跳至內容

草稿:電子遊戲與暴力

本頁使用了標題或全文手工轉換
維基百科，自由的百科全書

電子遊戲自誕生以來，就常被批評含有暴力元素。許多政客、家長及活動家宣稱電子遊戲與暴力行為有聯繫，特別是與青少年的暴力行為有聯繫。美國心理學會認為儘管帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲與冒犯性的行為有關，但將暴力行為都歸咎於帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲是「不科學的說法」[1][2]。

背景

[編輯]

自20世紀90年代末以來，因為人們認為犯罪嫌疑人可能有玩暴力電子遊戲的歷史，一些可能與遊戲有關的暴力事件被大肆宣傳。1999年的科倫拜校園事件造成了道德恐慌，使得學者們開始研究帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲是否會影響現實中的行為[3][頁碼請求]。一些研究發現遊玩有暴力元素的電子遊戲會增加或減少親社會行為（英語：prosocial behavior），或者與其增減有相關性[4][5]，其他研究則認為帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲根本就沒有這樣的功能[6]。2005年，美國娛樂軟體協會主席在接受公共廣播電視公司採訪時否認帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲會導致反社會行為，他在採訪中說：「坦率地說，這是不了解這個行業的人在過分誇大其詞」[7][與來源不符]。此外，還有一些人認為電子遊戲行業成了現實中各類社會問題的替罪羊[8][9][10]，玩電子遊戲本身對青少年有積極的影響[11][12]。

公眾的一種主要擔憂是，由於電子遊戲受眾中有很大一部分是年輕人，因此特別容易受到電子遊戲特別是其中的暴力元素的影響[7]。2022年進行的一項大規模研究發現至少有1/4的玩家年齡介乎10歲和20歲間[13]，此外一項針對12至17歲間，1102位青少年的研究發現，1102人中有97%在訪談的前一天玩過電子遊戲，這97%的人群中，又有14%的女孩和50%的男孩喜歡玩「M」（包含適合17歲以上玩家的內容）或「AO」（內容只適合18歲以上的成人）評級的遊戲，而有25%的家長在購買遊戲前根本不會檢視評級[14]。

歷史

[編輯]

電子遊戲誕生前

[編輯]

在歷史上，人們曾對漫畫雜誌抱有與電子遊戲類似的道德恐慌。1950年代，美國進入漫畫黃金時代，隨著產業的發展，一些藝術家和出版商開始出版、發行更頻繁地描繪暴力和其他擦邊內容的漫畫。1954年，精神病學家弗雷德里克·魏特漢出版了《純真的誘惑（英語：Seduction of the Innocent）》一書，宣稱漫畫中的暴力情節會誘導青少年去模仿，從而引發犯罪行為。即便魏特漢的一些說法後來被發現並不嚴謹，這本書還是引起了道德恐慌，迫使漫畫行業規範作品。同年，漫畫行業組建了漫畫準則管理局，嚴格規範內容，通過自我審查消除了大部分暴力和其他承認內容。其後，主流漫畫業逐漸衰落，而成人漫畫的地下市場則逐漸形成。直到接近20年後，漫畫行業才從漫畫監管局的規定中恢復過來，但不再那麼嚴格地遵守漫畫準則管理局的要求。進入千禧年後，人們普遍不再考慮漫畫準則管理局的要求[15]。也因此，人們常把對漫畫雜誌的恐慌和對遊戲的恐慌相提並論。而遊戲開發商也會儘量避免自我審查，以免影響銷量[16][17]。

彈珠台和漫畫雜誌的境遇相似，在20世紀50、60年代的美國，叛逆的青少年經常會在彈珠檯旁閒逛，有代溝的老一輩美國人無法理解這些青少年，因此對這些青年人感到恐慌。在一些人看來，彈珠檯似乎是一種賭博（這導致彈珠檯上往往貼有「僅供娛樂」的標籤），而信奉宗教的人更擔心彈球是「魔鬼的工具」。由於民眾對彈珠台產生了道德恐慌，許多城市不得不限制甚至禁止彈珠檯，不過這些禁令大都只維持到了70年代初。比如，紐約在1976年前一直禁止人們玩彈珠台[18]，芝加哥的禁令則一直維持到了1977年[19]。隨著電子遊戲的出現，叛逆的青少年們將目光從彈珠檯上轉移到了電子遊戲上，彈珠檯的禁令也是在電子遊戲出現後沒多久後被紛紛解除的，但人們對彈珠檯的擔憂也部分轉移到了電子遊戲上[20]。

1970–1980年代

[編輯]

在《乓》火遍大型電玩遊戲界後，大型電玩遊戲製作商意識到了電子遊戲的潛力，並試圖將其推廣開來；製作商們先在酒吧和酒廊推出新款的電子遊戲，這讓他們在內容上有了更大的創作空間——雖然仍遭到一些人批評[20]。在1976年前就已經有兩款大型電玩電子遊戲因不道德的內容而受到公眾關注：1973年雅達利製作的迷宮遊戲《Gotcha（英語：Gotcha (video game)）》出廠時，遊戲機的兩個操縱桿上覆有代表女性乳房的粉紅圓球，不過後來版本的遊戲機更換了操縱桿的樣式。1975年雅達利未經授權改編自同名電影的《大白鯊（英語：Shark Jaws）》包含了大量暴力內容，不過該款遊戲中玩家扮演的是被大白鯊追殺的人類[20]。隨著大型電玩遊戲進一步鋪開，這些遊戲最終引起了公眾的擔憂[20]。

1976年的大型電玩電子遊戲《死亡飛車》往往被認為是第一個以暴力內容為賣點的遊戲，這款遊戲與《大白鯊》一樣，也是一款未經授權改編自電影的遊戲。這款遊戲的遊戲機器上就有著大量與死亡相關的符號，而在遊戲中玩家被要求在時限內駕車碾過儘可能多的葛雷姆林[20]。這引起了美聯社記者溫迪·沃克的注意，她聯繫了遊戲的製作商Exidy，並向他們表明了她的擔憂[21]。沃克的擔憂隨後傳到了其他媒體機構那裡，比如美國全國安全委員會，該委員會後來指責這款遊戲美化了碾壓他人的行為，而當時美國全國安全委員會正試圖對駕駛員們進行安全駕駛教育。雖說一些大型電玩廳後來因為沃克的擔憂退回了遊戲機，但伴隨著媒體曝光，該款機器的總體銷量不減反增[22]。這款遊戲之前的不少遊戲也含有暴力元素，比如《警察和小偷（英語：Cops 'n' Robbers）》、《坦克》和《噴氣式戰鬥機（英語：Jet Fighter (video game)）》，但這些遊戲都沒有像《死亡飛車》一樣引起這麼大的爭議。雅達利的諾蘭·布什內爾這麼解釋：「我們雅達利有一條內部規定，不允許對人使用暴力。在遊戲裡你可以炸坦克，你可以炸飛碟，但你不能直接炸人。我們認為直接炸人不妥，在我任職期間，我們一直恪守這一規定。」[20]

美國軍醫總監查爾斯·埃弗雷特·庫普（英語：C. Everett Koop）是第一批公開認為電子遊戲可能導致青少年暴力的人之一。1982年，庫普以個人身份撰文表示「越來越多的人」開始認同電子遊戲可能對青少年的身心健康有不良影響，儘管當時還未有充分的證據得到任何結論[23][24]。

1990年代

[編輯]

《真人快打》及1993年美國國會電子遊戲聽證會

[編輯]
參見：真人快打相關爭議

1992年發售的大型電玩格鬥遊戲《真人快打》包含有大量血腥場面，遊戲中還出現了「必殺技（英語：Fatality (Mortal Kombat)）」的玩法，即終結敵人時使用的標誌性、更為血腥的攻擊方式。《真人快打》走紅後，業界湧現了一批帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲，不過，這些遊戲是大型電玩獨占式的遊戲，因此一般會被與面向青少年的非暴力遊戲區分開來[25][26]。然而，家用遊戲機廠商們在《真人快打》走紅後都想移植該款作品到自家主機上，特別是當時正處在遊戲機大戰（英語：console war）中，爭奪美國市場的SEGA和任天堂兩家[27]。SEGA移植版的《真人快打》保留了大型電玩版的所有血腥場面（但需要使用作弊碼才能激活），任天堂版則去掉了大部分血腥場面，紅色的血液也被灰色的「汗液」代替。然而，SEGA版的銷量最終遠超任天堂版[26]。

《真人快打》、《午夜陷阱》和《致命執法者（英語：Lethal Enforcers）》三款遊戲的爆火引來了美國參議員喬·李伯曼和赫伯·科爾（英語：Herb Kohl）二人的注意。1993-1994年間，二人主持了兩場國會聽證會，與業界、電子遊戲公司代表和相關群體探討電子遊戲中的暴力問題[26]。SEGA及任天堂等電子遊戲公司皆被批評缺乏完善的電子遊戲分級制度，李伯曼威脅說如果電子遊戲公司不自行整改，國會將採取行動規範行業[28]。在第二次聽證會中，SEGA、任天堂和其他廠商就成立娛樂軟體分級委員會進行自願評級達成了一致，該委員會最終於1994年落地[29][30]。這兩場聽證會還促使業界成立了負責管理娛樂軟體分級委員會的互動數字軟體協會，後改稱娛樂軟體協會[30][31]。

傑克·湯普森

[編輯]
主條目：傑克·湯普森 § 電子遊戲官司

已被除牌的美國律師傑克·湯普森批評說一些電子遊戲含有淫穢內容，並組織活動攻擊開發商和發售商。他認為，帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲是青少年排練暴力事件計劃的「殺人模擬器」，這些遊戲和一些校園慘案之間的聯繫密不可分。

科倫拜校園事件

[編輯]

1999年4月20日，艾瑞克·哈里斯和迪倫·克萊伯德在美國科羅拉多州傑佛遜縣哥倫拜恩高中槍殺13人，隨後自殺。兩名行兇者後被發現是包括《毀滅戰士》在內一批帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲的忠實粉絲。由於是次事件導致公眾認為電子遊戲與槍擊案有關聯，國會舉行了聽證會，比爾·柯林頓總統下令調查校園槍擊案以及電子遊戲是如何向青少年銷售的[32]。2004年，美國特勤局和美國教育部聯合發布的報告中發現，12%的校園槍擊案犯罪者對電子遊戲感興趣[32][33]。

哥倫拜恩槍擊案發生後，媒體開始重審之前發生的槍擊案，發現1998年韋斯特賽德中學槍擊案（英語：1998 Westside Middle School shooting）的兩名主謀也喜歡玩各種第一人稱射擊遊戲，還曾一起玩《黃金眼007》[34][35]。

2000年代

[編輯]

《俠盜獵車手III》及相關訴訟

[編輯]

2001年，Rockstar Games在PlayStation 2平台上發售了《俠盜獵車手III》，該款遊戲允許玩家控制主人公克勞德在一座現代都市中進行城市黑社會犯罪活動。該款遊戲還是第一批開放世界遊戲，允許玩家自由控制完成任務的方式，玩家可以在遊戲中鬥毆、打槍或是飆車。遊戲發售後大賣，在6個月內售出200萬份[36]。遊戲的大火使得遊戲中的暴力等元素被數個團體批評[37][38]。Rockstar在隨後的三年裡又發售了兩款續作，《俠盜獵車手：罪惡城市》和《俠盜獵車手：聖安地列斯》，《聖安地列斯》自帶了一個無法通過正常方式遊玩的熱咖啡模組，其中含有露骨的性愛內容。事件發生後不久，美國政府決定採取行動。2005年，加利福尼亞州政府宣布禁止向未成年人出售帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲[39]。

