極右派
政治系列主題條目 |
政治主題 |
極右派(英語:Far-right politics),又称极右翼,是指其政治立場位於政治光譜最右端的人士或組織。「極右」也常被許多政治評論家用來描述一些難以歸入傳統右派的政治團體、運動和政黨。[1]
一些學者使用「極端右派」(Extreme Right)或「偏激右派」(Ultra Right)來討論位於傳統選舉政治範圍以外的右派政治團體,通常有革命右派份子、好戰的種族至上主義者和宗教極端主義者、新法西斯主義者、新納粹主義者和三K黨員等。在這種用法中,該名詞與不好戰的極右派或右派民粹主義者等其他形式的極右派有所區別。[2]
學者在使用「極右派」時有著至少兩種衝突的用法:[3]
傾向改革的右派運動或保守派政黨中的右派派系。他們常被稱為「不同政見的右派」(Dissident Right)、「行動主義右派」(Activist Right)或「右翼民粹主義」(Right-wing Populism)。他們的立場介於傳統保守派和極端右派之間。這些人士位於主流選舉政治之外,但他們一般是發起改革運動,而非革命。一些被認為的「極右派」的政黨則是因為與原主流中間偏右保守主義政黨意見不合,認為他們的政策和理念已偏離原來的右派路線,如英國獨立黨。
新法西斯主義者與新納粹主義者時常被視為「極右派」或「偏激右派」。這些團體通常具有反革命性質。新法西斯和新納粹也意指他們來自二戰之後的時代。
由於這些分類尚未普遍被接受,以及還有其他的用法存在,因此讓「極右派」的用法較為複雜。
用法
19世紀末期,法國政治光譜可分為極左派(社會主義激進派)、左派(社會主義者與進步主義者)、中間偏左(自由派共和黨人)、中間派(溫和派、保守派共和黨人) 、中間偏右(君主立憲支持者、奧爾良派、保守派共和黨人、波拿巴主義者)、右派(保守主義者)和極右派(保守主義激進派、極端民族主義者、保皇派和正統派)。
不同學者在「極右派」的使用上有著衝突的用法。[4] 「極右派」最常用來描述法西斯主義、納粹主義和其他偏激民族主義者,以及其他的反動意識形態與運動。[5][6][7][8]
荷蘭已故極右派政治家皮姆·富圖恩,因他的反移民和反穆斯林政策而被英國廣播公司稱為極右派。[9]全國公共廣播電台等曾使用「極右派」來描述一些宣揚自由市場資本主義的威權獨裁政府,像是智利的奧古斯托·皮諾切特。[10][11]
左派刊物《新左派評論》曾稱雷根的政策是「激進右派」(Radical Right)。[12]「激進右派」也被用來表示「視個人為核心的自由意志主義運動」。[13]
美國國土安全部將右派極端主義定義為目標放在激進、種族或宗教少數份子的仇恨團體,而且仇恨團體可能致力於某項單一議題,如反墮胎、反犹太主义、反共主义、反同性戀和反移民等等。[14]
但極右派這個說法常會使人誤解,一些左翼人士及政治人物會以極右派來稱呼一些強硬和保守的右翼政治人物,這些政治人物大多並非極右派,即使這些政治人物或會涉及種族歧視、性別歧視及恐同的言論,但不能歸納為極右派。現時許多人所認為的「極右派」政黨實際上是右派民粹主義政黨,雖然這些右翼政黨抱持著民族主義,加上在社會政策上屬於右翼保守派如反對墮胎,但亦支持保障社會福利及政府干預市場經濟、集體主義或民族社會主義的經濟政策,歐洲的右派民粹政黨便一直主張強調保護本國工人權益,反對引入外國移民進入勞動市場,近年歐洲移民危機,歐洲的右派民粹政黨便主張反對來自伊斯蘭教國家為主的移民及難民進入歐洲,作為主要政綱。
各国家和地区现存的极右派政党和组织
亞洲
歐洲
- 欧洲联盟
- 烏克蘭
- 奥地利
- 俄羅斯
- 比利时
- 保加利亚
- 克罗地亚
- 丹麦
- 法國
- 德国
- 希腊
- 匈牙利
- 拉脫維亞
- 芬兰
- 爱沙尼亚
- 立陶宛
- 盧森堡
- 馬爾他
- 荷蘭
- 葡萄牙
- 波蘭
- 羅馬尼亞
- 塞爾維亞
- 斯洛維尼亞
- 西班牙
- 瑞典
- 瑞士
- 英国
- 斯洛伐克
- 義大利
- 塞族共和國
非洲
大洋洲
北美洲
南美洲
各国家和地区历史的极右派政党和组织
亚洲
欧洲
非洲
大洋洲
(暂无)
北美洲
南美洲
參見
参考文献
- ^ Betz & Immerfall 1998; Betz 1994; Durham 2000; Durham 2002; Hainsworth 2000; Mudde 2000
- ^ Betz & Immerfall 1998; Betz 1994; Durham 2000; Durham 2002; Hainsworth 2000; Mudde 2000
- ^ Betz & Immerfall 1998; Betz 1994; Durham 2000; Durham 2002; Hainsworth 2000; Mudde 2000; Berlet & Lyons, 2000.
