多倍體

多倍體(Polyploidy)指生物細胞中具有超過兩套同源染色體的現象。
大多數具有細胞核的物種(真核生物)為二倍體,即其體細胞擁有兩套完整的染色體組,每套分別來自一個親本;每套染色體的數量相同,並且成對組成同源染色體。相比之下,多倍體物種總體而言相對佔比較少,但維管植物中較為常見,動物界中魚類和有尾目(蠑螈等)的部分成員也為多倍體。
細胞分裂異常是多倍體自然發生的一種常見機制,較常見的情況為減數分裂時染色體未能正常分離,導致染色體組數加倍(二倍體)的配子相結合,但有時有絲分裂失敗也可導致多倍體。單個卵細胞同時被多個精子受精也可導致多倍體[1]。此外,在植物體和細胞培養中,一些化學物質可用於誘導染色體加倍,其中最著名的是秋水仙鹼,但使用該物質可能還會對生物體產生其他相對不明顯的影響。
以生物個體以上單元(種群、物種等)存在的多倍體現象可依起源方式大致分為兩類:同源多倍體及異源多倍體,前者指單個分類群內產生的多倍化事件,而後者則指至少兩個分化時間更久的分類群參與多倍體物種形成的情況。兩者均多產生自配子未經由正常減數分裂過程產生,導致相結合時至少一枚配子的染色體組數為正常情況兩倍;同源多倍體極偶爾也可由自發的體細胞全基因組複製產生。
沒有細胞核的生物(原核生物)也可能出现多倍體现象,如大型細菌費氏刺骨魚菌(Epulopiscium fishelsoni)。[2] 因此,倍性是針對單一細胞來定義的。
完整生物體的多倍體現象在哺乳動物中罕見,而內多倍體現象則相對常見。在植物、魚類和兩棲、爬行動物中,多倍體現象十分常見,許多野生物種和人工養殖或栽培的品種為多倍體,例如鮭魚、硬粒小麥、朱槿等。
染色體多倍化被認為在許多生物譜系的演化中起到關鍵作用,例如所有的被子植物都經歷過至少一次古多倍化事件[3][4]。
倍性
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多倍體的類型根據細胞核中染色體套數的數量來標記。字母x用來表示單一套染色體中的染色體數量:
- 單倍體(一套;1x),例如雄性歐洲紅火蟻(Myrmica rubra)、雄性蜜蜂等膜翅目昆蟲。對於世代交替生命週期的植物和多細胞藻類,其配子體也是單倍體。
- 二倍體(兩套;2x),例如人類
- 三倍體(三套;3x),例如不育的番紅花或無籽西瓜,在緩步動物門中也很常見[5]
- 四倍體(四套;4x),例如阿根廷平原鼠、鮭科魚類、[6] 陸地棉[7]
- 五倍體(五套;5x),例如薔薇屬犬薔薇組(Rosa sect. Caninae)的多數物種,其進行特殊的「犬薔薇型減數分裂」[8]
- 六倍體(六套;6x),例如某些小麥物種、[9] 奇異果[10]
- 七倍體(七套;7x),例如某些養殖的西伯利亞鱘[11]
- 八倍體(八套;8x),例如鱘屬、大麗花
- 十倍體(十套;10x),例如某些草莓
- 十一倍體(十一套;11x),例如某些獨行菜屬 [12]物種和月季栽培品種
- 十二倍體(十二套;12x),例如植物青葙和互花米草 [13]或两栖动物鲁文佐里爪蟾(Xenopus ruwenzoriensis)
- 三十倍體(三十套;30x),例如黑桑(Morus nigra)的染色體數為308,被認為是22倍體(14x=308),但實際應為三十倍體(10x=308)。[14]
起源類型
[编辑]同源多倍體
[编辑]同源多倍體(Autopolyploid)是指導致多倍體的多套染色體均來自單一分類單元。