之後的幾年裡，一批青少年犯罪及謀殺案被發現與俠盜獵車手系列遊戲有關。傑克·湯普森代表受害者將Rockstar、Take-Two Interactive和索尼告上法庭，聲稱俠盜獵車手系列遊戲中的暴力內容直接導致了罪案頻發，要求三家公司進行賠償。然而，這些訴訟最終要麼被自願撤訴，要麼在判決前就已被駁回。湯普森本人也同意不再對Take-Two Interactive採取法律行動，不過他後來成為了一名反暴力電子遊戲的活動人士[40]。BBC後來製作了一部紀錄片《遊戲改變者（英語：The Gamechangers）》記錄這一事件。

溫嫩登校園槍擊案

[編輯]

2009年3月11日，一名槍手來到了德國溫嫩登的阿爾貝維爾實科中學，隨後射殺多人。事後調查發現槍手喜歡玩絕對武力系列電子遊戲和《極地戰嚎2》[41][42]。在隨後的幾周里，德國政界和相關人士向政府施壓，要求立法禁止在國內銷售帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲，但這一要求最終未能達成[43][44][45]。

《決勝時刻：現代戰爭2》及「別說俄語」關卡

[編輯]
主條目：No Russian

2009年發售的第一人稱射擊遊戲《決勝時刻：現代戰爭2》包含了一個極具爭議的任務關卡：「別說俄語」。在這一關里玩家會扮演一名中情局特工，奉命滲透一個恐怖組織並取得信任，因此他必須參加在莫斯科國際機場的屠殺任務；組織頭目為了讓人們認為這次恐怖襲擊由美國策劃，在開始襲擊前，對所有襲擊者說「Remember, no Russian」（直譯為「記住，不要說俄語」，但也有「要殺光現場的俄國人」的意思）。玩家準備開始單人模式之前，遊戲會詢問玩家是否跳過本關，因為本關有「令人不適的內容」。跳過本關不會懲罰玩家，也不會影響玩家的遊戲進度。這一關最後組織頭目會殺害主角，並表示自己早已知道主角的真實身份，他的真正目的是引發俄美戰爭，如果人們發現有中情局特工參與恐怖襲擊的話正好能夠達到這個目的。

在《決勝時刻：現代戰爭2》正式發布之前，這一關的內容就已被提前洩露到了網際網路上，迫使發行商動視和製作商Infinity Ward對記者和活動家的批評做出回應。動視回應說，畫面確實來自本遊戲，但強調這一任務並不代表遊戲其他部分，並且給出了關卡在遊戲劇情中的上下文[46][47]。遊戲正式發布後，這一關仍飽受批評，一些記者說這表示電子遊戲產業仍不成熟[48]。該任務被視為電子遊戲行業的分水嶺，因為自這之後，像「別說俄語」關卡這樣的遊戲內容被公眾認為是不應出現在遊戲中的內容[49][50]。

2010年代

[編輯]

布朗訴娛樂商業協會案

[編輯]
主條目：布朗訴娛樂商業協會案

為解決帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲的問題，美國多個州一度通過了限制向兒童出售「M」評級電子遊戲的法律，尤其是含有暴力或性內容的遊戲。電子遊戲行業團體在法庭上反對這些法律，並贏得了不少訴訟[51][52]。其中最重要的案件是對2005年加利福尼亞州通過的法律的挑戰，該法禁止向未成年人出售「M」評級的遊戲，並要求在娛樂軟體分級委員會的分級基礎上使用更嚴格的內容分級系統。電子遊戲行業團體在地方法庭反對這一法律，並在地方法庭勝訴，但該案隨即被帶到美國最高法院。在布朗訴娛樂商業協會案中，最高法院裁定電子遊戲為傳媒形式之一，故而受到美國憲法第一修正案的保護，而像加利福尼亞州這樣，以米勒測試之外的依據阻止銷售的法律是違憲的[53]。大法官安東寧·斯卡利亞為該案撰寫了裁決書的主要觀點，他寫道電子遊戲中的暴力內容和《格林童話》中的暴力內容之間並沒有什麼區別[54]。

桑迪胡克小學槍擊案

[編輯]

2012年12月14日，亞當·蘭扎在桑迪胡克小學內槍殺26人後自殺。根據調查人員的說法，亞當·蘭扎曾購入大量電子遊戲，其中包括一些具有暴力元素的電子遊戲[55][56]。這一發現在政界和媒體界引起了新一輪反對暴力電子遊戲的呼聲[57][58]，美國副總統喬·拜登會見了一批電子遊戲行業的代表[59]。美國全國步槍協會說電子遊戲產業，特別是背景設置在學校內的射擊遊戲是桑迪胡克小學槍擊案的罪魁禍首[60][61]。

2016年慕尼黑槍擊案

[編輯]

2016年，18歲的大衛·阿里·桑波里在德國巴伐利亞慕尼黑莫薩赫的奧林匹亞購物中心（英語：Olympia-Einkaufszentrum）槍殺9人後自殺。德國聯邦內政和國土部部長湯瑪斯·德邁齊埃在事後宣稱，「網際網路上美化暴力的遊戲泛濫成災，對青少年的成長也產生了有害影響。任何有理智的人都不會否認這一點」[62]。他的發言遭到媒體專家邁克·毛什的批評，毛什說，「沒有一個理智的科學家敢如此肯定地說出這樣的話。而如果沒有科學家敢這麼說，也就不應該有政府部長敢這麼說」[63]。

瑪喬麗·斯通曼·道格拉斯高中槍擊案

[編輯]

2018年2月14日，19歲的尼可拉斯·克魯茲進入佛羅里達州帕克蘭的瑪喬麗·斯通曼·道格拉斯高中槍殺17人，並重傷多人。肯塔基州州長馬特·貝文隨即呼籲美國應該重新審視「交到青少年手裡的東西」[64]，特別是「讓人們對人的生命價值變得不敏感」的「被反覆提及的電子遊戲」[65]。事發一個月後，美國總統唐納·川普在華盛頓特區會見了一些行業的代表和倡議者，討論帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲的影響：出席者包括娛樂軟體協會總裁麥克·加拉格爾、娛樂軟體分級委員會總裁帕特里夏·范斯、ZeniMax Media執行長羅伯特·阿特曼、Take-Two執行長史特勞斯·澤爾尼克、媒體研究中心（英語：Media Research Center）的布倫特·博澤和家長電視委員會（英語：Parents Television Council）的梅麗莎·亨森。會議期間電子遊戲行業的代表仍堅稱帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲和暴力行為之間缺乏聯繫，而批評者也仍堅稱電子遊戲行業應當限制青少年接觸電子遊戲，就像應當限制青少年接觸酒類或是香菸一樣[66]。

蘇扎諾市校園槍擊案

[編輯]

2019年3月13日，吉爾默·蒙泰羅和露易茲·卡斯楚進入巴西聖保羅州蘇扎諾的巴西勞爾教授中學射殺8人，隨後自殺。巴西副總統漢密爾頓·莫朗隨後表示這起槍擊案可能是年輕人沉迷於暴力電子遊戲的結果，還聲稱巴西父母的日常工作使年輕人更難得到正確的教育[67]。巴西的遊戲玩家們則在社交媒體上使用#SomosGamersNãoAssassinos（「#我們是玩家不是殺人犯」）表示抗議[68]。

埃爾帕索槍擊案及代頓槍擊案

[編輯]

2019年8月3日，21歲的派翠克·伍德·克魯修斯在德克薩斯州埃爾帕索的一家沃爾瑪商店槍殺23人，並重傷多人。同日，24歲的康納·史蒂芬·貝茨在俄亥俄州代頓的一家酒吧中槍殺9人，重傷多人。這兩起事件再度引起了電子遊戲導致暴力的說法。唐納·川普在兩場槍擊案幾日後發表聲明：「我們必須停止在我們的社會中頌揚暴力，比如現今常見的一些可怕的、令人毛骨悚然的電子遊戲。」[69]眾議院少數黨領袖凱文·麥卡錫同樣認為電子遊戲是罪魁禍首，說：「我始終認為，這是關乎我們後代和每個人的問題。我們已經從研究中看到了它對個人的影響，從這些槍擊案的照片中可以看到電子遊戲和其他遊戲中的行為。」[32]新聞機構和電子遊戲行業重申了過去的研究結果，即電子遊戲和暴力行為之間沒有必然聯繫，並批評政客們在應當進行槍枝管制的時候將責任全都推給電子遊戲[69][32]。

薩勒河畔哈雷猶太會堂槍擊案

[編輯]

2019年10月9日，27歲的史蒂芬·巴利特在德國薩克森-安哈特薩勒河畔哈雷的一間猶太會堂附近射殺兩人，射傷兩人（英語：Halle synagogue shooting），巴利特在作案時通過Facebook和Twitch進行直播，並在直播中發表了極右翼反猶言論[70]。德國內政部長霍斯特·澤霍費爾在事後表示「許多犯罪者或潛在犯罪者來自於遊戲圈」[71]，他的言論被德國遊戲玩家和政治家所批評德國社會民主黨總書記拉爾斯·克林拜爾說：「問題出在右翼極端主義上，而非遊戲玩家或者別的什麼」[72]。

2020年代

[編輯]

托雷翁塞萬提斯學院槍擊案

[編輯]

2020年1月10日，11歲的荷西·安赫爾·拉莫斯·貝茨在墨西哥科阿韋拉州托雷翁的塞萬提斯學院槍殺1人，打傷6人後自殺（英語：Colegio Cervantes shooting）。州長米格爾·安赫爾·里克爾梅·索利斯（英語：Miguel Ángel Riquelme Solís）在槍擊案後幾小時宣布，貝茨在作案時穿著一件印有《物競天擇》模組logo的襯衫，並表示他可能是受遊戲影響作案[73]。州長的言論隨即引發爭議，墨西哥國立自治大學心理學院的艾瑞克·薩拉薩爾·弗洛雷斯表示，對那些希望忽視問題本身複雜性的當局來說，將暴力歸咎於電子遊戲是一種「簡單的辦法」[74]。下加利福尼亞自治大學（英語：Autonomous University of Baja California）的社會學家達利拉·巴倫蘇埃拉評論說雖然電子遊戲可能會影響青少年的行為，但家長們要負最主要的責任[75]。

納赫爾·梅爾祖克抗議

[編輯]

2023年6月，17歲的北非裔法國人納赫爾·梅爾祖克在巴黎郊區楠泰爾被一名警察開槍擊斃，隨後引發大規模的抗議和暴亂。法國總統艾曼紐·馬克宏在同月批評電子遊戲「毒害」一些青年騷亂者[76]。

研究

[編輯]

The policy statement of the American Psychological Association (APA) related to video games states "Scant evidence has emerged that makes any causal or correlational connection between playing violent video games and actually committing violent activities."[69] The APA has acknowledged that violent video games strongly correlates with aggressive behavior, as well as anti-social behavior, but distinguishes between aggression and violence. A 2015 APA review of current studies in this area described the link between violent video games and aggressive behavior as "both as an increase in negative outcomes such as aggressive behavior, cognition, and affect and as a decrease in positive outcomes such as prosocial behavior, empathy, and sensitivity to aggression."[77] However, the APA recognized the studies tended to be disproportionate to normal demographics.[77]

Further, the APA issued a policy statement in 2017 aimed at politicians and media to urge them to avoid linking violent video games with violent crimes, reiterating the subject of their findings over the years.[78] In a follow-up statement in 2020, the APA reaffirmed that there remains insufficient evidence to link video games to violent behavior. They had found that there was "small, reliable association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes, such as yelling and pushing," but could not extend that to more violent activities.[79]

Christopher Ferguson, a professor at Stetson University and a researcher on the connection between violent video games and violent behavior, has stated that "[t]here's not evidence of a correlation, let alone a causation" between videogames and violence.[80] Ferguson's more recent studies have shown that there is no predictive behavior that can be inferred from the playing of violent video games.[81][82]

