一個歷史人物,以寓言的方式傳達福音書中的觀點。然後,這些寓言在公元一世紀基督教教會的控制權爭鬥中開始被認為是事實。菲利普·R·戴維斯認為,認識到耶穌歷史性的不完全確定性將推動耶穌文獻得到學術的尊重[109]在Jesus Project中的R. Joseph Hoffmann 指出,耶穌越變得模糊、含混和不確定,就有越多的學者研究他,而不是相反。[110]

一些著名的專家已經發表同行評審的關於耶穌歷史性書籍,這些書籍使用了在這個主題上最新的文獻,其中包括戴爾·艾利森、巴特·埃爾曼、艾米·吉爾·萊文和蓋薩·維爾梅斯。他們都相信歷史耶穌的存在,反對基督神話理論,但他們傾向於將歷史耶穌看作是一個猶太傳教士,他從來沒有聲稱自己神,也沒有任何意圖去建立一個宗教。然而,一些學者卻不同意這種共識。[111][112][113]

參見

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參考文獻

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  1. ^ William J. Hamblin, professor of history at Brigham Young University.
  2. ^ Numbers 1:6-21
  3. ^ E. Meyers & J. Strange, Archaeology, the Rabbis, & Early Christianity Nashville: Abingdon, 1981; Article 「Nazareth」 in the Anchor Bible Dictionary.
  4. ^ Ehrman, Bart. Forged: writing in the name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are. HarperCollins. 2011: 285. ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. 
  5. ^ Burridge, Richard A.; Gould, Graham. Jesus Now and Then. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2004: 34. ISBN 978-0-8028-0977-3. 
  6. ^ Blomberg, Craig L. The Historical Reliability of the Gospels. InterVarsity Press. 2007. ISBN 9780830828074. 
  7. ^ Carrier, Richard Lane. On the Historicity of Jesus: Why we might Have Reason for Doubt. Sheffield Phoenix Press. 2014. ISBN 9781909697355. 
  8. ^ Fox, Robin Lane. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. Basic Books. 2005: 48. ISBN 978-0465024971. 
  9. ^ Dickson, John. Best of 2012: The irreligious assault on the historicity of Jesus. Abc.net.au. [17 June 2014]. (原始內容存檔於2018-05-13). 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Mark Allan Powell. Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee. Westminster John Knox Press. 1998 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3. (原始內容存檔於2017-03-13). 
  11. ^ Mark Allan Powell. Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee. Westminster John Knox Press. 1998: 168 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3. (原始內容存檔於2017-03-13). 
  12. ^ James L. Houlden. Jesus in History, Thought, and Culture: Entries A - J.. ABC-CLIO. 2003 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 978-1-57607-856-3. (原始內容存檔於2021-04-14). 
  13. ^ Robert E. Van Voorst. Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2000: 14 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 978-0-8028-4368-5. (原始內容存檔於2020-08-19). 
  14. ^ Amy-Jill Levine; Dale C. Allison Jr.; John Dominic Crossan. The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton University Press. 16 October 2006: 1–2. ISBN 0-691-00992-9. 
  15. ^ Bart D. Ehrman. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium. Oxford University Press. 1999: ix–xi. ISBN 978-0-19-512473-6. 
  16. ^ James D. G. Dunn. Jesus Remembered. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2003: 125–127 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 978-0-8028-3931-2. (原始內容存檔於2021-04-26). 
  17. ^ Hare Rom and Moghadda Fathali "Historicity, Social Psychology and Change" in Rochmore, Tom and Margolis, Tom (2008) "History, Historicity and Science" (Ashgate)
  18. ^ Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette. The Historical Jesus. Minneapolis MN: Fortress Press. 1996: 17–62. ISBN 978-0-8006-3122-2. 
  19. ^ The Cambridge Companion to Jesus by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 ISBN 0521796784 pp. 121–125
  20. ^ Bruce David Chilton; Craig Alan Evans. Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research. BRILL. 1998: 460–470 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 90-04-11142-5. (原始內容存檔於2020-10-04). 
