塞尔柱帝国
Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu دولت سلجوقیان Dawlat-i Saljūqiān 大塞尔柱帝国 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| 1037年—1194年 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 国旗 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 1092年处于鼎盛时期的大塞尔柱帝国 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 地位 | 帝国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 首都 | 内沙布尔 (1037–1043) 雷伊 (1043–1051) 伊斯法罕 (1051–1118) 哈马丹，西都 (1118–1194) 梅尔夫，东都 (1118–1153) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 常用语言 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 政府 | 君主制 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 苏丹或沙阿 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1037–1063 | 图赫里勒一世（首） | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1174–1194 | 图赫里勒三世（末）[5][6] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 历史 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 图赫里勒建国 | 1037年 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1194年 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 面积 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1080年估计 | 3,900,000平方公里 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| 今属于 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 系列条目 |
| 土耳其历史 |
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土耳其主题 |
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| 大伊朗地区历史 现代国家兴起前 |
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| 现代之前 |
大塞尔柱帝国（土耳其语：Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu；波斯语：دولت سلجوقیان），又称塞尔柱帝国、塞尔柱土耳其帝国，是中世纪时期的突厥－波斯[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]、逊尼派伊斯兰帝国，由乌古斯人中的一支发展而来[16]，领土范围东至兴都库什山脉，西至东部安纳托利亚，北至中亚，南至波斯湾，塞尔柱人由咸海发迹，随后挺进呼罗珊，再入波斯地区，最终征服东安纳托利亚。
11世纪前半叶，塞尔柱王朝的创立者图格鲁勒·贝格为帝国的建立打下了基础。自1037年正式建国后，塞尔柱人统一了支离分裂的东部伊斯兰世界，并在第一次和第二次十字军东征中扮演了重要的角色。塞尔柱帝国在文化[17][18][19]和语言[10][20][21][22][23]上表现为高度波斯化[10][11][12][13]，并在突厥-波斯文化的发展传承上具有十分重要的地位[24]，同时还将波斯文化传播至安纳托利亚[25][26]。突厥部落在帝国西北部的战略性定居大大促进了这些地区的突厥化[27]。
历史
[编辑]背景