A longitudinal study published in Molecular Psychiatry in 2021 found no significant changes in semantic accessibility to aggressive words, frustration tolerance, empathy, or prosocial behavior between those who played a violent video game and those who played a non-violent video game daily for two months.[83] Similarly, a 2023 study published in eLife found that playing violent video games, specifically "Grand Theft Auto V," does not decrease empathy in players. The research used fMRI and behavioral tests to measure empathy and found no significant evidence of reduced empathetic responses or emotional reactions to violence in players.[84]

暴力網路遊戲的負面影響

[編輯]

有關電子遊戲負面影響的理論往往側重於探討玩家會模仿遊戲中的行為。由於遊戲所具有的互動性，這些影響可能要比其他媒體造成的類似影響更嚴重。關於此類影響的最著名理論是認知新聯想理論（也稱為腳本理論），該理論認為，玩帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲可能會產生攻擊性的「認知腳本」，當玩家認為他人的行為具有敵意時，這些腳本就會被激活[85]。因此，玩帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲就成了玩家演練攻擊行為的機會，從而導致人們在現實生活中變得更具攻擊性。元理論模型「一般攻擊模型」被用於將各種理論統合以共同解釋攻擊行為，在電子遊戲相關的研究中，一般攻擊模型認為攻擊認知、攻擊情感、生理喚醒相互作用，並最終引起攻擊行為[86]。一些學者對一般攻擊模型提出了批評，認為該模型錯誤地假定攻擊行為主要是通過後天學習獲得的，還錯誤地假定大腦無法區分虛擬與現實[87]。最近的一些研究更明指，有證據表明短期接觸暴力電子遊戲不會讓人們產生攻擊性情緒和行為[88][89][90]。

家長們可以通過監督孩子們的遊玩過程使孩子們遠離遊戲中的暴力內容。

一些探討攻擊性行為的生物學理論因證據過於薄弱，特別排除了電子遊戲和其他媒體可能造成的影響。例如，素質—壓力模式模型中的「催化劑模型」認為人的攻擊性是由基因和環境壓力共同作用產生的，還認為壓力和反社會人格是導致攻擊性行為的最突出因素。「催化劑模型」認為，家長或是同輩可能會造成人們產生攻擊性，但媒體和電子遊戲則不可能[91][92]。

研究方法

[編輯]

Research has focused on two elements of the effects of video games on players: the player's health measures and educational achievements as a function of game play amounts; the players' behavior or perceptions as a function of the game's violence levels;[93] the context of the game play in terms of group dynamics; the game's structure which affects players' visual attention or three dimensional constructional skills; and the mechanics of the game which affects hand–eye coordination.[94] Two other research methods that have been used are experimental (in a laboratory), where the different environmental factors can be controlled, and non-experimental, where those who participate in studies simply log their video gaming hours.[4]

科學界的爭論

[編輯]

一種常見的理論認為，玩帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲會增加青少年的攻擊性。許多研究聲稱得到了支援這一假設的結果[4][95][96]，但也有不少研究認為二者之間沒有任何關聯[97][98]。正反兩方面的學者之間仍在激烈爭論[99][100]。

初步研究

[編輯]

1998年，史蒂文·柯什在學術期刊《童年》中寫道，遊玩電子遊戲會導致敵對歸因偏差（英語：hostile attribution bias），他讓55名受試者分成兩組，分別玩暴力的和非暴力的電子遊戲。之後，受試者被要求閱讀人物行為模糊的故事，柯什發現被選中玩帶有暴力元素電子遊戲的受試者更有可能對故事做出負面解釋[101]。安德森和迪爾在2000年進行的另一項研究發現，在大學生中，玩帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲與暴力犯罪之間存在相關性，在激進的男性玩家中，這種相關性更強[102]，但有學者指出這項研究的結果並無一致性，研究方法也有缺陷[103]。

2001年，美國醫務總監（英語：Surgeon General of the United States）大衛·柴契爾（英語：David Satcher）說：「我們顯然將媒體暴力與攻擊性行為聯繫在了一起。但與其他因素相比，這種影響非常小。有些人可能對此不滿意，但這就是科學。」[104]

2002年，美國特勤局對41名校園槍擊案的肇事者進行了調查，結果發現，其中有12%的人喜歡玩帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲，24%的人喜歡閱讀暴力書籍，27%的人喜歡看暴力電影[105]。一些學者指出，與一般青少年相比，這些數字異常低[106]。

2003年，愛荷華州立大學的一項研究分析了兒童看法與暴力之間的關係[107]。這項研究針對5-12歲的兒童展開，具體研究他們一般每周玩電子遊戲的時間，及對原有移情能力的影響。研究者要求受試者分兩組，分別遊玩約15分鐘的暴力電子遊戲和非暴力電子遊戲，並記錄孩子們的脈搏及遊玩過程中的挫敗感。其後，研究員給孩子們展示一些畫有日常情景的圖畫，有的孩子在看到日常情景的圖畫後更容易產生攻擊性行為，而有的孩子則更容易產生共情行為。研究的結果是沒有找到短期內電子遊戲對兒童有影響的證據，兩種遊戲的影響之間也不存在顯著差異，標明孩子們不會因為短期遊玩暴力遊戲而減少共情。不過，在實驗開始前的統計中，長期遊玩暴力電子遊戲的兒童共情能力偏低，這表明暴力電子遊戲可能有長期的影響。也有可能這些電子遊戲沒有讓兒童對特定的攻擊情景產生共鳴。這些資料可能表明，兒童在長期接觸電子遊戲後會出現心理脫敏的問題，但並非所有兒童都受到同樣的影響。研究人員還推斷，有些兒童可能更容易受到負面影響，且可能15分鐘的時間還不足以產生短期的認知影響。

2003年，托雷多大學心理學系的珍娜·B·豐克等人研究了四五年級學生接觸媒體中和現實生活中的暴力，與心理脫敏（具體表現包括喪失同理心、改變對暴力行為的看法）之間的關係。豐克發現接觸電子遊戲中的暴力內容與移情能力下降及親暴力態度之間有相關性[108]。

2003年，威斯敏斯特大學的約翰·科爾韋爾進行另一項研究發現玩帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲與日本青少年攻擊性減少有關[109]。

2005年，美國心理學會發表了一份決議書，認為遊戲中的暴力內容會增加敵對性、攻擊性想法、促使人們懷疑他人、認同使用暴力解決問題；對暴力性的互動電子遊戲研究的綜合分析表明，遊玩會增加攻擊性想法、行為、引發憤怒情緒和其他生理波動，並減少助人行為；媒體中的性暴力與對婦女的暴力行為、強姦謬論的接受度和反婦女態度的增長有相關性。該份決議書呼籲減少媒體（特別是針對兒童的節目和遊戲）中的暴力內容，呼籲從社會學習、性別歧視、對少數群體的負面描述以及性別的角度研究電子遊戲和其他媒體中的暴力行為對兒童和青少年造成的影響，呼籲讓遊戲的開發商加入進來一同解決電子遊戲中的暴力內容會使兒童和青少年產生攻擊性行為和認知的問題。該份決議書還建議娛樂業把暴力行為後果的描述與負面社會後果聯繫起來，並建立能準確反映電子遊戲和互動媒體內容的評級系統。

2005年，布魯斯·D·巴塞洛等聯合了密蘇里大學、密西根大學、阿姆斯特丹自由大學和北卡羅來納大學四所大學的學者，發現電子遊戲中的暴力內容與大腦中脫敏相關的事件相關電位有關聯。作者認為，長期接觸帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲會對大腦功能和行為產生長期的有害影響[110]。

2005年，尼可拉斯·L·卡納吉等人在愛荷華州立大學、密西根大學和阿姆斯特丹自由大學的一項研究發現，曾玩過帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲的人在觀看真實的暴力影片時，心率和皮膚電刺激反應（英語：Electrodermal activity）都較常人偏低，這表明他們對暴力已經生理脫敏[111]。

2007年斯威本科技大學的一項研究發現孩童對帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲的反應各不相同，一些孩子變得更加具有攻擊性，一些孩子變得更溫和，大多數孩子並無行為模式上的明顯變化[112]。

2008年，一項追蹤研究在日本展開，該研究主要評估兒童玩電子遊戲可能產生的長期影響[113]。最終分析的對象是八所公立小學的591名10-11歲的五年級學生，歷時一年。該項研究首先要求孩子們完成一項調查，評估孩子們最喜歡的電子遊戲中是否存在暴力，以及可能影響結果和孩子們侵略行為的電子遊戲環境變量。一年後，該項研究再對孩子們進行調查。結果顯示，性別差異非常明顯，男孩的攻擊行為和憤怒表現明顯多於女孩，作者認為這是因為男孩對暴力電子遊戲的興趣要更高。然而，遊戲時間與暴力遊戲偏好之間的交互作用會減少男孩的侵略性，但對女孩無效。研究人員還發現，有八個環境變量會增加侵略性，包括不合理的暴力、武器的可用性和獎勵。此外，角色扮演、暴力程度和幽默這三個環境變量與侵略性降低有關。目前還不清楚從這兩項調查中觀察到的變化是否真的是情境效應。研究人員發現，電子遊戲中暴力的背景和力度對兒童的影響要大於暴力的存在和次數，而且這些影響因兒童而異。

2008年，皮尤網際網路與美國生活專案調查統計了電子遊戲對青少年社群行為的影響。與沒有玩過電子遊戲的青少年相比，有玩過多人遊戲的青少年的公民意識和政治參與度要高許多。參加遊戲相關討論（如在網站上發表評論或在討論板上發帖）的青少年會更積極地參與社區和政治活動。在玩遊戲的青少年中，63%的人報告說聽到或看到過「人們在玩遊戲時變得刻薄和過激」，49%的人報告說聽到或看到過「人們在玩遊戲時變得充滿仇恨、種族主義或性別歧視」，78%的人報告說看到過「人們在玩遊戲時變得慷慨、樂於幫助他人」[114][115]。

2009年，一份總結針對新加坡、日本和美國不同年齡段學生三項研究的報告中寫道，玩親社會遊戲能增加受試者的有益親社會行為[116]。

2010年，派翠克·馬基和夏洛特·馬基在一份論文中認為，暴力電子遊戲只會讓那些先天具有攻擊性傾向（如有神經質、低親和型或低盡責型）的人產生攻擊性情緒[117]。

In 2010, after a review of the effects of violent video games, the Attorney General's Office of Australia reported that even though the Anderson meta-analysis of 2010 was the pinnacle of the scientific debate at that time, significant harm from violent video games had not been persuasively proven or disproven, except that there was some consensus that they might be harmful to people with aggressive or psychotic personality traits.[118]

The attorney general considered a number of issues including:

  • Social and political controversy about the topic.
  • Lack of consensus about definitions and measures of aggression and violent video games (for example, whether a cartoon game has the same impact as a realistic one).
  • Levels of aggression may or may not be an accurate marker for the likelihood of violent behaviour.
  • The playing of violent video games may not be an independent variable in determining violent acts (for example, violent behaviour after playing violent video games may be age dependant, or players of violent video games may watch other violent media).
  • Studies may not have been long or large enough to provide clear conclusions.[118]

2010年，布洛克大學的研究人員保羅·阿德區和蒂娜·威洛比對爭論雙方的研究方法都進行了批評，指出實驗研究經常將暴力內容與競爭性內容等其他變量混為一談[119]。在一項後續研究中，作者發現競爭性內容（而非人們之前預想的暴力內容）與攻擊性有關[120]。

2011年，密西根大學發表了一項對14000名大學生進行的長達30年的追蹤研究，該研究測量了學生的整體移情水平。該研究發現自20世紀80年代以來，大學生們的移情水平整體下降了40%。作者推測這是多種因素共同作用的結果，包括社會日益強調自私自利、父母教育方式的變化、與電腦打交道的時間變長致使孤獨感增加，以及更多地沉浸於各種形式的暴力和自戀性的媒體內容（包括但不限於新聞、電視和電子遊戲）。作者沒有提供有關媒體影響的資料，但引用了相關研究[121]。

