跳转到内容

悲观主义：修订间差异

维基百科，自由的百科全书
以互动方式浏览历史
←上一版本下一版本→
删除的内容 添加的内容
可视化wikitext
太空死灵（留言 | 贡献）
32次编辑
内容扩充
标签：添加文件 新用户加入疑似宣传性内容
太空死灵（留言 | 贡献）
32次编辑
内容扩充
标签：移除或更換文件 消歧义連結
第1行： 第1行：
'''悲观主义'''（Pessimism）是一种消极的精神态度，对一个给定的状况总是可以预见不好的结果。悲观主义者倾向于关注生活中的暗面，一个常见的用来测试悲观主义对问题是“[[杯子是半空还是半满？]]”一个悲观主义者被认为会说半空，而一个[[乐观主义|乐观主义者]]被认为会回复半满。在整个历史中，悲观主义的信念在主要的思想领域都产生了影响。<ref name="ben">{{Cite book|last=Bennett|first=Oliver|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqDKwAEACAAJ|title=Cultural Pessimism: Narratives of Decline in the Postmodern World|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7486-0936-9|location=Edinburgh|language=en}}</ref>
'''悲观主义'''（Pessimism）是一种消极的精神态度，对一个给定的状况总是可以预见不好的结果。悲观主义者倾向于关注生活中的暗面，一个常见的用来测试悲观主义对问题是“[[杯子是半空还是半满？]]”一个悲观主义者被认为会说半空，而一个[[乐观主义|乐观主义者]]被认为会回复半满。在整个历史中，悲观主义的信念在主要的思想领域都产生了影响。<ref name="ben">{{Cite book|last=Bennett|first=Oliver|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqDKwAEACAAJ|title=Cultural Pessimism: Narratives of Decline in the Postmodern World|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7486-0936-9|location=Edinburgh|language=en}}</ref>


'''哲学悲观主义'''(Philosophical pessimism)是另一种相关的观念，对世界持有严格的反乐观主义态度。这种形式的悲观主义并不是如它的名字是一种情绪的倾向，而是一种哲学或[[世界观]]，为生命和存在赋予消极的意义。哲学悲观主义通常为以下观点辩护，从[[经验主义|经验的]]观察上看，痛苦要比快乐更为普遍，生活在[[本体论 (哲学)|本体论上]]或本质上就是对活着的生命不利的，存在在本质上是无意义的或缺少[[目的论|目的]]的。<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|title=The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1966|isbn=9780486217611|language=English}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Benatar|first=David|title=The Human Predicament: A Candid Guide to Life's Biggest Questions|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-0190633813|pages=|language=English|quote=}}</ref><ref>J. Cabrera, ''Discomfort and Moral Impediment: The Human Situation, Radical Bioethics and Procreation'', Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019. [https://www.cambridgescholars.com/discomfort-and-moral-impediment] A thirty-page extract on the publisher's website. J. Cabrera, ''Mal-estar e moralidade: situação humana, ética e procriação responsável'', Brasília: UnB, 2018 (original Portuguese edition).</ref>不过，悲观主义者对这个事实的回应却是多样的，甚至可以是肯定生活的。
'''哲学上的悲观主义'''(Philosophical pessimism)是另一种相关的观念，对世界持有严格的反乐观主义态度。这种形式的悲观主义并不是如它的名字是一种情绪的倾向，而是一种哲学或[[世界观]]，为生命和存在赋予消极的意义。哲学上的悲观主义通常为以下观点辩护，从[[经验主义|经验的]]观察上看，痛苦要比快乐更为普遍，生活在[[本体论 (哲学)|本体论上]]或本质上就是对活着的生命不利的，存在在本质上是无意义的或缺少[[目的论|目的]]的。<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|title=The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1966|isbn=9780486217611|language=English}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Benatar|first=David|title=The Human Predicament: A Candid Guide to Life's Biggest Questions|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-0190633813|pages=|language=English|quote=}}</ref><ref>J. Cabrera, ''Discomfort and Moral Impediment: The Human Situation, Radical Bioethics and Procreation'', Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019. [https://www.cambridgescholars.com/discomfort-and-moral-impediment] A thirty-page extract on the publisher's website. J. Cabrera, ''Mal-estar e moralidade: situação humana, ética e procriação responsável'', Brasília: UnB, 2018 (original Portuguese edition).</ref>不过，悲观主义者对这个事实的回应却是多样的，甚至可以是肯定生活的。