  21. ^ Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pp. 431–436
  22. ^ Van Voorst (2000) pp. 39–53
  23. ^ Schreckenberg, Heinz; Kurt Schubert. Jewish Traditions in Early Christian Literature. 1992. ISBN 90-232-2653-4. 
  24. ^ Kostenberger, Andreas J.; L. Scott Kellum; Charles L. Quarles. The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. 2009. ISBN 0-8054-4365-7. 
  25. ^ The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier ISBN 0-8254-2924-2 pp. 662–663
  26. ^ Josephus XX by Louis H. Feldman 1965, ISBN 0674995023 p. 496
  27. ^ P.E. Easterling, E. J. Kenney (general editors), The Cambridge History of Latin Literature, p. 892 (Cambridge University Press, 1982, reprinted 1996).
  28. ^ Robert E. Van Voorst, Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence, Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000. p 39- 53
  29. ^ Eddy, Paul; Boyd, Gregory (2007).
  30. ^ F.F. Bruce,Jesus and Christian Origins Outside the New Testament, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974) p. 23
  31. ^ Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. 1998: 83. ISBN 978-0-8006-3122-2. 
  32. ^ Martin, Michael. The Case Against Christianity. : 50–51 [2017-02-27]. (原始內容存檔於2019-06-08). 
  33. ^ Weaver, Walter P. The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century: 1900-1950. A&C Black. 1999-07-01 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 9781563382802. (原始內容存檔於2020-10-02) (英語). 
  34. ^ Hotema, Hilton. Secret of Regeneration. Health Research Books. 1998 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 9780787304294. (原始內容存檔於2020-10-02) (英語). 
  35. ^ Jesus, University Books, New York, 1956, p.13
  36. ^ France, RT. Evidence for Jesus (Jesus Library). Trafalgar Square Publishing. 1986: 19–20. ISBN 0-340-38172-8. 
  37. ^ Ehrman, Bart. Who wrote the Bible and Why it Matters. HuffingtonPost.com. [21 November 2016]. (原始內容存檔於2018-02-08). 
  38. ^ Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 5
  39. ^ Charles H. Talbert, What Is a Gospel?
  40. ^ 「The Historical Figure of Jesus," Sanders, E.P., Penguin Books: London, 1995, p. 3.
  41. ^ Fire of Mercy, Heart of the Word (Vol.
  42. ^ Grant, Robert M. A Historical Introduction to the New Testament (Harper and Row, 1963). Religion-Online.org. (原始內容存檔於2010-06-21). 
  43. ^ In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman (a secular agnostic) wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, 2011 Forged : writing in the name of God ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. p. 285
  44. ^ Robert M. Price (an atheist) who denies the existence of Jesus agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars: Robert M. Price "Jesus at the Vanishing Point" in The Historical Jesus: Five Views edited by James K. Beilby & Paul Rhodes Eddy, 2009 InterVarsity, ISBN 0830838686 p. 61
  45. ^ Michael Grant (a classicist) states that "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." in Jesus by Michael Grant 2004 ISBN 1898799881 p. 200
  46. ^ Jesus Now and Then by Richard A. Burridge and Graham Gould (April 1, 2004) ISBN 0802809774 p. 34
  47. ^ James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) pp. 779–781.
  48. ^ Bruce M. Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: is missing in some important early witnesses, varies between the Alexandrian and Western versions.
  49. ^ Jesus Christ. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. [27 November 2010]. (原始內容存檔於2020-05-10). The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus 
  50. ^ Mark Allan Powell (editor), The New Testament Today, p. 50 (Westminster John Knox Press, 1999).
  51. ^ Stanley E. Porter (editor), Handbook to Exegesis of the New Testament, p. 68 (Leiden, 1997).
  52. ^ Lenski, Richard CH (2008) [1943], "The Hypothesis of an Original Hebrew", The Interpretation of St. Matthew's Gospel 1–14, pp. 12–14
  53. ^ Green, Joel B. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels 2nd. IVP Academic. 2013: 541. ISBN 978-0830824564. 
  54. ^ Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus.
  55. ^ Bart D. Ehrman: Misquoting Jesus – The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, p. 90 (review)頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館).