2011年，馮·薩利希在一項針對德國青少年的跟蹤研究中發現具有攻擊性的青少年傾向於選擇更暴力的電子遊戲。這項研究沒有發現任何證據表明遊戲中的暴力內容會導致未成年人的攻擊行為。作者推測其他研究可能是受到了「單一回答者偏差」的影響，因為不少研究中的關於青少年攻擊性增減的報告來自於青少年們自己的判斷，而非家長或是老師的判斷[122]。

2012年，瑞典的一項研究考察了《魔戒Online：安格瑪之影》中玩家的合作行為。作者認為，將遊戲中的合作或攻擊行為與現實生活中的行為相聯繫的基礎是遊戲與現實中的物質條件相差不大，而這一基礎顯然站不住腳[123]。

2013年，200多名媒體學者聯名質疑美國心理學會2005年的決議書忽視了結果不一致的研究，歪曲了科學文獻[124][125]，聯名者呼籲重新審視相關研究證據，修訂之前的決議，並開展更多的研究。聯名者包括心理學家傑佛瑞·阿內特（英語：Jeffrey Arnett）、蘭迪·博勒姆（英語：Randy Borum）、大衛·巴斯、大衛·坎特、洛倫薩·科爾扎托（英語：Lorenza Colzato）、M·布倫特·唐納蘭（英語：M. Brent Donnellan）、多蘿西·埃斯佩拉奇（英語：Dorothy Espelage）、法蘭克·S·法利、克里斯托弗·弗格森（英語：Christopher Ferguson (psychologist)）、彼得·格雷、馬克·D·格里菲斯（英語：Mark D. Griffiths）、潔西卡·哈默（英語：Jessica Hammer）、伊藤瑞子（英語：Mizuko Ito）、詹姆士·C·考夫曼（英語：James C. Kaufman）、丹娜·克里薩寧（英語：Dana Klisanin）、凱薩琳·麥克布賴德-張（英語：Catherine McBride-Chang）、讓·默瑟（英語：Jean Mercer）、哈爾·帕什勒（英語：Hal Pashler）、史蒂芬·平克、理查·M·瑞安（英語：Richard M. Ryan）、托德·甘迺迪·沙克福（英語：Todd K. Shackelford）、丹尼爾·西蒙斯（英語：Daniel Simons）、伊恩·史彭斯（英語：Ian Spence (psychologist)）和迪恩·西蒙頓（英語：Dean Simonton），犯罪學家凱文·比弗（英語：Kevin Beaver）、詹姆士·艾倫·福克斯（英語：James Alan Fox）、羅傑·J·R·萊維斯克（英語：Roger J.R. Levesque）和邁克·A·馬爾斯（英語：Mike A. Males），遊戲設計研究者鮑勃·德舒特（英語：Bob De Schutter）、庫爾特·斯奎爾（英語：Kurt Squire），通訊學者托爾斯滕·夸特（英語：Thorsten Quandt）及科普作家理查·羅茲[126][127]。

2013年摩根·特爾和馬克·尼爾森的一項研究無法復現此前親社會行為增減的研究[98]。

2013年荷蘭拉德堡德大學的伊莎貝拉·格拉尼奇等人認為，即便是帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲也能促進人們提升學習、健康和社交技能，用於治療心理健康問題的遊戲還不夠多。伊莎貝拉·格拉尼奇還認為雙方的觀點都有一定道理，所以有必要從更平衡的角度和更複雜的情況出發進行分析[128]。

In 2014, Ferguson and Olson found no correlation between video game violence and bullying or delinquency in children with preexisting attention deficit disorder or depressive symptoms.[129]

In 2014, Villanova professor Patrick M. Markey conducted a study with 118 teenagers suggesting that video games have no influence on increased aggression of users; however, he did find that when used for the right amount of time (roughly 1 hour) video games can make children nicer and more socially interactive. This information was provided by the teens teachers at their local schools.[130][來源可靠？]

2014年，牛津大學的安德魯·普日比爾斯基研究了暴力內容和挫折感對電子遊戲玩家敵意的影響。普日比爾斯基等人發現挫敗感（而非暴力內容）會增加玩家的敵意。此外，普日比爾斯基等人還發現此前的一些「經典研究」的結果難以復現[131]。

2014年的一項跟蹤研究發現玩含暴力內容的電子遊戲會使得人們在很小的幅度上更傾向於做出冒險的行為[132]。

In 2015, the American Psychological Association released a review that found that violent video games caused aggressive behavior, with Mark Appelbaum, the chair of the task force that conducted the review, saying that "the link between violence in video games and increased aggression in players is one of the most studied and best established in the field." However, Appelbaum also characterized the size of the correlation as "not very big". The same review found insufficient evidence of a link between such video games and crime or delinquency. Critics, including Peter Gray and Christopher Ferguson, expressed concerns about methodological limitations of the review. Ferguson stated that "I think (the task force members) were selected because their opinions were pretty clear going in." At least four of the seven task force members had previously expressed opinions on the topic; critics argued this alone constitutes a conflict of interest, while a task force member defended that "If it were common practice to exclude all scientists after they render one conclusion, the field would be void of qualified experts".[133][134]

2015年的一項研究考察了帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲對患有自閉症的青年玩家的影響。研究發現，找不到證據表明玩這類遊戲會影響自閉症玩家的攻擊性。這一結果與2012年桑迪胡克槍擊案後的擔憂相矛盾，當時人們認為帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲對自閉症患者和其他精神病患者有更大的影響[135]。

2016年的一項研究表明，「性別歧視」類的遊戲（作者以俠盜獵車手系列遊戲為例）可能會降低對女性的共情能力。雖然作者沒有發現任何證據表明遊戲會直接造成影響，但作者認為，遊戲設定的條件、遊戲中的男性角色規範、性別和遊戲角色認同之間的交互作用產生了足夠的證據，因此可以認為二者之間有關係。其他學者對這項研究表達了對研究方法的一些擔憂，比如遊戲條件的隨機化可能不足以支撐結論（見評論部分）[136]。

In 2016, a preregistered study of violent video game effects concluded that violent video games did not influence aggression in players.[90] The preregistered nature of the study removed the potential for the scholars to "nudge" the results of the study in favor of the hypothesis and suggests that preregistration of future studies may help clarify results in the field.

元分析

[編輯]

由於不同研究往往會得出南轅北轍的結論，故學術爭論往往會轉向元分析——一種整合各項研究，解釋不同研究結果之間差異的分析方法。

目前學界已進行了多項元分析的研究，但仍會得到不同的結論。一項2001年的元分析回顧了電子遊戲中的暴力內容與3033名青少年攻擊行為之間的關係，發現兩者之間存在顯著的正相關關係，得出結論電子遊戲中的暴力內容確實會導致青少年攻擊行為的增加[4]。同年，約翰·謝里進行的另一項元分析研究對電子遊戲中暴力內容的效果持懷疑態度，謝里特別研究了電子遊戲中的互動，認為電子遊戲不會因此產生更大的影響[5]。謝里後來在2007年發表了另一份元分析研究，再次得到認為電子遊戲中的暴力內容對攻擊行為的影響微乎其微的結論。謝里還引用他觀察到的劑量-反應曲線進行了反駁，他報告說人們會期望青少年接觸電子遊戲時間越長越有攻擊性，然而劑量-反應曲線表明接觸電子遊戲時間越長攻擊性反而越低[137]。

2010年，安德森等人發布了一項元分析研究報告，該報告分析了130項國際研究，總計被分析人數超過13萬人。他們報告說，接觸暴力的電子遊戲會導致玩家產生短期性和長期性的攻擊行為，還會減少同情心和親社會行為[138]。然而，其他學者批評這項元分析排除了一些研究，並存在一些方法上的缺陷[139][140][141]。安德森等人為他們進行的元分析進行了辯護，反駁了這些批評[142]。密西根大學心理學和社會學學者羅威爾·胡斯曼（英語：Rowell Huesmann）後來撰寫了一篇社論，支援安德森等人的結果[143]。後來的另一份對安德森等人報告的再分析說，被分析的研究中的發表偏差比安德森等人以為的要更大，這意味著實際結果可能比安德森等人得到的結果要小，甚至可能沒有統計學上的意義[144]。安德森等人表示他們知道這些實驗中存在發表偏差，但仍認為得到的結論可靠[145]。

A 2015 meta-analysis of video game effects suggested that video games, including violent games, had minimal impact on children's behavior including violence, prosocial behavior and mental health.[146] The journal included a debate section on this meta-analysis including scholars who were both supportive[147] and critical[148][149] of this meta-analysis. The original author also responded to these comments, arguing that few coherent methodological critiques had been raised.[150] In 2016, Kanamori and Doi replicated the original Angry Birds meta-analysis and concluded that critiques of the original meta were largely unwarranted.[151]

2018年的一項關於暴力電子遊戲與攻擊性行為之間的長期關係的元分析發現「暴力電子遊戲與攻擊行為、攻擊性認知和攻擊性情感呈正相關，而與對暴力受害者的同情和親社會行為呈負相關」[152]。

A 2020 meta-analysis of long-term outcome studies concluded that evidence did not support links between earlier playing of violent games and later aggression. The authors found an overall correlation of r = 0.059, and stated that better quality studies were less likely to find evidence for effects than poorer quality studies.[153][154]

使用功能性磁共振成像進行的研究

[編輯]

電子遊戲對大腦的長期影響程度也存在一定爭議，學者們就此使用功能性磁共振成像進行了一些研究。一些研究表明，電子遊戲玩家的杏仁核功能增強，而額葉功能減弱[155]。一些學者由此認為電子遊戲對額葉的影響可能類似於侵擾行為障礙症（英語：disruptive behavior disorders）中出現的失活現象[156][157]。此外，這方面的一些研究被指存在利益衝突。布朗訴娛樂商業協會案中的一些人指出克羅嫩伯格所做的研究是由「成功父母中心」公開資助的，故可能意味著存在利益衝突[158]。

後來的其他研究無法找到含暴力元素的遊戲與大腦功能減退之間存在聯繫的證據。例如，雷根柏格等人進行的一項功能性磁共振成像研究發現，含暴力內容的電子遊戲與區分真實和虛擬暴力的能力下降之間沒有聯繫[159]。另一項2016年使用功能性磁共振成像進行的研究沒有發現證據表明暴力電子遊戲會導致玩家產生脫敏效應[160]。西蒙娜·庫恩博士在接受BBC採訪時解釋說，先前的功能性磁共振成像研究中看到的大腦效應很可能表明，玩家只是能夠區分現實和虛構，並相應地調節自己的情緒反應，而不是會發生心理上的脫敏[161]。

對犯罪影響的研究

[編輯]

In 2008, records held by the US Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and Office of Justice Programs indicated that arrests for violent crime in the US had decreased since the early 1990s in both children and adults.[162][163][164] This decrease occurred contemporaneously with increasing sales of violent video games and increases in graphically violent content in those games.[165][166]

Studies of violent video game playing and crime have generally not supported the existence of causal links. Evidence from studies of juveniles[167][168][169] as well as criminal offenders[170] has generally not uncovered evidence for links. Some studies have suggested that violent video game playing may be associated with reductions in some types of aggression, such as bullying.[171]

Studies of mass shootings have, likewise, provided no evidence for links with violent video games. A 2002 report from the US Secret Service found that school shooters appeared to consume relatively low levels of violent media.[172] Some criminologists have referred to claims linking violent video games to mass shootings as a "myth".[173]

Some studies have examined the consumption of violent video games in society and violent crime rates. Generally, it is acknowledged that societal violent video game consumption has been associated with over an 80% reduction in youth violence in the US during the corresponding period.[174] However, scholars note that, while this data is problematic for arguments that violent video games increase crime, such data is correlational and cannot be used to conclude video games have caused this decline in crime.[175]

Other studies have examined data on violent video games and crime trends more closely and have come to the conclusion that the release of very popular violent video games are causally associated with corresponding declines in violent crime in the short term. A 2011 study by the Center for European Economic Research[176] found that violent video games may be reducing crime. This is possibly because the time spent playing games reduces time spent engaged in more antisocial activities. Other recent studies by Patrick Markey[177] and Scott Cunningham[178] have come to similar conclusions.