[编辑]八世纪伊朗地区在经历伊斯兰征服后，相继由阿拉伯帝国倭马亚王朝（又称伍麦叶、奥米亚、白衣大食）、阿拔斯王朝（黑衣大食）统治。随着阿拔斯王朝与拜占庭帝国的长年战争，帝国对伊朗地区的控制持续衰弱。九世纪末，萨曼·胡达击退阿拉伯人，在伊朗东部建立了萨曼王朝。十世纪末，萨曼的突厥奴隶将军阿尔普特勤及其女婿苏布克特勤自立加兹尼王朝，取代旧主，掌握伊朗东部的统治权；与重夺伊朗西部的阿拉伯白益王朝分庭抗礼。在动乱中，各势力常雇佣北方中亚地区的游牧民族为佣兵，乌古斯人是其中较为强大的一支。
建立
[编辑]起初，塞尔柱人属于乌古斯人中的一个部族，以雇佣兵的身份在突厥斯坦地区活跃。公元985年，由于与乌古斯领袖的争执，塞尔柱·贝格带领部族离开了乌古斯叶护国，独立为新的部族。他们在锡尔河一带游牧并皈依伊斯兰教，并以佣兵的身份参与了喀喇汗国的王位内战，与乌古斯族、加兹尼王朝交恶。
1040年，塞尔柱的孙子图赫里勒·贝格与恰格勒·贝格于丹丹纳干战役中打倒了宿敌加兹尼王国，征服了伊朗东部的呼罗珊地区，图赫里勒自立为苏丹。为纪念祖父，兄弟将国名命为塞尔柱苏丹国。
扩张
[编辑]建国之后，图格鲁勒将目光转向波斯湾北部，占领了伊拉克一带、米底亚王国南部哈马丹等地。1055年，他替阿拔斯哈里发从白益王朝手中夺回巴格达，被正式追封为苏丹。塞尔柱人以哈里发的支持为后盾，进一步往南部巴勒斯坦地区以及西部小亚细亚今（土耳其）扩张。
此一时期的西亚，原先控制约旦河流域的法蒂玛王朝、握有小亚细亚的东罗马帝国皆因连年征战和国内腐败面临衰退，塞尔柱人多次蚕食臣属这两国的势力，彼此间的冲突日渐白热化。
1071年8月，第二任苏丹阿尔普·阿尔斯兰在曼齐刻尔特之战大败由罗曼努斯四世所率领的东罗马帝国军队，正式占领小亚细亚[28]。同年，塞尔柱人从法蒂玛王朝手中夺得圣城耶路撒冷[29]。在突厥部族从东方大举移入的情况下[30]，东罗马皇帝阿莱克修斯一世向教宗乌尔班二世求救。教宗因此在法国克列芒发表演说，招募民众解放圣地耶路撒冷。该演说直接促成了后来的第一次十字军[31]。
第三任苏丹马立克沙一世则专注于与帝国东方的对手交战，他先后击败宿敌喀喇汗国、加兹尼王国，稳固塞尔柱在中亚河中地区的统治，使帝国的疆域达到极致。
暗杀、分裂、十字军
[编辑]尽管塞尔柱帝国扩张迅速，由于突厥游牧民本身行政人才的缺乏，使帝国必须仰赖大量原住民管理被征服地。以宰相尼札姆·穆勒克为首，帝国的军政要职大多由波斯人把持，“伊克塔”制的推行侧面象征突厥人缺乏管理领地行政的意愿。另外，由于宗教政策的缘故，波斯人与伊斯玛仪派的关系也持续恶化，阿萨辛等极端派系也随之出现。
1092年底，马立克沙一世与尼札姆的政争爆发，多方政治、宗教势力介入之下，两人在不到一个月的时间内接连被刺杀。权力的真空使帝国陷入分裂，继承人间为争夺王位纷纷占地为王，基利杰阿尔斯兰一世统治着安纳托利亚的罗姆苏丹国，突突什一世则执掌叙利亚，耶路萨冷重新为法提玛王朝掌控。而突突什一世于1095年死去后，其子法赫尔·穆尔克·拉德温和杜卡克又分别继承了阿勒颇和大马士革，继承人短命与战乱频繁的恶性循环使帝国陷入衰退之中[32]。
在第一次十字军东征之前就分裂为若干势力的塞尔柱帝国，在面对欧洲人攻击时疲于应对，基利杰阿尔斯兰一世便于尼西亚、埃斯基谢希尔等地陷入苦战，无力阻止十字军的步伐。最终，塞尔柱人丧失了地中海沿岸的大部分领土。
灭亡
[编辑]1141年，西辽在卡特万之战击败塞尔柱帝国，使塞尔柱失去了对中亚的控制。
1153年，乌古斯人擒获苏丹艾哈迈德·桑贾尔，并攻下古都内沙布尔，塞尔柱失去对波斯的控制，实际领土退缩至伊拉克和阿塞拜疆一带。
1194年，花剌子模国王塔乞失在哈马丹打败塞尔柱末代苏丹图赫里勒三世，塞尔柱帝国灭亡，版图并入花剌子模王朝。1243年，蒙古帝国入侵小亚细亚，蒙古大将拜住在克塞山战役中击溃罗姆苏丹国的军队，从此罗姆苏丹国沦为蒙古伊儿汗国的藩属。1299年罗姆苏丹国发生分裂，1307年从历史记录上消失。
统治者列表
[编辑]自马立克沙一世遇刺后，长期内战使独立政权在伊拉克、阿塞拜疆、叙利亚等地频繁出现，本表仅列出实际控制波斯地区的苏丹：
| 苏丹 | 统治年期 | 注解 |
|---|---|---|
| 图赫里勒·贝格 | 1037年-1063年 | 与胞弟恰格勒·贝格采行双元统治。 |
| 阿尔普·阿尔斯兰 | 1063年-1072年 | |
| 马立克沙一世 | 1072年-1092年 | |
| 马哈茂德一世 | 1092年-1094年 | |
| 巴尔基雅鲁克 | 1094年-1105年 | |
| 马立克沙二世 | 1105年 | 控制区只有呼罗珊一带 |
| 穆罕默德一世 | 1105年-1117年 | 实际掌权者为其兄桑贾尔。 |
| 艾哈迈德·桑贾尔 | 1117年-1153年 |
参考资料
[编辑]- ^ 1.0 1.1 Savory, R. M. and Roger Savory, Introduction to Islamic civilisation, (Cambridge University Press, 1976 ), 82.