自然界中同源多倍體的例子包括虎耳草科的负儿草(Tolmiea menziesii)[15]和美国白鱘(Acipenser transmontanus)。[16] 大多數同源多倍體實例源於未減數(2n)配子的融合,這會產生三倍體(n + 2n = 3n)或四倍體(2n + 2n = 4n)的後代。[17] 三倍體後代通常是不育的(如三倍體阻滯現象),但在某些情況下可能產生高比例的未減數配子,從而有助於四倍體的形成。這條通往四倍體的途徑被稱為「三倍體橋樑」。[17] 三倍體也可以透過無性生殖持續存在。事實上,植物中穩定的同源三倍體通常與無融合生殖的交配系統有關。[18] 在農業系統中,同源三倍體可導致無籽,如西瓜和香蕉。[19] 三倍體也用於鮭魚和鱒魚養殖以誘導不育。[20][21]
同源多倍體偶爾會因自發的體細胞基因組加倍而產生,例如蘋果(Malus domesticus)可產生芽變。[22] 在人工植物培育和細胞培養中,也可透過使用化學物質誘導多倍體,或是跨倍性水平引入種質,其中最著名的是秋水仙素;安磺靈、有絲分裂抑制劑,或是原生質體融合手段同樣能干擾正常的有絲分裂,使現有組織中的染色體含量加倍,從而產生多倍體細胞[23]。
同源多倍體擁有至少三套同源染色體,這可能導致減數分裂期間高頻率的多價體配對(特別是在新近形成的同源多倍體中,也稱為新多倍體),並因產生非整倍體配子而降低繁殖力。[24] 自然或人工對繁殖力的選擇可以透過在減數分裂中恢復二價體配對,從而迅速穩定同源多倍體的減數分裂。在沙生拟南芥(Arabidopsis arenosa)[25]和深山南芥(Arabidopsis lyrata)[26]中,已記錄到減數分裂機制的快速適應性演化,導致多價體水平降低(從而使同源多倍體減數分裂穩定),這些物種的特定適應性等位基因僅在演化後的多倍體之間共享。[26][27]
重複染色體之間的高度同源性導致同源多倍體表現出多體遺傳。[28] 這一特性常被用作區分同源多倍體和異源多倍體的診斷標準,後者在經過新多倍體階段後通常表現出二體遺傳。[29] 雖然大多數多倍體物種被明確地歸類為同源多倍體或異源多倍體,但這些類別代表了親本亞基因組之間分化程度的光譜兩端。介於這兩個極端之間的多倍體,通常被稱為部分異源多倍體,可能表現出因基因座而異的中間水平多體遺傳。[30][31]
據估計,大約一半的多倍體是同源多倍體的結果,[32][33] 儘管許多因素使得這一比例難以估計。[34]
異源多倍體
[编辑]異源多倍體(allopolyploid)、雙二倍體(amphipolyploid)或異質多倍體(heteropolyploid)是指其染色體來自兩種或以上已分化分類單元的多倍體。
與同源多倍體一樣,這主要透過未減數(2n)配子的融合發生,這種融合可能在雜交之前或之後發生。在前一種情況下,來自每個二倍體分類單元的未減數配子——或來自兩個同源四倍體分類單元的減數配子——結合形成異源多倍體後代。在後一種情況下,一個或多個二倍體F1代雜種產生未減數配子,這些配子融合形成異源多倍體後代。[35] 雜交後再進行基因組加倍可能是通往異源多倍體的一條更常見的途徑,因為分類單元之間的F1雜種通常具有相對較高的未減數配子形成率——兩個分類單元基因組之間的分化導致部分同源染色體之間的異常配對或減數分裂期間的不分離現象。[35] 在這種情況下,異源多倍體實際上可以透過為每個部分同源染色體提供其自身的同源染色體來恢復正常的二價體減數分裂配對。如果部分同源染色體之間的分化在兩個亞基因組中是均勻的,理論上這可以在異源多倍體化後迅速恢復二價體配對和二體遺傳。然而,多價體配對在許多新近形成的異源多倍體中很常見,因此很可能大部分減數分裂的穩定化是透過選擇逐漸發生的。[24][29]