美國的公眾辯論

[編輯]
Jack Thompson, an activist, filed lawsuits against the makers of violent games, alleging that simulated violence causes real-world violence.

In the early 1980s, Ronnie Lamm, the president of the Long Island PTA sought legislation to govern the proximity of video game arcades to schools.[179] In the 1990s, Joe Lieberman, a US Senator, chaired a hearing about violent video games such as Mortal Kombat.[180] David Grossman, a former West Point psychology lecturer and lieutenant colonel, wrote books about violence in the media including: On Killing (1996) and Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill (1999).[181] He described first-person shooter games as murder simulators, and argued that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and harden them emotionally towards commitments of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game.[182]

In 2003, Craig A. Anderson, a researcher who testified on the topic before the U.S. Senate, said,

"[S]ome studies have yielded nonsignificant video game effects, just as some smoking studies failed to find a significant link to lung cancer. But when one combines all relevant empirical studies using meta-analytic techniques, it shows that violent video games are significantly associated with: increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased pro-social (helping) behavior."[183][184][185][186]

In 2005, Anderson was criticized in court for failing to give balanced expert evidence.[187]

In 2008, in Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth About Violent Video Games and What Parents Can Do, Kutner and Olsen refuted claims that violent video games cause an increase in violent behavior in children. They report there is a scientifically non-significant trend showing that adolescents who do not play video games at all are most at risk for violent behavior and video game play is part of an adolescent boy's normal social setting. However, the authors did not completely deny the negative influences of violent (M-rated) video games on pre-teens and teenagers: Kutner and Olson suggested the views of alarmists and those of representatives of the video game industry are often supported by flawed or misconstrued studies and that the factors leading to violence in children and adolescents were more subtle than whether or not they played violent video games.[188][189]

Henry Jenkins, an academic in media studies, said,

"According to federal crime statistics, the rate of juvenile violent crime in the United States is at a 30-year low. Researchers find that people serving time for violent crimes typically consume less media before committing their crimes than the average person in the general population. It's true that young offenders who have committed school shootings in America have also been game players. But young people in general are more likely to be gamers—90 percent of boys and 40 percent of girls play. The overwhelming majority of kids who play do not commit antisocial acts. According to a 2001 U.S. Surgeon General's report, the strongest risk factors for school shootings centered on mental stability and the quality of home life, not media exposure. The moral panic over violent video games is doubly harmful. It has led adult authorities to be more suspicious and hostile to many kids who already feel cut off from the system. It also misdirects energy away from eliminating the actual causes of youth violence and allows problems to continue to fester."[190]

In 2013, Corey Mead, a professor of English at Baruch College, wrote about how the U.S. military financed the original development of video games, and has long used them for both training, recruitment purposes, and treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. He also argues that the two industries are currently intertwined into each other in a "military-entertainment complex".[191] Writing in 2013, scholars James Ivory and Malte Elson noted that, although research on video game effects remained inconclusive, the culture of the academic field itself had become very contentious and that politicians had put pressure on scientists to produce specific research findings. The authors concluded it is improper for scholars or legislators to, at present, portray video games as a public health crisis.[127] Research by Oxford psychologist Andrew Przybylski has shown that Americans are split in opinion on how video game violence links to gun violence. Przybylski found that older people, women rather than men, people who knew less about games and who were very conservative in ideology were most likely to think video games could cause gun violence.[192]

Several groups address video game violence as a topic that they focus on. Groups such as Parents Against Violence, Parents Against Media Violence and One Million Moms take stances aimed at limiting the violence in video games and other media.[193][194][195]

Video games, particularly violent ones, are often mentioned as a cause for major gun crimes in the wake of school shooting by young adults. For example, Adam Lanza, the 20-year-old shooter at the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, was found to have numerous video games in his possession, leading for some people to blame video games for the shooting;[196] however, the State Attorney did not link video game to the event in their final report of the incident, though identified that video game addiction may have been connected.[197][198] In February 2018, following the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida, President Donald Trump, among others, said "the level of violence on video games is really shaping young people's thoughts".[199] Rhode Island state representative Robert Nardolillo also proposed legislation to tax violent video games (those rated "Mature" or higher by the ESRB) to use funds for supporting mental health programs in the state.[200]

Following the Stoneman Douglas shooting event, President Trump arranged to meet with several video game industry professionals on March 8, 2018; in attendance beyond Trump and other Congressmen included Mike Gallagher, the president and CEO of the ESA; Pat Vance, the president of the ESRB; Strauss Zelnick, CEO of Take Two Interactive, Robert Altman, CEO of ZeniMax Media; Brent Bozell, founder of the Media Research Center; and Melissa Hanson, program manager for the Parents Television Council. The meeting was not designed to come to a solution but only for the invited parties to present their stance on video games and their relationship to violent activity as to try to determine appropriate steps in the future.[201] At the start of the meeting, the President showed the attendees a short 88-second video of numerous violent video game segments put together by his staff, including the infamous "No Russian" level from Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, which featured the player watching and potentially participating in a massacre of civilians in an airport.[202]

The White House later released the video to YouTube, where it quickly became popular due to the controversy over the relationship between video games and real-life violence; despite being unlisted shortly after being uploaded, it has reached about 1.6 million views as of 2023.[203][204] The video is still accessible via URL, and media outlets like IGN included links to the original in their responses to the matter.[205] Games for Change made a short response video with 550.000 views titled "#GameOn".[206]

國家因素

[編輯]

澳大利亞

[編輯]

Video games are rated in Australia by the Australian Classification Board (ACB), run out of the federal Attorney-General's Department. ACB also oversees ratings on films and applies the same ratings system as to video games. Broadly, the ratings system is based on a number of factors including violence. The ACB can refuse to classify a film or game if they felt the content was beyond allowable guidelines for the strictest ratings. Titles refused classification by ACB are thus illegal to sell within Australia and assess fines for those that attempted to import such games, while allowing titles with more mature ratings to be sold under regulated practices. Prior to 2011, video games could only qualify up to a "MA15+" rating, and not the next highest tier of "R18+" which were allowed for film. Several high-profile games thus were banned in Australia. The ACB agreed to allow video games to have R18+ ratings in 2011, and some of these games that were previously banned were subsequently allowed under R18+.