- ^ Black, Edwin, Banking on Baghdad: inside Iraq's 7,000-year history of war, profit and conflict, (John Wiley and sons, 2004), 38.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 C.E. Bosworth, "Turkish Expansion towards the west" in UNESCO HISTORY OF HUMANITY, Volume IV, titled "From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century", UNESCO Publishing / Routledge, p. 391: "While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law, theology and science, the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized; this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers (Qubād, Kay Khusraw and so on) and in the use of Persian as a literary language (Turkish must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time)
- ^ Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world, Ed. Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie, (Elsevier Ltd., 2009), 1110;Oghuz Turkic is first represented by Old Anatolian Turkish which was a subordinate written medium until the end of the Seljuk rule.".
- ^ A New General Biographical Dictionary, Vol.2, Ed. Hugh James Rose, (London, 1853), 214.
- ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes, (New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press, 1988), 167.
- ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes, (New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press, 1988),159,161; "In 1194, Togrul III would succumb to the onslaught of the Khwarizmian Turks, who were destined at last to succeed the Seljuks to the empire of the Middle East."
- ^ Aḥmad of Niǧde's "al-Walad al-Shafīq" and the Seljuk Past, A. C. S. Peacock, Anatolian Studies, Vol. 54, (2004), 97; With the growth of Seljuk power in Rum, a more highly developed Muslim cultural life, based on the Persianate culture of the Great Seljuk court, was able to take root in Anatolia.
- ^ Meisami, Julie Scott, Persian Historiography to the End of the Twelfth Century, (Edinburgh University Press, 1999), 143; Nizam al-Mulk also attempted to organise the Saljuq administration according to the Persianate Ghaznavid model..
- ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 M.A. Amir-Moezzi, "Shahrbanu", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2007-03-11.): "... here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkmen heroes or Muslim saints ..."
- ^ 11.0 11.1 Josef W. Meri, "Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia", Routledge, 2005, p. 399
- ^ 12.0 12.1 Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World", Council on Foreign Relations (May 1994), p. 79
- ^ 13.0 13.1 Jonathan Dewald, "Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World", Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004, p. 24: "Turcoman armies coming from the East had driven the Byzantines out of much of Asia Minor and established the Persianized sultanate of the Seljuks."
- ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes, (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 161,164; "..renewed the Seljuk attempt to found a great Turko-Persian empire in eastern Iran..", "It is to be noted that the Seljuks, those Turkomans who became sultans of Persia, did not Turkify Persia-no doubt because they did not wish to do so. On the contrary, it was they who voluntarily became Persians and who, in the manner of the great old Sassanid kings, strove to protect the Iranian populations from the plundering of Ghuzz bands and save Iranian culture from the Turkoman menace."
- ^ Possessors and possessed: museums, archaeology, and the visualization of history in the late Ottoman Empire; By Wendy M. K. Shaw; Published by University of California Press, 2003, ISBN 0520233352, 9780520233355; p. 5.
- ^
- Jackson, P. Review: The History of the Seljuq Turkmens: The History of the Seljuq Turkmens. Journal of Islamic Studies (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies). 2002, 13 (1): 75–76. doi:10.1093/jis/13.1.75.