由於在已建立的異源多倍體中,部分同源染色體之間的配對很少見,牠們可能受益於部分同源等位基因的固定雜合性。[36] 在某些情況下,這種雜合性可以產生有益的雜種優勢效應,無論是在自然環境中的適應性,還是在農業環境中的理想性狀。這可能部分解釋了異源多倍體在作物品種中的普遍性。麵包小麥和小黑麥都是具有六套染色體的異源多倍體例子。棉花、花生和藜麥是具有多個起源的異源四倍體。在十字花科作物中,禹氏三角描述了三種常見的二倍體蕓薹屬植物(甘藍、蕪菁和黑芥)與三種源自這些二倍體物種雜交的異源四倍體(油菜、芥菜和衣索比亞芥)之間的關係。類似的關係也存在於三種二倍體婆羅門參屬物種(T. dubius、T. pratensis和T. porrifolius)與兩種異源四倍體物種(T. mirus和T. miscellus)之間。[37] 在動物中也觀察到複雜的異源多倍體演化模式,如蛙類屬Xenopus。[38]
時間術語
[编辑]新多倍體
[编辑]指新近形成的多倍體。
中多倍體
[编辑]指在較近代歷史中形成的多倍體;它不像新多倍體那樣新,也不像古多倍體那樣古老。它是一個中年期的多倍體。這通常指全基因組重複後,接著發生了中等程度的二倍體化。
古多倍體
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古老的基因組重複可能在所有生命的演化史中都發生過。在各種演化譜系歷史中很久以前發生的重複事件可能難以檢測,因為隨後的二倍體化(使得多倍體隨著時間的推移在細胞遺傳學上開始表現得像二倍體)以及突變和基因轉譯逐漸使每條染色體的一個拷貝與另一個拷貝變得不同。隨著時間推移,基因的重複拷貝也常會積累突變並成為無活性的偽基因。[39]
在許多情況下,這些事件只能透過比較已測序的基因組來推斷。出乎意料但最近被證實的古老基因組重複的例子包括釀酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)、芥菜雜草/阿拉伯芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)、稻(Oryza sativa),以及在脊椎動物(包括人類譜系)早期演化的祖先中發生的兩輪全基因組重複(2R假說),和另一次發生在真骨魚類魚起源附近的重複。[40] 被子植物(開花植物)的祖先具有古多倍體。所有真核生物可能在其演化史的某個時刻都經歷過多倍體事件。
相關概念
[编辑]非整倍體
[编辑]若生物體中某個特定染色體或染色體片段的數量過少或過多,則稱其為非整倍體(aneuploid,源自希臘語,意為「不」、「好」和「倍」)。非整倍體指染色體組中一部分的數量變化,而多倍體則指整套染色體的數量變化。[41]
內多倍體
[编辑]內多倍體(endopolyploidy)是指多倍體發生在某些組織中,而該生物體的其餘部分是二倍體的情況,例如哺乳動物的大腦、肝臟、心臟、骨髓等器官[42],部分魚類[43]和蠑螈的體細胞,二倍體植物的胚乳組織等。[44][45]
一倍體
[编辑]一倍體(monoploid)指細胞裡只有一套染色體的情況。這個詞通常只用與「正常情況下應為二倍體」的生物或細胞上。而泛指染色體呈單套狀態時,更常用的術語為單倍體(haploid);在二倍體生物中,「一倍體」與「單倍體」一致,但在多倍體物種中,其單倍體(配子)所含的染色體組數可能不止一套,此時就與一倍體有所區別。
核型
[编辑]核型是真核生物物種特有的染色體補體。[46][47] 核型的製備和研究是細胞病理學的一部分,更具體地說是細胞遺傳學。
儘管DNA的複製和轉錄在真核生物中是高度標準化的,但牠們的核型卻非如此,儘管由相同的巨分子構成,但在物種間的染色體數量和詳細組織上卻高度可變。在某些情況下,甚至在物種內部也存在顯著的變異。這種變異為一系列可稱為演化細胞學的研究提供了基礎。