參考文獻

[編輯]
  1. ^ APA RESOLUTION on Violent Video Games [美國心理學會關於暴力電子遊戲的決議] (PDF). www.apa.org. [2022-11-05]. 
  2. ^ APA TASK FORCE REPORT on Violent Video Games [美國心理學會暴力視訊遊戲工作組報告] (PDF). www.apa.org. [2022-11-05]. 
  3. ^ Markey, Patrick; Ferguson, Christopher. 2. Moral Combat: Why the War on Violent Video Games Is Wrong. BenBella Books, Inc. 2017. ISBN 978-1942952992. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Anderson, Craig A.; Bushman, Brad J. Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature.. Psychological Science. 2001, 12 (5): 353–359. PMID 11554666. S2CID 14987425. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00366. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Sherry, John. The effects of violent video games on aggression: a meta-analysis. Human Communication Research. 2001, 27 (3): 409–431. S2CID 6322160. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2001.tb00787.x. 
  6. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J.; Kilburn, J. The public health risks of media violence: a meta-analytic review. The Journal of Pediatrics. 2009, 154 (5): 759–763. PMID 19230901. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.11.033. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Anderson CA, Gentile DA, Buckley KE. Violent Video Game Effects on Children and Adolescents. Theory, Research, and Public Policy. New York: Oxford University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-530983-6. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309836.001.0001. 
  8. ^ Cumberbatch, Guy. Video violence: villain or victim? (paper). London: Video Standards Council. 2004. 
  9. ^ Sternheimer, Karen. It's not the media: the truth about pop culture's influence on children需要免費註冊. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0813341385. 
  10. ^ Benedetti, Winda. Why search our souls when video games make such an easy scapegoat?. NBC News. 18 February 2008 [17 August 2008]. 
  11. ^ Radoff, Jon. Six wonderful things about video games. Radoff.com. 8 December 2009 [8 March 2014]. （原始內容存檔於13 December 2009）. 
  12. ^ Ferguson, C. J.; Garza, A. Call of (civic) duty: Action games and civic behavior in a large sample of youth. Computers in Human Behavior. 2011, 27 (2): 770–775. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.10.026. 
  13. ^ Newzoo PC & Console Gaming Report 2023, pp. 37. Results from: Newzoo Global Gamer Study 2022 (Global weighted average across 36 markets; n=60,020).
  14. ^ Martha Irvine. Survey: 97 Percent Of Children Play Video Games. Huffingtonpost.com. 2008-10-17 [2015-02-18]. （原始內容存檔於2010-01-07）. 
  15. ^ Abad-Santos, Alex. The insane history of how American paranoia ruined and censored comic books. Vox. March 13, 2015 [August 25, 2019]. 
  16. ^ Burrus, Trevor. These Kids Today: The Long History of Complaining About Violent Entertainment. Cato Institute. March 9, 2018 [August 25, 2019]. 
  17. ^ Good, Owen. Comic Books' Disastrous Self-Censorship Offers a Lesson for Games Publishers, Too. Kotaku. January 11, 2013 [August 25, 2019]. 
  18. ^ June, Laura. For Amusement Only: the life and death of the American arcade. The Verge. January 1, 2013 [August 11, 2020]. 
  19. ^ Smith, Ryan. Chicago once waged a 40-year war on pinball. Chicago Reader. May 5, 2018 [August 11, 2020]. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 Kocurek, Carly. The Agony and the Exidy: A History of Video Game Violence and the Legacy of Death Race. Game Studies. September 2012, 12 (1) [August 11, 2020]. 
  21. ^ Walker, Wendy. It Offers That Run-Down Feeling. Associated Press. 1976-07-02. 
  22. ^ Blumenthal, Ralph. Death Race. The New York Times. December 28, 1976 [August 22, 2019]. 
  23. ^ AROUND THE NATION; Surgeon General Sees Danger in Video Games [全國各地；外科醫生認為電子遊戲存在危險]. The New York Times. Associated Press. 1982-11-10 [August 22, 2019]. 
  24. ^ Mandel, Howard. The Great Debate. VideoGames & Computer Entertainment. Vol. 72. 1983-03: 21–24. 
  25. ^ Fahs, Travis. The History of Mortal Kombat. Follow its bloody legacy from 1992 to the present day.. IGN. May 5, 2011 [August 22, 2019]. 
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Crossley, Rob. Mortal Kombat: Violent game that changed video games industry. BBC. June 2, 2014 [October 30, 2018]. （原始內容存檔於August 1, 2018）. 
  27. ^ Scolars, Mike. Nintendo vs. Sega: The battle over being cool. Polygon. August 22, 2017 [October 31, 2018]. 
  28. ^ Redburn, Tom. Toys 'R' Us Stops Selling a Violent Video Game. The New York Times. December 17, 1993 [October 31, 2018]. 
  29. ^ Cohen, Karen. Video game makers say they are making progress on ratings. UPI. March 3, 1994 [November 2, 2018]. 
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 Kohler, Chris. July 29, 1994: Videogame Makers Propose Ratings Board to Congress. Wired (Condé Nast Publications). July 29, 2009 [June 1, 2011]. （原始內容存檔於2014-02-18）. 
  31. ^ Buckley, Sean. Then there were three: Sony, Microsoft, Nintendo and the evolution of the Electronic Entertainment Expo. Engadget. June 6, 2013 [May 9, 2017]. 
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Bella, Timothy. Politicians suggest video games are to blame for the El Paso shooting. It's an old claim that's not backed by research.. The Washington Post. August 5, 2019 [August 22, 2019]. 
  33. ^ Vossekuil, Bryan; Fein, Robert; Reddy, Marisa; Borum, Randy; Modzeleski, William. The Final Report and Findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the Prevention of School Attacks in the United States (PDF). United States Department of Education. July 2004-07 [2019-08-22]. 
  34. ^ Kent S. "The Mainstream and All Its Perils" The ultimate history of video games:... Three Rivers Press, New York 2001 p544–545. ISBN 0761536434
  35. ^ Barr S. and Grapes B. "Violent children." Greenhaven Press, San Diego 2000 p26 ISBN 0737701595 (originally printed as "Computer Violence: Are Your Kids At Risk?" Reader's Digest January 1999.)
  36. ^ Radwick, Dora; Dolan, Sean P. NPD Reports Annual 2001 U.S. Interactive Entertainment Sales Shatter Industry Record (新聞稿). Port Washington, New York: NPD Group. February 7, 2002 [April 9, 2016]. （原始內容存檔於August 14, 2004）. 
  37. ^ Good, Owen. Grand Theft Auto III: The Birth Of A Media Scapegoat. Kotaku. Gawker Media. October 23, 2011 [December 21, 2015]. （原始內容存檔於April 22, 2016）. 
  38. ^ Richtel, Matt. BACKSLASH; Mayhem, and Far From the Nicest Kind. The New York Times. February 10, 2002 [December 21, 2015]. （原始內容存檔於April 21, 2016）. 
  39. ^ Cohen, Adam. 「California's Misguided War on Violent Video Games.」 Time, Time Inc., 27 October 2010, content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2027692,00.html.
  40. ^ Benson, Julian. The Rise and Fall of Video Gaming's Most Vocal Enemy. Kotaku. September 15, 2015 [August 22, 2019]. 
  41. ^ Verwirrung um Therapie von Tim K. – Eltern des Amokschützen dementieren Behandlung – Schütze spielte vor der Tat Killerspiel. news-times.de. 2009-03-11 [2009-03-19] （德語）. 
  42. ^ Polizei hat Hinweise auf Tatmotiv. Der Spiegel. 12 March 2009 [12 March 2009] （德語）. 
  43. ^ CSU will Killerspiel-Verbot, SPD Kontrolle über Schützenvereine. Der Spiegel. 13 March 2009 [13 March 2009] （德語）. 
  44. ^ Opferfamilien fordern Killerspiel-Verbot. sueddeutsche.de. 21 March 2009 [21 March 2009] （德語）. 
  45. ^ Winnenden: Eine Tat, aus der man nicht klug werden kann. http://www.welt.de. 2009-03-21 [2009-03-24] （德語）. 
  46. ^ Thorsen, Tor. Modern Warfare 2 massacre 'not representative of overall experience' - Activision. GameSpot. October 29, 2009 [October 8, 2018]. （原始內容存檔於2018-08-20）. 
  47. ^ Stuart, Keith. Should Modern Warfare 2 allow us to play at terrorism?. The Guardian. October 29, 2009 [August 1, 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2016-08-26）. 
  48. ^ Orry, James. BBC reporter 'saddened' but not 'shocked' by MW2. VideoGamer.com. Candy Banana. November 10, 2009 [August 1, 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2016-08-17）. 
  49. ^ Parker, Laura. Is It Time for Games to Get Serious?. GameSpot. CBS Interactive. June 26, 2012 [August 1, 2016]. （原始內容存檔於2016-02-22）. 
  50. ^ Hester, Blake. "Remember, No Russian:" Critics and Developers Remember Call of Duty's Most Infamous Mission. USGamer. October 28, 2019 [October 28, 2019]. 
  51. ^ Judge rules Michigan video game law is unconstitutional. USA Today. April 4, 2006 [November 1, 2010]. 
  52. ^ Broache, Anne. Court rejects Illinois video game law. CNet. November 26, 2006 [November 1, 2010]. （原始內容存檔於January 20, 2013）. 
  53. ^ Kravits, David. States May Not Ban Sale, Rental of Violent Videogames to Minors. Wired. June 27, 2011 [June 27, 2011]. （原始內容存檔於2011-06-29）. 
  54. ^ Kendall, Brent. Court Voices Doubts on Violent Videogame Law. Wall Street Journal. November 2, 2010 [November 2, 2010]. （原始內容存檔於2015-07-24）. 
  55. ^ Saiken (編). 时隔一年躺枪 美国枪击案凶手爱玩射击游戏. 新浪遊戲. 2013-11-27 [2024-06-26]. 
  56. ^ Jaslow, Ryan. Violent video games and mass violence: A complex link [暴力電子遊戲與大規模暴力：複雜的聯繫]. CBS News. 2013-02-18 [2019-08-22]. 
  57. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Video games didn't cause Newtown rampage [電子遊戲並非紐敦鎮大屠殺的罪魁禍首]. CNN. 2013-02-20 [2013-11-11]. 
  58. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Sandy Hook Shooting: Video Games Blamed, Again. Time. December 20, 2012 [November 11, 2013]. 
  59. ^ Robertson, Adi. Joe Biden meets with gaming industry over gun violence, but promises he's not singling it out. The Verge. January 12, 2013 [April 30, 2020]. 
  60. ^ Beekman, Daniel. NRA blames video games like 'Kindergarten Killer' for Sandy Hook slaughter. Daily News (New York). December 21, 2012 [November 11, 2013]. 
  61. ^ Winda Benedetti. NRA: Video game industry 'sows violence against its own people'. NBC News. NBCUniversal News Group. 21 December 2012 [4 May 2023]. （原始內容存檔於22 June 2022） （English）. 
  62. ^ Kreienbrink, Matthias. Killerspiele: Schon wieder die K-Frage. Die Zeit. 2016-07-26 [2020-01-21]. ISSN 0044-2070 （de-DE）. 
  63. ^ Brühl, Jannis. Amoklauf: De Maizière und die Killerspiel-Debatte. Süddeutsche.de. July 23, 2016 [2020-01-21] （德語）. 
  64. ^ Wartman, Scott. School shootings: Kentucky Gov. Matt Bevin blames violent video games and shows, not guns. The Cincinnati Enquirer. [April 17, 2018]. 
  65. ^ Fogel, Stefanie. Kentucky Governor Blames Video Games for Florida School Shooting. Rolling Stone. [April 17, 2018]. （原始內容存檔於April 17, 2018）.  參數|magazine=與模板{{cite news}}不匹配（建議改用{{cite magazine}}或|newspaper=） (幫助)
  66. ^ Snider, Mike. These are the video games the White House played in its meeting on game violence. USA Today. March 8, 2018 [August 22, 2019]. 
  67. ^ Bittar, Bernardo. Mourão sobre Suzano: 'Jovens estão muito viciados em videogames violentos'. Correio Braziliense. 2019-03-13 [2020-01-21] （巴西葡萄牙語）. 
  68. ^ Do violent videogames influence young people? What researches show | Texto em inglês com áudio. Wise Up News: textos em inglês com áudio da Gazeta do Povo. 2019-03-19 [2020-01-21] （美國英語）. 
  69. ^ 69.0 69.1 69.2 Draper, Kevin. Video Games Aren't Why Shootings Happen. Politicians Still Blame Them.. The New York Times. August 5, 2019 [August 22, 2019]. 
  70. ^ Haselton, Todd; Graham, Megan. About 2,200 people watched the German synagogue shooting on Amazon's Twitch. CNBC. 2019-10-09 [2020-01-21] （英語）. 
  71. ^ Hurtz, Simon; dpa. Anschlag in Halle: Horst Seehofer reanimiert die Killerspieldebatte. Die Zeit. 2019-10-13 [2020-01-21]. ISSN 0044-2070 （de-DE）. 
  72. ^ Die Neunziger wollen ihre Killerspiel-Debatte zurück. Der Tagesspiegel Online. October 14, 2019 [2020-01-21] （德語）. 
  73. ^ Gobernador de Coahuila culpa a los videojuegos por el tiroteo de Torreón am.com.mx, Jan 10, 2020 Natural Selection, el videojuego que jugaba autor de tiroteo en Torreón Milenio Digital, Jan 10, 2020
  74. ^ Aclara experto de la UNAM que videojuegos no provocan tiroteos PalcoNoticias, Jan 11, 2020
  75. ^ Los videojuegos no tienen la culpa; los padres sí: Especialista By Amelia Obregón, El Imparcial (Mexico), Jan 10, 2020
  76. ^ 胡雪 (編). 馬克龍：「我讓遊戲玩家嚇了一跳」. 新浪香港. 2023-09-18 [2024-06-27]. 
  77. ^ 77.0 77.1 Technical Report on the Review of The Violent Video Game Literature (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2015 [April 12, 2021]. 
  78. ^ Chris Ferguson; Dana Klisinan; Jerri Lynn Hogg; June Wilson; Patrick Markey; Andy Przybylski; Malte Elson; Jimmy Ivory; Deborah Linebarger; Mary Gregerson; Frank Farley; Shahbaz Siddiqui. News Media, Public Education and Public Policy Committee. The Amplifier Magazine (American Psychological Association). June 12, 2017 [August 22, 2019]. 
  79. ^ APA Reaffirms Position on Violent Video Games and Violent Behavior. American Psychological Association. March 3, 2020 [March 4, 2020]. 
  80. ^ Bogost, Ian. Video-Game Violence Is Now a Partisan Issue. The Atlantic. August 5, 2019 [August 22, 2019]. 