- Bosworth, C. E. (2001). Notes on Some Turkish Names in Abu 'l-Fadl Bayhaqi's Tarikh-i Mas'udi. Oriens, Vol. 36, 2001 (2001), pp. 299-313.
- Dani, A. H., Masson, V. M. (Eds), Asimova, M. S. (Eds), Litvinsky, B. A. (Eds), Boaworth, C. E. (Eds). (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers (Pvt. Ltd).
- Hancock, I. (2006). ON ROMANI ORIGINS AND IDENTITY. The Romani Archives and Documentation Center. The University of Texas at Austin.
- Asimov, M. S., Bosworth, C. E. (eds.). (1998). History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
- Dani, A. H., Masson, V. M. (Eds), Asimova, M. S. (Eds), Litvinsky, B. A. (Eds), Boaworth, C. E. (Eds). (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers (Pvt. Ltd).
- ^ C.E. Bosworth, "Turkmen Expansion towards the west" in UNESCO HISTORY OF HUMANITY, Volume IV, titled "From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century", UNESCO Publishing / Routledge, p. 391.
- ^ Mehmed Fuad Koprulu's, "Early Mystics in Turkish Literature", Translated by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff , Routledge, 2006, pg 149.
- ^ Stephen P. Blake, "Shahjahanabad: The Sovereign City in Mughal India, 1639-1739". Cambridge University Press, 1991. pg 123: "For the Seljuks and Il-Khanids in Iran it was the rulers rather than the conquered who were "Persianized and Islamicized"
- ^ O.Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2012-01-22.)
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (LINK （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）): "... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..."
- ^ M. Ravandi, "The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities", in Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies), vol. 25-6 (2005), pp. 157-69
- ^ F. Daftary, "Sectarian and National Movements in Iran, Khorasan, and Trasoxania during Umayyad and Early Abbasid Times", in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol 4, pt. 1; edited by M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth; UNESCO Publishing, Institute of Ismaili Studies: "... Not only did the inhabitants of Khurasan not succumb to the language of the nomadic invaders, but they imposed their own tongue on them. The region could even assimilate the Turkic Ghaznavids and Seljuks (eleventh and twelfth centuries), the Timurids (fourteenth–fifteenth centuries), and the Qajars (nineteenth–twentieth centuries) ..."
- ^ "The Turko-Persian tradition features Persian culture patronized by Turkic rulers"." See Daniel Pipes: "The Event of Our Era: Former Soviet Muslim Republics Change the Middle East" in Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkemenistan and the World", Council on Foreign Relations, p. 79. Exact statement: "In Short, the Turko-Persian tradition featured Persian culture patronized by Turcophone rulers."
- ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes, (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 574.
- ^ Bingham, Woodbridge, Hilary Conroy and Frank William Iklé, History of Asia, Vol.1, (Allyn and Bacon, 1964), 98.
- ^
- Golden, P. B., Harrasowitz, O.(1992) An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. pg 386.
- Perry, J. Iran & the Caucasus, Vol. 5, (2001), pp. 193-200. THE HISTORICAL ROLE OF TURKISH IN RELATION TO PERSIAN OF IRAN
- Bosworth, C.E. Arran in Encyclopedia Iranica
- According to Fridrik Thordarson, "Iranian influence on Caucasian languages. There is general agreement that Iranian languages predominated in Azerbaijan from the 1st millennium b.c. until the advent of the Turks in a.d. the 11th century (see Menges, pp. 41-42; Camb. Hist. Iran IV, pp. 226-28, and VI, pp. 950-52). The process of Turkicization was essentially complete by the beginning of the 16th century, and today Iranian languages are spoken in only a few scattered settlements in the area."
- ^ 爱德华.吉朋《罗马帝国衰亡史》【第五卷】
- ^ 冯作民《西洋全史》(5)
- ^ 布林顿《西洋文化史》第二卷
- ^ 海天书楼《基督教二千年史》
- ^ Holt 1989，第11, 14–15页.