部分同源染色體
[编辑]部分同源染色體(Homoeologous chromosome)是指在物種間雜交和異源多倍體化後匯集在一起的染色體,牠們在一個祖先物種中曾是完全同源的關係。例如,硬粒小麥是兩種二倍體草本物種 —— 烏拉爾圖小麥(Triticum urartu)和擬斯卑爾托山羊草(Aegilops speltoides) —— 種間雜交的結果。這兩個二倍體祖先都擁有兩套各7條的染色體,這些染色體在大小和所含基因上都很相似。硬粒小麥包含一個雜交基因組,其中兩套染色體來自烏拉爾圖小麥,另兩套來自擬斯卑爾托山羊草。來自烏拉爾圖小麥親本的每一對染色體,都與來自擬斯卑爾托山羊草親本的對應染色體對呈部分同源關係,儘管每一對染色體本身是同源的。
實例
[编辑]人類
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真正意義上的多倍體在人類中極為罕見,儘管在高度分化的組織中,如肝實質、心肌、胎盤和骨髓中會出現多倍體細胞。[48][49] 非整倍體則更為常見。
在人類中,多倍體主要表現為三倍體和四倍體。三倍體個體通常具有69條染色體,核型可表示為「69,XXX」、「69,XXY」或「69,XYY」;四倍體個體則具有92條染色體,核型可表示為「92,XXXX」、「92,XXYY」等。三倍體多由多精受精或減數分裂異常所致,約見於2%—3%的人類妊娠,並在自然流產案例中占有較高比例。絕大多數三倍體受孕會在胚胎或胎兒期自然流產;少數發育至足月的病例通常也會在出生後短期內死亡。
- 在較罕見的情況下,若個體存在二倍體—三倍體嵌合現象,即體內同時存在正常二倍體細胞群和三倍體細胞群,出生後的存活時間可能延長。文獻中曾報導一名完全三倍體綜合徵嬰兒存活至7個月大。該嬰兒未能表現出正常的新生兒智力和身體發育,最終死於耶氏肺孢子菌感染,表明其免疫功能可能存在嚴重缺陷[50]。
三倍體的成因可能是雙雌受精(英語:digyny,額外的單倍體組來自母親)或双雄受精(英語:diandry,額外的單倍體組來自父親)。雙雄核主要由單一精子的父系單倍體組重複形成,但也可能是卵子被兩條精子受精的結果。[51] 雙雌核最常見的原因是在卵子生成過程中一次減數分裂失敗,導致產生二倍體卵母細胞,或未能從卵母細胞中排出一個極體。在早期流產中,雙雄核似乎佔主導地位,而在存活至胎兒期的三倍體合子中,雙雌核則佔主導地位。[52] 然而,在早期流產中,妊娠週數小於8.5週或存在胚胎的情況下,雙雌核也更為常見。三倍體胎盤和胎兒有兩種不同的表現型,這取決於額外單倍體組的來源。在雙雌核中,通常胎兒發育不對稱且不良,伴有明顯的腎上腺發育不全和一個非常小的胎盤。[53] 在雙雄核中,則會發展成部分性葡萄胎。[51] 這些親源效應反映了基因組印記的影響。[來源請求]
完全四倍體的診斷比三倍體更為罕見,但在1-2%的早期流產中可觀察到。然而,在產前診斷的染色體分析中,通常會發現一些四倍體細胞,這些通常被認為是「無害的」。目前尚不清楚這些四倍體細胞是僅在體外細胞培養過程中產生,還是也存在於體內的胎盤細胞中。無論如何,關於被診斷為四倍體嵌合體的胎兒/嬰兒的臨床報告非常少。
嵌合體在人類植入前胚胎中相當常見,包括單倍體/二倍體以及二倍體/四倍體混合的細胞群。目前尚不清楚這些胚胎是否因無法植入而很少在持續妊娠中被檢測到,或者僅僅是存在一個偏好二倍體細胞的選擇過程。
其他動物