  56. ^ Paul Rhodes Eddy & Gregory A. Boyd, The Jesus Legend:A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. (2008, Baker Academic).309-262.
  57. ^ The Gospel of Matthew claims, the title Nazarene for Jesus was derived from the prophecy "He will be called a Nazorean" (), despite the lack of any Old Testament source.
  58. ^ Prophet and Teacher: An Introduction to the Historical Jesus by William R. Herzog (4 Jul 2005) ISBN 0664225284 pp. 1–6
  59. ^ Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 p. 339 states of baptism and crucifixion that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent".
  60. ^ Crossan, John Dominic. Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. 1995: 145. ISBN 0-06-061662-8. That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus ... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact. 
  61. ^ John P. Meier "How do we decide what comes from Jesus" inThe Historical Jesus in Recent Researchby James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1-57506-100-7 pp. 126–128
  62. ^ Who Is Jesus? by John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts 1999 ISBN 0664258425 pp. 31–32
  63. ^ Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching by Maurice Casey 2010 ISBN 0-567-64517-7 p. 35
  64. ^ Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 p. 47
  65. ^ The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide by Gerd Theissen, Annette Merz 1998 ISBN 0-8006-3122-6 p. 207
  66. ^ Amy-Jill Levine; Dale C. Allison Jr.; John Dominic Crossan. The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton University Press. 16 October 2006: 4. ISBN 0-691-00992-9. 
  67. ^ Eisenmann, Robert, (2001), "James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls"
  68. ^ Butz, Jeffrey (2005), "The Brother of Jesus and the Lost Traditions of Christianity" (Inner Traditions)
  69. ^ Tabor, James (2012), "Paul and Jesus: How the Apostle Transformed Christianity" (Simon & Schuster)
  70. ^ Authenticating the Activities of Jesus by Bruce Chilton and Craig A. Evans 2002 ISBN 0391041649 pp. 3–7
  71. ^ Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell (1 Nov 1998) ISBN 0664257038 p. 117
  72. ^ In Jesus: The Complete Guide edited by J. L. Houlden (8 Feb 2006) ISBN 082648011X pp. 693–694
  73. ^ Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schäfer (24 Aug 2009) ISBN 0691143188 pp. 141 and 9
  74. ^ Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg (1 Aug 2009) ISBN 0805444823 p. 280
  75. ^ Jesus and the Politics of his Day by E. Bammel and C. F. D. Moule (30 Aug 1985) ISBN 0521313449 p. 393
  76. ^ Kostenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L. (2009).
  77. ^ The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth by Ben Witherington (May 8, 1997) ISBN 0830815449 pp. 9–13
  78. ^ Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell (1 Jan 1999) ISBN 0664257038 pp. 19–23
  79. ^ The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria by Gerd Theissen and Dagmar Winter (Aug 30, 2002) ISBN 0664225373 p. 5
  80. ^ Jesus Research: An International Perspective (Princeton-Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus) by James H. Charlesworth and Petr Pokorny (Sep 15, 2009) ISBN 0802863531 pp. 1–2
  81. ^ John, Jesus, and History Volume 1 by Paul N. Anderson, Felix Just and Tom Thatcher (14 Nov 2007) ISBN 1589832930 p. 131
  82. ^ John P. Meier "Criteria: How do we decide what comes from Jesus?" in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight (15 Jul 2006) ISBN 1575061007 p. 124 "Since in the quest for the historical Jesus almost anything is possible, the function of the criteria is to pass from the merely possible to the really probable, to inspect various probabilities, and to decide which candidate is most probable.
  83. ^ The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pp. 124–125
  84. ^ The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1 by Margaret M. Mitchell and Frances M. Young (Feb 20, 2006) ISBN 0521812399 p. 23
  85. ^ Images of Christ (Academic Paperback) by Stanley E. Porter, Michael A. Hayes and David Tombs (Dec 19, 2004) ISBN 0567044602 T&T Clark p. 74
  86. ^ The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth by Ben Witherington (May 8, 1997) ISBN 0830815449 p. 197
  87. ^ Familiar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth by Michael James McClymond (Mar 22, 2004) ISBN 0802826806 pp. 16–22
  88. ^ Amy-Jill Levine in the The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. 2006 Princeton University Press ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 p. 1: "no single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most scholars"
  89. ^ James D. G. Dunn (1974) Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus in Reconciliation and Hope.