- ^ Betz & Immerfall 1998; Betz 1994; Durham 2000; Durham 2002; Hainsworth 2000; Mudde 2000; Berlet & Lyons, 2000.
- ^ Peter Davies, Derek Lynch. The Routledge companion to fascism and the far right.
- ^ Martin Durham. The Christian right.
- ^ Peter H Merkl, Leonard Weinberg. The Revival of Right-wing Extremism in the Nineties.
- ^ Roger Eatwell. Western Democracies and the New Extreme Right Challenge.
- ^ Pim Fortuyn: The far-right Dutch maverick. BBC. 2002-03-07.
- ^ A Dictator's Legacy of Economic Growth. 2006-09-14 [2007-10-15].
- ^ Glenn Greenwald. Who funds and runs the Politico? - Glenn Greenwald. Salon.com. 2007-05-04.
- ^ Alan Wolfe, Sociology, Liberalism, and the Radical Right, New Left Review
- ^ Oscar B. Johannsen. The Radical Right.
- ^ Right-wing Extremism: current economic and political climate fueling resurgence in radicalization and recruitment (PDF), [2009-06-12], (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2009-06-15)
- ^ Police deny Shiv Sena arrest rumours.
- ^ Indian MPs elect far-right speaker.
- ^ Riot fears in Bombay after arrest of extremist leader.
- ^ Arrest of political leader sparks protests in Mumbai.
- ^ Indian police arrest head of rightwing group.
- ^ Currently Listed Entities. Public Safety Canada. 2006-11-06 [2007-08-13]. (原始内容存档于2007-07-24).
- ^ 21.0 21.1 Ya’ari, Ehud. Behind the Terror. Atlantic Monthly. 1987年6月.
[The SSNP] greet their leaders with a Hitlerian salute; sing their Arabic anthem, "Greetings to You, Syria," to the strains of "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles"; and throng to the symbol of the red hurricane, a swastika in circular motion.
- ^ 22.0 22.1 Pipes, Daniel. Greater Syria. Oxford University Press. 1992. ISBN 0195060229.
The SSNP flag, which features a curved swastika called the red hurricane (zawba'a), points to the party's fascistic origins.
- ^ 23.0 23.1 Rolland, John C. Lebanon. Nova Publishers. 2003 [2009-06-12]. ISBN 1590338715. (原始内容存档于2013-06-06).
[The SSNP's] red hurricane symbol was modeled after the Nazi swastika.
- ^ 24.0 24.1 Johnson, Michael. All Honourable Men. I.B.Tauris. 2001. ISBN 1860647154.
Saadeh, the party's 'leader for life', was an admirer of Adolf Hitler and influenced by Nazi and fascist ideology. This went beyond adopting a reversed swastika as the party's symbol and singing the party's anthem to Deutschland über alles, and included developing the cult of a leader, advocating totalitarian government, and glorifying an ancient pre-Christan past and the organic whole of the Syrian Volk or nation.
- ^ 25.0 25.1 Becker, Jillian. The PLO: The Rise and Fall of the Palestine Liberation Organization. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1984. ISBN 0297785478.
[The SSNP] had been founded in 1932 as a youth movement, deliberately modeled on Hitler's Nazi Party. For its symbol it invented a curved swastika, called the Zawbah.
- ^ 26.0 26.1 Yamak, Labib Zuwiyya. The Syrian Social Nationalist Party: An Ideological Analysis. Harvard University Press. 1966.
- ^ Simon, Reeva S. Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East. Macmillan Reference USA. 1996. ISBN 0028960114.
The Syrian Social Nationalist party (SSNP) was the brainchild of Antun Sa'ada, a Greek Orthodox Lebanese who was inspired by Nazi and fascist ideologies.
- ^ Top Judge's Ouster Shakes Pakistan, Washington Post. 27 [2007-04-19].
- ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.7 29.8 Ignazi, Piero, The Extreme Right in Europe, Merkl, Peter H.; Weinberg, Leonard (编), The Revival of Right-Wing Extremism in the Nineties, London: Peter Cass, 1997
- ^ 30.00 30.01 30.02 30.03 30.04 30.05 30.06 30.07 30.08 30.09 30.10 30.11 Mudde, Cas. The Ideology of the Extreme Right. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press. 2000.
- ^ Far-right party shows surprising strength in Austrian vote. CNN. 199-10-03.
- ^ 32.0 32.1 Europe's far right. 《衛報》.
- ^ Mahony, Honor. Far-right group formed in European Parliament. EUobserver. 2007-01-09 [2007-01-10].