  81. ^ Ferguson, Christopher; Wang, JCK. Aggressive Video Games are Not a Risk Factor for Future Aggression in Youth: A Longitudinal Study.. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. August 2019, 48 (8): 1439–1451. PMID 31273603. S2CID 195807704. doi:10.1007/s10964-019-01069-0. 
  82. ^ Smith, S; Ferguson, C; Beaver, K. A longitudinal analysis of shooter games and their relationship with conduct disorder and cself-reported delinquency.. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. May 2018, 58: 48–53. PMID 29853012. S2CID 46919245. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2018.02.008. 
  83. ^ Kühn, Simone; Kugler, Dimitrij Tycho; Schmalen, Katharina; Weichenberger, Markus; Witt, Charlotte; Gallinat, Jürgen. Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study. Molecular Psychiatry. August 2019, 24 (8): 1220–1234. ISSN 1476-5578. PMC 6756088 可免費查閱. PMID 29535447. doi:10.1038/s41380-018-0031-7 （英語）. 
  84. ^ Dolan, Eric W. Brain imaging study challenges long-held beliefs about negative effects of violent video games. PsyPost. 2023-12-03 [2024-01-22] （美國英語）. 
  85. ^ DeWall, Anderson & Bushman. The General Aggression Model: Theoretical Extensions to Violence (PDF). Psychology of Violence. 2011, 1 (3): 245–258 [2017-01-03]. doi:10.1037/a0023842. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2017-08-12）. 
  86. ^ Kooijmans T. "Effects of video games on aggressive thoughts and behaviors during development."Rochester Institute of Technology December 2004.
  87. ^ Ferguson & Dyck. Paradigm change in aggression research: The time has come to retire the General Aggression Model (PDF). Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2012, 17 (3): 220–228. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.02.007. 
  88. ^ Ballard, Mary; Visser, Kara; Jocoy, Kathleen. Social Context and Video Game Play: Impact on Cardiovascular and Affective Responses. Mass Communication and Society. 2012-11-19, 15 (6): 875–898. ISSN 1532-7825. S2CID 144482524. doi:10.1080/15205436.2011.632106. 
  89. ^ Sauer, James D.; Drummond, Aaron; Nova, Natalie. Violent video games: The effects of narrative context and reward structure on in-game and postgame aggression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. 2015-09-01, 21 (3): 205–214. ISSN 1939-2192. PMID 26121373. S2CID 40548080. doi:10.1037/xap0000050. 
  90. ^ 90.0 90.1 McCarthy, Randy J.; Coley, Sarah L.; Wagner, Michael F.; Zengel, Bettina; Basham, Ariel. Does playing video games with violent content temporarily increase aggressive inclinations? A pre-registered experimental study. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. Special Issue: Confirmatory. 2016-11-01, 67: 13–19. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.009. 
  91. ^ Ferguson C. et al. "Violent video games and aggression: Causal relationship or byproduct of family violence and intrinsic violence motivation?" Criminal Justice and Behavior 2008 35 p311–332.
  92. ^ Ferguson, C.; Beaver, K. Natural born killers: the genetic origins of extreme violence, aggression and violent behavior. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2009, 14 (5): 286–294. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.03.005. 
  93. ^ Schulzke M. "Moral decision making in fallout." Game Studies 2009 9(2). Accessed 29 November 2013.
  94. ^ Gentile D. et al. "The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: international evidence from correlational, longitudinal and experimental studies." National Institute of Health. Accessed 24 April 2013.
  95. ^ 認為玩帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲會增加青少年的攻擊性的研究：
  96. ^ Rothmund, Tobias; Bender, Jens; Nauroth, Peter; Gollwitzer, Mario. Public concerns about violent video games are moral concerns—How moral threat can make pacifists susceptible to scientific and political claims against violent video games. European Journal of Social Psychology. 2015, 45 (6): 769–783. ISSN 1099-0992. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2125 （英語）. 
  97. ^ 認為二者之間沒有任何關聯的研究：
  98. ^ 98.0 98.1 Tear, Morgan J.; Nielsen, Mark. Failure to Demonstrate That Playing Violent Video Games Diminishes Prosocial Behavior. PLOS ONE. 2013, 8 (7): e68382. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...868382T. PMC 3700923 可免費查閱. PMID 23844191. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068382 可免費查閱. 
  99. ^ Bushman, Brad; Gollwitzer, Mario; Cruz, Carlos. There is broad consensus: Media researchers agree that violent media increase aggression in children, and pediatricians and parents concur.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2014. 
  100. ^ Etchells, Pete; Chambers, Chris. Violent video games research: consensus or confusion?. The Guardian. 2014-10-10 [2017-01-03]. ISSN 0261-3077 （英國英語）. 
  101. ^ Kirsh, Steven. Seeing the world through Mortal Kombat-colored glasses: Violent video games and the development of a short-term Hostile Attribution Bias [戴著「真人快打」的有色眼鏡看世界：暴力電子遊戲與短期敵對歸因偏差的形成]. Childhood. 1998, 5 (2): 177–184. S2CID 143735522. doi:10.1177/0907568298005002005. 
  102. ^ Anderson, Craig A.; Karen E., Dill. Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. [電子遊戲與實驗室和生活中的攻擊性思想、情感和行為。]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. April 2000, 78 (4): 772–790. PMID 10794380. S2CID 9606759. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.772. 
  103. ^ Ferguson; et al. VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES AND AGGRESSION Causal Relationship or Byproduct of Family Violence and Intrinsic Violence Motivation? [暴力電子遊戲與自閉症，家庭暴力與內在暴力動機的因果關係還是副產品？] (PDF). Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2008, 35 (3): 311–332. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.494.950 可免費查閱. S2CID 7145392. doi:10.1177/0093854807311719. 
  104. ^ Wright B. "Sounding the alarm on video game ratings." CNN website 18 February 2004. Accessed 10 December 2004.
  105. ^ Vosekuill B. "Safe school initiative final report." U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education May 2002 p26.
  106. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. The school shooting/violent video game link: causal relationship or moral panic?. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling. 2008-01-01, 5 (1–2): 25–37. ISSN 1544-4767. S2CID 62812428. doi:10.1002/jip.76 （英語）. 
  107. ^ Funk, J.B.; Buchman, D.D.; Jenks, J.; Bechtoldt, H. Playing violent video games, desensitization, and moral evaluation in children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 2003, 24 (4): 413–416. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(03)00073-X. 
  108. ^ Funk J. B.; et al. Violence exposure in real-life, video games, television, movies, and the internet: Is there desensitization? (PDF). Journal of Adolescence. 2004, 27 (27): 23–39 [23 April 2015]. PMID 15013258. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.005. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於27 March 2014）. 
  109. ^ Colwell, John; Kato, Makiko. Investigation of the relationship between social isolation, self-esteem, aggression and computer game play in Japanese adolescents. Asian Journal of Social Psychology. 2003-08-01, 6 (2): 149–158. ISSN 1467-839X. S2CID 144813700. doi:10.1111/1467-839X.t01-1-00017 （英語）. 
  110. ^ B.D. Bartholow, et al. Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data
  111. ^ Nicholas L. Carnagey, et al. The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期2013-05-16.
  112. ^ Arendt, Susan. Study: Kids Unaffected by Violent Games. Wired. 2007-04-02. [2024-06-27]. 
  113. ^ Shibuya, A.; Sakamoto, A.; Ihori, N.; Yukawa, S. The effects of the presence and contexts of video game violence in children: A longitudinal study in Japan. Simulation & Gaming. 2008, 39 (4): 528–539. S2CID 145062731. doi:10.1177/1046878107306670. 
  114. ^ Teens, Video Games and Civics. Pew Research Center's Internet & American Life Project. 16 September 2008 [17 February 2015]. 
  115. ^ Christopher J. Ferguson; Adolfo Garza. Call of (civic) duty: Action games and civic behavior in a large sample of youth (PDF). Computers in Human Behavior. March 2011, 27 (2): 770–775. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.10.026. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2014-05-19）. 
  116. ^ Douglas A. Gentile; et al. The Effects of Prosocial Video Games on Prosocial Behaviors: International Evidence From Correlational, Longitudinal, and Experimental Studies. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2009, 35 (6): 752–63. PMC 2678173 可免費查閱. PMID 19321812. doi:10.1177/0146167209333045. 
  117. ^ "Video Game Violence Use Among "Vulnerability to violent video games: A review and integration of personality research."
  118. ^ 118.0 118.1 "Literature review on the impact of playing violent video games on aggression" Australian government 2010.
  119. ^ Adachi, Paul J. C.; Willoughby, Teena. The effect of violent video games on aggression: Is it more than just the violence?. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2011-01-01, 16 (1): 55–62. S2CID 143649264. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2010.12.002. 
  120. ^ Adachi & Willoughby. The Effect of Video Game Competition and Violence on Aggressive Behavior: Which Characteristic Has the Greatest Influence? (PDF). Psychology of Violence. 2013. 
  121. ^ Konrath, Sara H.; O'Brien, Edward H.; Hsing, Courtney. Changes in Dispositional Empathy in American College Students Over Time: A Meta-Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review. May 2011, 15 (2): 180–198 [27 June 2024]. ISSN 1088-8683. PMID 20688954. doi:10.1177/1088868310377395 （英語）. 
  122. ^ Von Salisch, M.; et al. Preference for violent electronic games and aggressive behavior among children: the beginning of the downward spiral?. Media Psychology. 2011, 14 (3): 233–258. S2CID 145764509. doi:10.1080/15213269.2011.596468. 
  123. ^ Bennerstedt, Ulrika; Ivarsson, Jonas; Linderoth, Jonas. How gamers manage aggression: Situating skills in collaborative computer games. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning. 2011, 7 (1): 43–61. S2CID 1595007. doi:10.1007/s11412-011-9136-6. 
  124. ^ On Media Theory...: UPDATE: Four Respond to 228, Responding to the APA: Dissent Within the Academy Regarding Media Violence (#ECA14 Panel). Onmediatheory.blogspot.com. [17 February 2015]. 
  125. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Violent video games and the Supreme Court: Lessons for the scientific community in the wake of Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association. American Psychologist. 2013, 68 (2): 57–74. PMID 23421606. doi:10.1037/a0030597. 
  126. ^ Scholar's Open Letter to the APA Task Force On Violent Media Opposing APA Policy Statements on Violent Media. Scribd.com. [17 February 2015]. 
  127. ^ 127.0 127.1 A Hornet's Nest Over Violent Video Games – The Conversation - Blogs - The Chronicle of Higher Education. Chronicle.com. October 16, 2013 [17 February 2015]. 
  128. ^ Granic G. et al. "The Benefits of Playing Video Games" APA 2013.
  129. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J.; Olson, Cheryl K. Video Game Violence Use Among "Vulnerable" Populations: The Impact of Violent Games on Delinquency and Bullying Among Children with Clinically Elevated Depression or Attention Deficit Symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2013, 43 (1): 127–136. PMID 23975351. S2CID 207207723. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9986-5. 
  130. ^ Villanova Professor: Violent video games don't cause real life violence in most cases. www.timesherald.com. September 30, 2014 [2015-10-20]. 
  131. ^ Przybylski, Andrew. Competence-impeding electronic games and players' aggressive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2014, 106 (3): 441–457. PMID 24377357. S2CID 5651868. doi:10.1037/a0034820. 
  132. ^ Hull, Jay G.; Brunelle, Timothy J.; Prescott, Anna T.; Sargent, James D. A longitudinal study of risk-glorifying video games and behavioral deviance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2014-08-01, 107 (2): 300–325. ISSN 1939-1315. PMC 4151190 可免費查閱. PMID 25090130. doi:10.1037/a0036058. 
  133. ^ APA Review Confirms Link Between Playing Violent Video Games and Aggression. American Psychological Association. 13 August 2015 [16 December 2015]. 
  134. ^ APA Says Video Games Make You Violent, but Critics Cry Bias. Newsweek. 20 August 2015 [19 December 2015]. 
  135. ^ Engelhardt, Christopher. Effects of violent-video-game exposure on aggressive behavior, aggressive-thought accessibility, and aggressive affect among adults with and without autism spectrum disorder (PDF). Psychological Science. 2015, 26 (8): 1187–1200. PMID 26113064. S2CID 17630510. doi:10.1177/0956797615583038. 