[编辑]在動物中,多倍體的例子在非脊椎動物中更為常見,[54] 例如扁形動物、水蛭和豐年蝦。多倍體在兩棲動物中也普遍存在;例如,具有重要生物醫學價值的爪蟾屬包含了許多不同物種,其染色體組數多達12套(十二倍體)。[55] 多倍體蜥蜴也相當常見。大多數是不育的,並透過孤雌生殖繁殖;[來源請求] 其他如智利啼蜥(Liolaemus chiliensis)則維持有性生殖。多倍體鈍口螈(大多為三倍體)均為雌性,並透過盜竊生殖繁殖,[56]牠們「竊取」相關物種的二倍體雄性的精包來觸發卵子發育,但不會將雄性的DNA整合到後代中。
雖然哺乳動物的某些組織,如實質肝細胞,是多倍體,[57][58] 但已知的多倍體哺乳動物實例很少,且多數會導致產前死亡。阿根廷嚴酷沙漠地區的一種八齒鼠科的囓齒動物,稱為平原黏鼠(Tympanoctomys barrerae),曾被報導為此「規則」的一個例外。[59] 然而,使用染色體塗色技術的仔細分析顯示,T. barrerae的每條染色體只有兩個拷貝,而不是預期的四個(如果牠真的是四倍體的話)。[60] 這種囓齒動物不是老鼠,而是天竺鼠和絨鼠的親戚。其「新」的二倍體(2n)數目為102,因此其細胞大約是正常大小的兩倍。其現存最近的親戚是同科的安地斯黏鼠(Octomys mimax),其2n = 56。因此推測,一個類似Octomys的祖先產生了四倍體(即2n = 4x = 112)的後代,這些後代因其染色體加倍而在繁殖上與其親本隔離。
自然多倍體在魚類中相當常見,真骨魚類的幹系譜系中曾發生過一次多倍體事件[40]。當前確認多倍體存在的魚類譜系包括鱘形目、鮭形目以及胭脂魚科等。鯉科是物種數量最多的多倍體魚類譜系,包含約400個多倍體物種,以及30個完全由多倍體物種組成的屬。部分魚類[比如?]的染色體數量可多達400條[61]。
哈爾·史瓦盧普(Har Swarup)於1956年透過在受精時間附近對魚卵進行冷休克處理,成功誘導魚類產生多倍體,產生了成功發育成熟的三倍體胚胎。[62][63] 冷或熱休克也被證明能導致兩棲動物產生未減數的配子,儘管這種情況在卵子中比在精子中更常見。[64] 約翰·格登(1958年)將體細胞的完整細胞核移植到青蛙Xenopus的卵中,產生了能夠發育到蝌蚪階段的二倍體卵(這是Briggs和King於1952年工作的延伸)。[65] 英國科學家J·B·S·霍爾丹稱讚這項工作具有潛在的醫學應用價值,並在描述結果時,成為最早使用「克隆」一詞來指代動物的人之一。後來山中伸彌的研究顯示了成熟細胞如何被重編程為多能性細胞,將可能性擴展到非幹細胞。格登和山中伸彌因這項工作共同獲得了2012年的諾貝爾獎。[65]
植物
[编辑]
多倍體在陆生植物中十分常見。現存植物物種中約有30-80%為多倍體,且許多植物譜系在其基因組中都保留了古多倍體化的痕跡。[66][67][68][69] 被子植物物種多樣性的快速擴張可能與多個類群共同經歷的古老基因組複製事件在時間上相吻合。[70] 據研究推算,約15%的被子植物和31%的蕨類植物的物種形成事件都伴隨著倍性增加[71]。單子葉植物與真雙子葉植物這兩大演化支中,許多物種還曾在此基礎上經歷兩次或更多次的基因組加倍事件,如水稻、毛果楊、擬南芥等[72]。
多倍體植物可透過多種機制在自然界中自發形成,包括減數分裂或有絲分裂失敗,以及未減數配子(2n配子)的融合等。[36] 無論是同源多倍體(如馬鈴薯[73])還是異源多倍體(如油菜、小麥和棉花),均可見於野生和馴化植物之中。