  90. ^ Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pp. 730–731: "The few non-Christian sources [e.g.
  91. ^ Van Voorst, Robert E (2000).
  92. ^ Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; pp. xix–xx
  93. ^ Ehrman, Bart D. Did Jesus Exist?. The Huffington Post. March 20, 2012 [2017-02-27]. (原始內容存檔於2018-08-22). 
  94. ^ Lataster, Raphael. Afterword by Richard Carrier. Jesus Did Not Exist: A Debate Among Atheists. November 12, 2015: 418. ISBN 1514814420. [T]here is no independent evidence of Jesus’s existence outside the New Testament. All external evidence for his existence, even if it were fully authentic (though much of it isn’t), cannot be shown to be independent of the Gospels, or Christian informants relying on the Gospels. None of it can be shown to independently corroborate the Gospels as to the historicity of Jesus. Not one single item of evidence. Regardless of why no independent evidence survives (it does not matter the reason), no such evidence survives. 
  95. ^ Lataster, Raphael. Weighing up the evidence for the ‘Historical Jesus’. The Conversation (website). December 14, 2014 [2017-02-27]. (原始內容存檔於2021-02-23). There are no existing eyewitness or contemporary accounts of Jesus. All we have are later descriptions of Jesus』 life events by non-eyewitnesses, most of whom are obviously biased. 
  96. ^ Thomas L. Thompson; Thomas S. Verenna. 'Is This Not the Carpenter?': The Question of the Historicity of the Figure of Jesus. Acumen Publishing, Limited. 2013. ISBN 978-1-84465-729-2. 
  97. ^ Mitchell, Logan. The Christian mythology unveiled, lectures. Cousins. 1842: 151 [2017-02-27]. (原始內容存檔於2019-12-17). Jesus Christ in the New Testament, has no reference whatever to any event that ever did in reality take place upon this globe; or to any personages that ever in truth existed: and that the whole is an astronomical allegory, or parable, having invariably a primary and sacred allusion to the sun, and his passage through the signs of the zodiac; or a verbal representation of the phenomena of the solar year and seasons. (Image of Title page & p. 151 at Google Books) 
  98. ^ Bart Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist?
  99. ^ Carrier, Richard. On the Historicity of Jesus: Why We Might Have Reason for Doubt. Sheffield Phoenix Press Limited. 2014: 52 [2017-02-27]. ISBN 978-1-909697-49-2. (原始內容存檔於2017-03-13). [T]he basic thesis of every competent mythologist, then and now, has always been that Jesus was originally a god just like any other god (properly speaking, a demigod in pagan terms; an archangel in Jewish terms; in either sense, a deity), who was later historicized. 
  100. ^ Did Jesus exist?, Bart Ehrman, 2012, Chapter 1
  101. ^ Schweitzer, Albert. Out of My Life and Thought: An Autobiography. Henry Holt and Company. 7 October 2014: 133. ISBN 978-1-4668-8294-2. In the autumn of 1912, when l was already busy shopping and packing for Lambaréné, I undertook to integrate into The Quest of the Historical Jesus material from the new books that had in the meantime appeared on the subject and to rewrite sections that no longer satisfied me. I especially wanted to explain late Jewish eschatology more thoroughly and to discuss the works of John M. Robertson, William Benjamin Smith, James George Frazer, Arthur Drews, and others, who contested the historical existence of Jesus. 
  102. ^ Wood, Herbert George. Christianity and the nature of history. University Press. 1934: 40. [T]he sociological fashion reflected in the rise of Formgeschichte lends colour to Christ-myth theories and indeed to all theories which regard Jesus as an historical but insignificant figure. 