  136. ^ Gabbiadini, Alessandro; Riva, Paolo; Andrighetto, Luca; Volpato, Chiara; Bushman, Brad J. Acting like a Tough Guy: Violent-Sexist Video Games, Identification with Game Characters, Masculine Beliefs, & Empathy for Female Violence Victims. PLOS ONE. 2016-04-13, 11 (4): e0152121. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1152121G. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4830454 可免費查閱. PMID 27074057. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152121 可免費查閱. 
  137. ^ Sherry J. "Mass media effects research: advances through meta-analysis." 2007 p244. "Violent Video Games and Aggression: Why Can't We Find Effects?"
  138. ^ Anderson C. et al. "Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and Western countries." Psychological Bulletin 2010 136 p151–173.
  139. ^ Ferguson C. "Blazing angels or resident evil: can violent video games be a force for good?" Review of General Psychology 14 p68–81.
  140. ^ Ferguson C. and Kilburn J. "Much ado about nothing: the mis-estimation and overinterpretation of violent video game effects in eastern and western nations. A comment on Anderson et al. (2010)." Psychological Bulletin 2010 136(2) p174–178.
  141. ^ Violence & Video Games: A Weak, Meaningless Correlation. Psych Central.com. [17 February 2015]. 
  142. ^ Anderson C. et al. "Much ado about something: violent video game effects and a school of red herring. A reply to Ferguson and Kilburn (2010)." Psychological Bulletin 2010 136 (2) p182–187
  143. ^ L. Rowell Huesmann: "Nailing the coffin shut on doubts that violent video games stimulate aggression"
  144. ^ APA PsycNet. 
  145. ^ APA PsycNet. 
  146. ^ Psychology, Christopher J. Ferguson Associate Professor of; University, Stetson. Do Angry Birds Make for Angry Children?. The Huffington Post. 2015-10-13 [2017-01-03]. 
  147. ^ Markey, Patrick. Finding the Middle Ground in Violent Video Game Research: Lessons From Ferguson (2015) (PDF). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015, 10 (5): 667–670. PMID 26386003. S2CID 20511943. doi:10.1177/1745691615592236. 
  148. ^ Boxer, P.; Groves, C. L.; Docherty, M. Video Games Do Indeed Influence Children and Adolescents' Aggression, Prosocial Behavior, and Academic Performance: A Clearer Reading of Ferguson (2015). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015-09-19, 10 (5): 671–673. ISSN 1745-6924. PMID 26386004. S2CID 206778387. doi:10.1177/1745691615592239. 
  149. ^ Rothstein, H. R.; Bushman, B. J. Methodological and Reporting Errors in Meta-Analytic Reviews Make Other Meta-Analysts Angry: A Commentary on Ferguson (2015). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015-09-19, 10 (5): 677–679. ISSN 1745-6924. PMID 26386006. S2CID 206778373. doi:10.1177/1745691615592235. 
  150. ^ Ferguson, Christopher. Pay No Attention to That Data Behind the Curtain: On Angry Birds, Happy Children, Scholarly Squabbles, Publication Bias, and Why Betas Rule Metas (PDF). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015, 10 (5): 683–691. PMID 26386008. S2CID 9788428. doi:10.1177/1745691615593353. 
  151. ^ Kanamori & Doi. Angry Birds, Angry Children, and Angry Meta-Analysts: A Reanalysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2016, 11 (3): 408–14. PMID 27217253. S2CID 37271687. doi:10.1177/1745691616635599. 
  152. ^ Prescott, Anna T.; Sargent, James D.; Hull, Jay G. Metaanalysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. October 2, 2018, 115 (40): 9882–9888. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.9882P. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 6176643 可免費查閱. PMID 30275306. doi:10.1073/pnas.1611617114 可免費查閱. 
  153. ^ Drummond, Aaron. Do longitudinal studies support long-term relationships between aggressive game play and youth aggressive behaviour? A meta-analytic examination. Royal Society Open Science. 2020, 7 (7): 200373. Bibcode:2020RSOS....700373D. PMC 7428266 可免費查閱. PMID 32874632. S2CID 220666659. doi:10.1098/rsos.200373 可免費查閱. 
  154. ^ Hern, Alex. Playing video games doesn't lead to violent behaviour, study shows. The Guardian. July 21, 2020 [31 July 2020]. 
  155. ^ Wendling, Patrice. Violent videos alter brain functioning, study shows. Internal Medicine News. February 2007, 40 (3): 20. doi:10.1016/s1097-8690(07)70088-4. 需付費查閱
  156. ^ Jarrett, Christian. Neural effects of media violence. Psychologist. August 2005, 18 (8): 462. ProQuest 211742666. 
  157. ^ Kalnin, A. J.; Edwards, C. R.; Wang, Y.; Kronenberger, W. G.; Hummer, T. A.; Mosier, K. M.; Mathews, V. P. The interacting role of media violence exposure and aggressive-disruptive behavior in adolescent brain activation during an emotional Stroop task. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 2011, 192 (1): 12–19. PMID 21376543. S2CID 45802431. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.11.005. 
  158. ^ "Arnold Schwarzenegger. Edmund G. Brown Jr. v. Entertainment Merchants Association, and Entertainment Software Association"
  159. ^ Regenbogen C.; Herrmann M.; Fehr T. The neural processing of voluntary completed, real and virtual violent and nonviolent computer game scenarios displaying predefined actions in gamers and nongamers. Society for Neuroscience. 2010, 5 (2): 221–40. PMID 19823959. S2CID 205925197. doi:10.1080/17470910903315989. 
  160. ^ Szycik, Gregor R.; Mohammadi, Bahram; Hake, Maria; Kneer, Jonas; Samii, Amir; Münte, Thomas F.; Wildt, Bert T. te. Excessive users of violent video games do not show emotional desensitization: an fMRI study. Brain Imaging and Behavior. 2016-04-16, 11 (3): 736–743. ISSN 1931-7557. PMID 27086318. S2CID 4399285. doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9549-y （英語）. 
  161. ^ Are Video Games Really That Bad?, 2014-2015, Horizon - BBC Two. BBC. [2017-01-03]. 
  162. ^ Juvenile Arrest Rates. Ojjdp.gov. [2015-02-18]. 
  163. ^ Home. Ojp.usdoj.gov. [17 February 2015]. （原始內容存檔於December 11, 2009）. 
  164. ^ Home. Ojp.usdoj.gov. [17 February 2015]. （原始內容存檔於December 11, 2009）. 
  165. ^ "Could violent video games reduce rather than increase violence?" Science Daily website 15 May 2008. Accessed 12 July 2011.
  166. ^ Kierkegaard P. "Video games and aggression." International Journal of Liability and Scientific Inquiry p411–417. 2008
  167. ^ Breuer, Johannes; Vogelgesang, Jens; Quandt, Thorsten; Festl, Ruth. Violent video games and physical aggression: Evidence for a selection effect among adolescents.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2015-10-01, 4 (4): 305–328. ISSN 2160-4142. doi:10.1037/ppm0000035 （英語）. 
  168. ^ DeCamp, Whitney. Impersonal agencies of communication: Comparing the effects of video games and other risk factors on violence.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2015-10-01, 4 (4): 296–304. ISSN 2160-4142. doi:10.1037/ppm0000037 （英語）. 
  169. ^ Przybylski, Andrew K.; Mishkin, Allison F. How the quantity and quality of electronic gaming relates to adolescents' academic engagement and psychosocial adjustment.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2016-04-01, 5 (2): 145–156. ISSN 2160-4142. doi:10.1037/ppm0000070 （英語）. 
  170. ^ Surette, Ray; Maze, Allison. Video game play and copycat crime: An exploratory analysis of an inmate population.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2015-10-01, 4 (4): 360–374. ISSN 2160-4142. doi:10.1037/ppm0000050 （英語）. 
  171. ^ Video games do not make vulnerable teens more violent. springer.com. [2017-01-03]. 
  172. ^ Final Report and Findings of the Safe Schools Initiative (PDF). US Secret Service and US Department of Education. [2017-01-03]. 
  173. ^ Fox, J. A.; DeLateur, M. J. Mass Shootings in America: Moving Beyond Newtown. Homicide Studies. 2013-01-13, 18 (1): 125–145. ISSN 1088-7679. S2CID 145184251. doi:10.1177/1088767913510297. 
  174. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Does Media Violence Predict Societal Violence? It Depends on What You Look at and When. Journal of Communication. 2014-11-01, 65 (1): E1–E22. ISSN 1460-2466. doi:10.1111/jcom.12129. 
  175. ^ No link between movie, video game violence and societal violence? More violent video game consumption, less youth violence: Study. www.sciencedaily.com. November 5, 2014 [2017-01-03]. 
  176. ^ Cunningham, A. Scott; Engelstätter, Benjamin; Ward, Michael R. Understanding the effects of violent video games on violent crime (PDF). ZEW Discussion Papers 11-042. Center for European Economic Research: 25. 2011 [11 November 2014]. 
  177. ^ Markey, Patrick M.; Markey, Charlotte N.; French, Juliana E. Violent video games and real-world violence: Rhetoric versus data. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. Oct 2015, 4 (4): 277–295. doi:10.1037/ppm0000030. 
  178. ^ Cunningham, Scott; Engelstätter, Benjamin; Ward, Michael R. Violent Video Games and Violent Crime. Southern Economic Journal. 2016-04-01, 82 (4): 1247–1265. ISSN 2325-8012. doi:10.1002/soej.12139 （英語）. 
  179. ^ Gonzalez L. "When two tribes go to war: a history of video game controversy." GameSpot website. Accessed 3 August 2008.
  180. ^ Arnett J. (ed.) and Skalskil P. "Encyclopedia of children, adolescents, and the media: regulation, electronic games." SAGE 2007 p705–707. ISBN 9781412905305, Accessed 11 March 2013.
  181. ^ "Violent video games reward children for killing people." Executive Intelligence Review. LaRouche Publications. Accessed 24 April 2013.
  182. ^ Ferguson C. J. "The school shooting/violent video game link: causal relationship or moral panic?" Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 2008 5 p25–37.
  183. ^ Anderson C. "Violent video games: myths, facts and unanswered questions." APA 24 October 2003.
  184. ^ Royal, H. Violence and video games. The Phi Delta Kappan. October 1999, 81 (2): 173–174. 
  185. ^ Anderson C. "The influence of media violence on youth." Psychological science in the public interest website. December 2003.
  186. ^ Lynch P. "The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent aggressive attitudes and behaviors." Society for Research in Child Development April 2001.
  187. ^ Entertainment Software Association v Illinois (PDF). （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於March 26, 2009）. 
  188. ^ Kutner L and Olsen C. Grand theft childhood: the surprising truth about violent video games. 2008. ISBN 0-7432-9951-5
  189. ^ "Interview with Kutner and Olsen" G4 Techdirt website 2008.
  190. ^ "The video game revolution: eight myths about video games debunked." PBS Impact of gaming essays webpage. Date not given. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
  191. ^ Hamza Shaban. Playing War: How the Military Uses Video Games. The Atlantic. 10 October 2013 [17 February 2015]. 
  192. ^ Andrew Przybylski. Americans Skeptical of Link Between Mass Shootings and Video Games. Academia.edu. [17 February 2015]. （原始內容存檔於11 August 2014）.  已忽略未知參數|df= (幫助)
  193. ^ Exposé. （原始內容存檔於20 February 2013）. 
  194. ^ Purpose of One Million Moms. （原始內容存檔於August 8, 2014）. 
  195. ^ Parents Against Media Violence. Pamv.net. [17 February 2015]. 
  196. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Sandy Hook Shooting: Video Games Blamed, Again. Time. December 20, 2012 [November 11, 2013]. 
  197. ^ Sandy Hook Final Report. Office of the State's Attorney, Judicial District of Danbury. Stephen J. Sedensky III, State's Attorney (PDF). ct.gov. November 25, 2013 [November 28, 2013]. 
  198. ^ Adam Lanza's motive a mystery in Sandy Hook killings. CNN. November 27, 2013 [November 28, 2013]. 
  199. ^ Trump says violent video games 'shape' young minds. BBC. BBC News. February 23, 2018 [February 23, 2018]. 
  200. ^ Fogel, Stefanie. Rhode Island Lawmaker Wants to 'Do Something Positive' With Proposed Violent Video Game Tax. Glixel. February 22, 2018 [February 23, 2018]. （原始內容存檔於February 23, 2018）. 
  201. ^ Johnson, Ted. Trump Meets With Video Game Industry, Watchdog Groups to Talk Gun Violence. Variety. March 8, 2018 [March 12, 2018]. 
  202. ^ Pereira, Chris. President Trump's Video Games Meeting Included A Violent Game Montage. GameSpot. March 10, 2018 [March 12, 2018]. 
  203. ^ Spangler, Todd. Trump White House's Horribly Violent Video-Game Reel Goes Viral. Variety. March 9, 2018 [March 12, 2018]. 
  204. ^ Violence in Video Games, March 8, 2018 [2018-04-05] （英語） 
  205. ^ O'Brien, Lucy. Here's The "Violent Video Game Reel" Trump Shared At The White House. IGN. 2018-03-09 [2018-04-05] （美國英語）. 
  206. ^ Games for Change, #GameOn - 88 Seconds of Video Games, 2018-03-12 [2018-04-05] 

Ferguson, C. J., & Olson, C. K. (2014). Video Game Violence Use Among 「Vulnerable」 Populations: The Impact of Violent Games on Delinquency and Bullying Among Children with Clinically Elevated Depression or Attention Deficit Symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(1), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9986-5 Lee, E.-J., Kim, H. S., & Choi, S. (2021). Violent Video Games and Aggression: Stimulation or Catharsis or Both? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0033

外部連結

[編輯]


Category:電子遊戲 Category:電子遊戲爭議 Category:Moral panic

取自「https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:电子游戏与暴力&oldid=84375046」