多倍化後形成的個體或族群可能在形態、繁育系統和生態位等多方面與其二倍體祖先迅速差異化,因而有助於物種形成和新生態位的開發[67][36]。由於多倍體通常難以與其二倍體祖先成功雜交,多倍化也可成為同域物種形成的一種機制。例如,溝酸漿屬的Erythranthe peregrina便被認為源自E. × robertsii 的多倍化;DNA定序顯示,E. × robertsii 原本是由自北美傳入英國的E. guttata 和E. lutea 族群雜交形成的不育三倍體,後來透過族群層級的全基因組複製及後續基因突變獲得生殖能力,並在蘇格蘭大陸和奧克尼群島形成穩定族群[74][75]
部分研究觀點認為,在宏觀演化的尺度下,多倍化事件可能增加物種多樣化速率[76],被子植物現今龐大的物種數量,以及在地球多種生態系統中的優勢地位,也被認為與其歷史上經歷的全基因組加倍事件相關[77]。新形成的異源多倍體之所以能迅速產生新變異,可能與多種機制有關,包括基因劑量效應、不同基因調控網絡的重組、染色體重排,以及表觀遺傳學重塑等;這些變化均可能影響基因含量或基因表達水平。[78][79][80][81] 基因組層面上的許多快速變化可促進生殖隔離,進而推動物種形成。另一方面,由倍性間雜交產生的種子,例如多倍體與其親本物種之間的雜交體,常會出現異常的胚乳發育,從而生存能力及適應度減弱,[82][83] 從而加強多倍體與親本物種之間的生殖隔離。此外,多倍體也可能與二倍體雜交並產生多倍體種子,這一現象已在还阳参属的無融合生殖複合體中被觀察到。[84]
多倍體化亦可能作為一種「逆向物種形成」的機制。[85] 在某些情況下,即使不同譜系在二倍體階段時已無基因流動,多倍體化仍可能使其重新發生基因交流。例如,沙生拟南芥(Arabidopsis arenosa)和深山南芥(Arabidopsis lyrata)分別經歷了獨立的同源多倍化事件[26],其後發生了適應性等位基因在物種之間的流動,並促進了各自年輕多倍體譜系的穩定化[86]。這類由多倍體化促成的適應性基因滲入(adaptive introgression),可能使多倍體累積隱性的基因組變異;這些變異在族群未來面對環境壓力時,可能成為可供利用的遺傳資源。[85]
部分植物為三倍體。由於三倍體的減數分裂通常受阻,這些植物往往不育,並常依賴營養繁殖維持族群。例如番紅花(Crocus sativus)即完全透過營養繁殖延續。此外,極微罕見的塔斯馬尼亞扭瓣花(Lomatia tasmanica)也是一種三倍體不育植物。
相較於被子植物和蕨類植物,針葉樹中的自然多倍體較為罕見[87],但其中一例為六倍體(6x)的海岸紅杉(Sequoia sempervirens),具有66條染色體(2n = 6x = 66),但其多倍體起源仍未完全明確。[88]
水生植物中亦包含大量多倍體,尤以單子葉植物較為常見。[89]
作物
[编辑]多倍體在農業植物中相當常見。據估計,約30%的作物屬於近期形成的多倍體,許多作物亦保留有更古老的基因組複製事件痕跡。[90]
多倍體作物可由自然演化產生,也可由環境條件、實驗室處理或化學方法誘導形成。例如,在植物育種中,常以秋水仙素處理種子或幼苗,以促使染色體數目加倍。誘導多倍體化是克服雜交體不育性的常用方法。小黑麥即為典型例子:它是圓錐小麥(Triticum turgidum)與裸麥(Secale cereale)的雜交後代,兼具兩親本的若干優良性狀,但早期雜交個體通常不育;經多倍體化後,雜交種恢復可育性,因而能夠穩定繁殖並發展為作物。