==哲学悲观主义==<!-- "Philosophical pessimism" redirects here -->
==哲学上的悲观主义==<!-- "Philosophical pessimism" redirects here -->
{{Wikiquote|Philosophical pessimism}}
{{Wikiquote|Philosophical pessimism}}
⚫
哲学上的悲观主义并不是一种情绪状态或者心理上的倾向，而是一种哲学或[[世界观]]，为生命和存在赋予消极的意义。哲学上的悲观主义通常为以下观点辩护，从[[经验主义|经验的]]观察上看，痛苦要比快乐更为普遍，生活在[[本体论 (哲学)|本体论上]]或本质上就是对活着的生命不利的，存在在本质上是无意义的或缺少[[目的论|目的]]的。哲学上的悲观主义的雏形可以在佛教的[[转法轮经]]中看到，其中[[释迦牟尼]]指出[[苦 (佛教)|苦]]是真谛，亦即存在的基本属性：
[[File:Arthur Schopenhauer Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl 1815.jpeg|thumb|319x319px|"''That thousands had lived in happiness and joy would never do away with the anguish and death-agony of one individual; and just as little does my present well-being undo my previous sufferings. Therefore, were the evil in the world even a hundred times less than it is, its mere existence would still be sufficient to establish a truth that may be expressed in various ways, although always only somewhat indirectly, namely that we have not to be pleased but rather sorry about the existence of the world; that its non-existence would be preferable to its existence; that it is something which at bottom ought not to be, and so on''." – [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', volume II, chapter XLVI (On the Vanity and Suffering of Life).]]
⚫
哲学悲观主义并不是一种情绪状态或者心理上的倾向，而是一种哲学或[[世界观]]，为生命和存在赋予消极的意义。哲学悲观主义通常为以下观点辩护，从[[经验主义|经验的]]观察上看，痛苦要比快乐更为普遍，生活在[[本体论 (哲学)|本体论上]]或本质上就是对活着的生命不利的，存在在本质上是无意义的或缺少[[目的论|目的]]的。哲学悲观主义的雏形可以在佛教的[[转法轮经]]中看到，其中[[释迦牟尼]]指出[[苦 (佛教)|苦]]是真谛，亦即存在的基本属性：


{{Quotation|text=若诸比丘本未闻道，当已知甚苦为真谛，已一心受眼受禅思受慧见，觉所念令意解，当知甚苦习尽为真谛，已受眼观禅思慧见，觉所念令意解，如是尽真谛。何谓为苦？谓生老苦、病苦，忧、悲、恼苦，怨憎会苦，所爱别苦，求不得苦，要从五阴受盛为苦。|author=释加牟尼|title=转法轮经}}
{{Quotation|text=若诸比丘本未闻道，当已知甚苦为真谛，已一心受眼受禅思受慧见，觉所念令意解，当知甚苦习尽为真谛，已受眼观禅思慧见，觉所念令意解，如是尽真谛。何谓为苦？谓生老苦、病苦，忧、悲、恼苦，怨憎会苦，所爱别苦，求不得苦，要从五阴受盛为苦。|author=释加牟尼|title=转法轮经}}