  103. ^ Jones, Alan H. Independence and Exegesis: The Study of Early Christianity in the Work of Alfred Loisy (1857-1940), Charles Guignebert (1857 [i.e. 1867]-1939), and Maurice Goguel (1880-1955). Mohr Siebeck. 1983: 112. ISBN 978-3-16-144451-7. In 1937, Couchoud published Jésus: Le Dieu Fait Homme, Loisy replied with one of the last volumes of his vast output: Histoire et mythe à propos de Jésus-Christ (1938) 
  104. ^ A. C. COTTER, S.J. ALFRED LOISY (1857-1940). Theological Studies: A brief survey of Loisy's life and work (PDF). America Press. [2017-02-27]. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2016-10-18). [Loisy] came out with a vigorous attack on Couchoud's mythical theory in Histoire et mythe à propos de Jésus-Christ (1938). To Loisy's credit be it said that, to the end of his days, he maintained Jesus' historical existence against all mythmakers. 
  105. ^ Holding, James Patrick. Shattering the Christ Myth. Xulon Press. June 2008: 16. ISBN 978-1-60647-271-2. On George Albert Wells: "For his first book The Jesus of the Early Christians (1971), Wells took advantage of his fluency in German to read the radical work of Drews, Bauer and others. He had access to all the books that had never been translated into English. The result was a restatement of the early-twentieth century argument that used pagan parallels and interpolation as its main planks. The book was released by a trade publisher and received critical reviews in some academic journals. None of his later works received the same sort of attention." 
  106. ^ Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul Rhodes. The Historical Jesus: Five Views. InterVarsity Press. 4 January 2010: 15. ISBN 978-0-8308-7853-6. One of the most influential figures of the 「old」 quest is David Friedrich Strauss (大衛·施特勞斯). His book The Life of Jesus Critically Examined, originally published in 1835, became one of the most controversial studies of Jesus ever written. 
  107. ^ А. В. Андреев. Дискуссия об историчности Иисуса Христа в советском религиоведении (PDF). Вестник ПСТГУ. 2015 [12 June 2015]. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2015-06-13) (俄語). 
  108. ^ Гололоб Г. Богословие и национальный вопрос. Библиотека Гумер. [12 June 2015]. (原始內容存檔於2016-03-04) (俄語). 
  109. ^ Did Jesus Exist?. The Bible and Interpretation. [2017-11-15]. (原始內容存檔於2015-09-23). 
  110. ^ Carrier, Richard. Amherst Conference. January 10, 2009 [2017-02-27]. (原始內容存檔於2021-01-21). 
  111. ^ Dr. Richard Carrier. Questioning the Historicity of Jesus. Brandon Vogt. [6 April 2016]. (原始內容存檔於2019-04-27). The hypothesis that Jesus never really existed has started to gain more credibility in the expert community. Some now agree historicity agnosticism is warranted, including Arthur Droge (professor of early Christianity at UCSD), Kurt Noll (associate professor of religion at Brandon University), and Thomas Thompson (renowned professor of theology, emeritus, at the University of Copenhagen). Others are even more certain historicity is doubtful, including Thomas Brodie (director emeritus of the Dominican Biblical Centre at the University of Limerick, Ireland), Robert Price (who has two Ph.D.’s from Drew University, in theology and New Testament studies), and myself (I have a Ph.D. in ancient history from Columbia University and have several peer reviewed articles on the subject). Still others, like Philip Davies (professor of biblical studies, emeritus, at the University of Sheffield), disagree with the hypothesis but admit it is respectable enough to deserve consideration. 
  112. ^ Lataster, Raphael. IT'S OFFICIAL: WE CAN NOW DOUBT JESUS' HISTORICAL EXISTENCE. Think. 29 March 2016, 15 (43): 65–79. doi:10.1017/s1477175616000117. Think, Volume 15, Issue 43, Summer 2016, Published online by Cambridge University Press 
  113. ^ Tom Dykstra. Ehrman and Brodie on Whether Jesus Existed: A Cautionary Tale about the State of Biblical Scholarship. The Journal of the Orthodox Center for the Advancement of Biblical Studies (JOCABS). 2015, 8 (1): 29 [2017-02-27]. (原始內容存檔於2021-03-22). As for the question of whether Jesus existed, the best answer is that any attempt to find a historical Jesus is a waste of time. It can’t be done, it explains nothing, and it proves nothing. [Vol. 8, No. 1 (2015)]