不同作物可呈現不同倍性層級[90]。三倍體作物包括若干蘋果品種,如「Belle de Boskoop」、「喬納金」、「陆奥」和「Ribston Pippin」,以及香蕉、部分柑橘、薑、無籽西瓜[91]、番紅花等。四倍體作物包括少數蘋果品種、棉花、馬鈴薯、油菜、韭蔥、菸草、花生、金諾橘和天竺葵。六倍體作物包括菊花、燕麥和奇異果等[10]。八倍體作物包括草莓、大麗花、三色堇、甘蔗[92]和酢漿薯(Oxalis tuberosa)等[93];部分甘蔗雜交種甚至可達十二倍體[94]。其中,小麥是多倍體作物的典型例子,經過數千年的自然雜交、人工選拔與栽培改良,已形成二倍體小麥、四倍體硬粒小麥(也稱杜蘭小麥)及六倍體普通小麥(又稱麵包小麥)等不同類型。
同一作物的不同品種也可能具有不同倍性。例如,鬱金香和百合常見二倍體與三倍體類型;萱草栽培種可有二倍體或四倍體品種;蘋果和金諾橘則可見二倍體、三倍體或四倍體類型。
部分多倍體作物,尤其是奇數倍體,因減數分裂時染色體配對不規則而表現為不育或低育性。不過,在農業生產中,這種不育性有時反而具有利用價值,例如可用於培育無籽水果。此類作物通常依賴嫁接、扦插、組織培養等無性繁殖方式維持品種特性。
真菌
[编辑]除了植物和動物,各種真菌物種的演化史也點綴著過去和近期的全基因組重複事件[95]。已知有幾個多倍體的例子:
- 同源多倍體:水生真菌異水黴屬、[96] 用於烘焙的某些釀酒酵母菌株、[97] 等。
- 異源多倍體:廣泛分佈的糞生黑蛋巢菌(Cyathus stercoreus)、[98] 異源四倍體的拉格酵母巴斯德酵母、[99] 異源三倍體的葡萄酒腐敗酵母德克酵母、[100] 等。
- 古多倍體:人類病原體米根黴(Rhizopus oryzae)、[101] 酵母屬、[102] 等。
此外,多倍體常與雜交和網狀演化相關,這在幾個真菌分類群中似乎非常普遍。事實上,同倍體物種形成(雜交物種形成但染色體數目不變)已在某些真菌物種中得到證實(如擔子菌門的花藥黑粉菌[103])。

與植物和動物一樣,真菌雜交種和多倍體與其祖先和二倍體對應物相比,表現出結構和功能上的修飾。特別是,多倍體酵母屬基因組的結構和功能結果驚人地反映了植物多倍體基因組的演化命運。大型染色體重排[104]導致嵌合染色體[105]已被描述,以及更精確的遺傳修飾如基因丟失。[106] 異源四倍體酵母S. pastorianus的部分同源等位基因對轉錄組的貢獻不均等。[107] 在真菌中,多倍體化和/或雜交後也觀察到表現型多樣化,[108]為自然選擇及隨後的適應和物種形成提供了動力。
色藻界
[编辑]其他真核生物分類群在其演化史上經歷了一次或多次多倍體化事件[95]。卵菌綱,非真正的真菌成員,包含幾個古多倍體和多倍體物種的例子,例如在疫黴屬內。[109] 某些褐藻類(墨角藻目、海帶目[110]和矽藻[111])含有明顯的多倍體基因組。在囊泡藻界群中,卓越的物種草履蟲經歷了三次連續的全基因組重複[112],並確立了其作為古多倍體研究主要模型的地位。
細菌
[编辑]每個抗輻射奇異球菌含有4-8個其染色體的拷貝。[113] 將其暴露於X射線或脫水中,可將其基因組粉碎成數百個短的隨機片段。然而,抗輻射奇異球菌對此類暴露具有高度抗性。其基因組精確恢復的機制涉及RecA介導的同源重組和一個稱為擴展合成依賴性鏈退火(簡稱「SDSA」)的過程。[114]
棕色固氮菌每個細胞可含有多達80個染色體拷貝。[115] 然而,這僅在快速生長的培養物中觀察到,而在合成最簡培養基中生長的培養物則不是多倍體。[116]
古菌
[编辑]古菌鹽桿菌是多倍體[117],並且像抗輻射奇異球菌一樣,對X射線和脫水等能誘導DNA雙鏈斷裂的條件具有高度抗性。[118] 儘管染色體被粉碎成許多片段,但可以利用重疊的片段再生完整的染色體。該機制利用單鏈DNA結合蛋白,並且很可能是同源重組修復。[119]
參見
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