- ^ Cynthia M. Frank, The Impact of Electoral Engineering on Nationalist Parties in Post-War States (PDF), [2007-02-16], (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2006-09-03) 无效
|deadurl=bot: unknown
(帮助) - ^ The Croatian Liberation Movement. (原始内容存档于2009-05-05).
- ^ Ante Pavelic killer file. (原始内容存档于2009-06-19).
- ^ German Far Right Exploiting Reform Anger.
- ^ German far right unites for polls. BBC.
- ^ Far-right movement gathers strength as Greek election nears. 《衛報》. 2007-09-13.
- ^ Paul Tugwell Saronida. Greeks return fire-damaged conservatives. The Age. 2007-09-18.
- ^ ANTHEE CARASSAVA. Greek Governing Party Wins a 2nd Term. 《紐約時報》. 2007-09-17.
- ^ 2007-09-16. 《華盛頓郵報》.
- ^ Return to (illiberal) diversity? (PDF): 9
- ^ Informaworld - Portugal: A New Look At The Extreme Right.
- ^ Political parties Archive.is的存檔,存档日期2012-08-05, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Poland), accessed 23 October 2009.
- ^ Traynor, Ian. Romania's first gift to the European Union - a caucus of neo-fascists and Holocaust deniers. 《衛報》. 2007-01-08 [2007-01-10].
- ^ Right Wing Fascist Nationalist Xenophobic Parties Organizations. (原始内容存档于2008年2月3日).
- ^ Southeast Europe Portal - Serbia: Local Elections 2004 Results. (原始内容存档于2004-09-23).
- ^ Ian Traynor. Extreme nationalist elected speaker of Serbian parliament. 《衛報》. 2007-05-08 [2009-06-12]. (原始内容存档于2007-12-19).
- ^ Misha Savic. Milosevic ally gains key Serbian post. Boston.com. 2007-05-08.
- ^ Balkan crisis news report on presidential elections
- ^ Rydgren, Jens. Radical Right-wing Populism in Sweden and Denmark. The Centre for the Study of European Politics and Society. [2006-05-25]. (原始内容存档于2012-02-04).
- ^ Schweizer Demokraten vor der Auflösung. NZZ Online.[永久失效連結]
- ^ British National Party: Nasty, brutish and short-lived?. 《經濟學人》. 2004-08-05.
- ^ http://english.alarabiya.net/en/views/news/middle-east/2013/05/01/The-Muslim-Brotherhood-s-right-wing-politics-game.html
- ^ http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/02/what-is-the-muslim-brotherhood/2/
- ^ Australia First: reclaiming the agenda. The Age. 2005-12-14 [2009-06-12]. (原始内容存档于2006-02-03).
- ^ Fascist Australia. The Age. 2004-08-24.
- ^ Minority group in TV hijacking. The Australian. 2007-07-14 [2007-07-14]. (原始内容存档于2007-07-16).
- ^ Diamond, Sara. 1995. Roads to Dominion: Right–Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States. New York: Guilford.
- ^ American Architects & Engineers Discuss World Trade Center Building #7.. [2020-09-11]. (原始内容存档于2019-06-01).
- ^ Benites, Afonso. Bolsonaro anuncia saída do PSL e seus planos para fundar sigla Aliança pelo Brasil. El País. 2019-11-12 [2019-11-13] (葡萄牙语).
- ^ Ávila, Ariel. La derecha en Colombia y la campaña presidencial. Article. Diario El País. 2017-09-05 [2018-10-06] (西班牙语).
- ^ Hoyos, Adriana, Colombia Country Report 2013 (PDF), Center for International Development, Harvard University: 4–5, 2013-03 [2020-05-06], (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2013-12-03)
- ^ http://www.elmundo.es/america/2011/04/14/noticias/1302782249.html
參考書目
- Arzheimer, Kai. The Extreme Right Bibliography (Online Reference Database). [29 March 2014].
- Carlisle, Rodney P. The Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and the Right, Volume 2: The Right. Thousand Oaks, California, USA; London, England, UK; New Delhi, India: Sage Publications. 2005.
- Hainsworth, Paul. The Politics of the Extreme Right: From the Margins to the Mainstream. Pinter. 2000.
- Kundnani, A. Blind Spot? Security Narratives and Far-Right Violence in Europe (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague, 2012)
- Merkl, Peter H.; Weinberg, Leonard. Right-wing Extremism in the Twenty-first Century. Frank Cass Publishers.
- Hilliard, Robert L.; Keith, Michael C. Waves of Rancor: Tuning in the Radical Right. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe Inc. 1999.
- Parsons, Craig; Smeedling, Timothy M. Immigration and the transformation of Europe. Cambridge University Press. 2006.
- Woshinsky, Oliver H. Explaining Politics: Culture, Institutions, and Political Behavior. Routledge. 2008.
|