在[[西方哲学]]中，哲学悲观主义不是一个单一的一致的思潮，而是相对松散的一群思想家用他们彼此相似的观点组成的。<ref name="Dienstag" />在''Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900'', {{link-en|Frederick C. Beiser|Frederick C. Beiser}}指出悲观主义的核心命题是“生活并不值得过，没有存在好过存在，或者活着比不活更坏。”<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beiser|first=Frederick C.|title=Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900|publisher= Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0198822653|language=English|quote="The philosophical discussion of pessimism in late 19th-century Germany shows a remarkable unanimity about its central thesis. According to all participants in this discussion, pessimism is the thesis that life is not worth living, that nothingness is better than being, or that it is worse to be than not be."}}</ref> 然而，对很多哲学悲观主义者来说，这种对生命的观点并不直接导致[[自杀]]是值得追求的，而只是追求[[反出生主义]]，也就是停止繁殖，来慢慢让苦痛消失。<ref>[[wikisource:Studies in Pessimism|Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Studies in Pessimism'', translated by Thomas Bailey Saunders (1913).]] ''On the Sufferings of the World, p. 15:'' "If children were brought into the world by an act of pure reason alone, would the human race continue to exist? Would not a man rather have so much sympathy with the coming generation as to spare it the burden of existence? or at any rate not take it upon himself to impose that burden upon it in cold blood". ''On Suicide'', p. 48: "In my [[The World as Will and Representation|chief work]] I have explained the only valid reason existing against suicide on the score of mortality. It is this: that suicide thwarts the attainment of the highest moral aim by the fact that, for a real release from this world of misery, it substitutes one that is merely apparent."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benatar|first=David|date=2013|title=Still Better Never to Have Been: A Reply to (More of) My Critics|url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BENSBN-2|journal=[[The Journal of Ethics]]|volume=17| issue = 1/2, p. 148|pages=121–151|doi=10.1007/s10892-012-9133-7|s2cid=170682992|quote=A few of my critics have claimed that I am committed to the desirability of suicide and even speciecide. They clearly intend this as a ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' of my position. However, I considered the questions of suicide and speciecide in ''[[Better Never to Have Been]]'' and argued that these are not implications of my view. First, it is possible to think that both coming into existence is a serious harm and that death is (usually) a serious harm. Indeed, some people might think that coming into existence is a serious harm in part because the harm of death is then inevitable.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ligotti |first=Thomas |title=The Conspiracy against the Human Race: A Contrivance of Horror. |publisher=Hippocampus Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0984480272 |pages=50 |quote=Simply because someone has reached the conclusion that the amount of suffering in this world is enough that anyone would be better off never having been born does not mean that by force of logic or sincerity he must kill himself. It only means he has concluded that the amount of suffering in this world is enough that anyone would be better off never having been born.}}</ref>
在[[西方哲学]]中，哲学上的悲观主义不是一个单一的一致的思潮，而是相对松散的一群思想家用他们彼此相似的观点组成的。<ref name="Dienstag" />在''Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900'', {{link-en|Frederick C. Beiser|Frederick C. Beiser}}指出悲观主义的核心命题是“生活并不值得过，没有存在好过存在，或者活着比不活更坏。”<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beiser|first=Frederick C.|title=Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900|publisher= Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0198822653|language=English|quote="The philosophical discussion of pessimism in late 19th-century Germany shows a remarkable unanimity about its central thesis. According to all participants in this discussion, pessimism is the thesis that life is not worth living, that nothingness is better than being, or that it is worse to be than not be."}}</ref> 然而，对很多哲学上的悲观主义者来说，这种对生命的观点并不直接导致[[自杀]]是值得追求的，而只是追求[[反出生主义]]，也就是停止繁殖，来慢慢让苦痛消失。<ref>[[wikisource:Studies in Pessimism|Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Studies in Pessimism'', translated by Thomas Bailey Saunders (1913).]] ''On the Sufferings of the World, p. 15:'' "If children were brought into the world by an act of pure reason alone, would the human race continue to exist? Would not a man rather have so much sympathy with the coming generation as to spare it the burden of existence? or at any rate not take it upon himself to impose that burden upon it in cold blood". ''On Suicide'', p. 48: "In my [[The World as Will and Representation|chief work]] I have explained the only valid reason existing against suicide on the score of mortality. It is this: that suicide thwarts the attainment of the highest moral aim by the fact that, for a real release from this world of misery, it substitutes one that is merely apparent."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benatar|first=David|date=2013|title=Still Better Never to Have Been: A Reply to (More of) My Critics|url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BENSBN-2|journal=[[The Journal of Ethics]]|volume=17| issue = 1/2, p. 148|pages=121–151|doi=10.1007/s10892-012-9133-7|s2cid=170682992|quote=A few of my critics have claimed that I am committed to the desirability of suicide and even speciecide. They clearly intend this as a ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' of my position. However, I considered the questions of suicide and speciecide in ''[[Better Never to Have Been]]'' and argued that these are not implications of my view. First, it is possible to think that both coming into existence is a serious harm and that death is (usually) a serious harm. Indeed, some people might think that coming into existence is a serious harm in part because the harm of death is then inevitable.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ligotti |first=Thomas |title=The Conspiracy against the Human Race: A Contrivance of Horror. |publisher=Hippocampus Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0984480272 |pages=50 |quote=Simply because someone has reached the conclusion that the amount of suffering in this world is enough that anyone would be better off never having been born does not mean that by force of logic or sincerity he must kill himself. It only means he has concluded that the amount of suffering in this world is enough that anyone would be better off never having been born.}}</ref>


有些哲学悲观主义者认为人类的[[自我意识]]是[[进化]]的悲哀的副产品，它允许我们审视我们在宇宙中的位置，让我们强烈地想要追求正义和意义，以及免受疼痛、衰老、疾病和死亡的自由，但是又让我们清楚地意识到自然永远不可能满足所有这些基础需求。根据{{link-en|Peter Wessel Zapffe|Peter Wessel Zapffe}}和[[恐惧管理理论|恐惧管理理论（Terror Management Theory）]]，关于存在的恐惧感受来自于一组对比，人类意识到自己只是在无意义的宇宙中摸索生存的短命动物，但他们注定只能死亡和腐烂。根据Zapffe，我们通过四种机制来压抑我们对这种困境的认识，不管是有意识的还是无意识的，分别叫做隔离、锚定、转移和升华。<ref>{{cite web| url = https://philosophynow.org/issues/45/The_Last_Messiah| title = P.W. Zapffe, ''The Last Messiah'', ''Philosophy Now'', 2004, issue 45}}</ref> 根据恐惧管理理论，人类通过构造一些关于现实的符号化的概念来给现实赋予意义、秩序和永恒性，来处理关于存在的焦虑。这些概念提供一套标准来判断什么是有价值的，并承诺某种字面上或象征性的永恒，相信这套文化和世界观的人就可以以此为基准活着。<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8582423| title = Pyszczynski, Tom & Greenberg, Jeff & Solomon, Sheldon & Arndt, Jamie & Schimel, Jeff. (2004). Why Do People Need Self-Esteem? A Theoretical and Empirical Review. Psychological bulletin. 130. 435-68. 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435.| year = 2004| doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435| pmid = 15122930| last1 = Pyszczynski| first1 = T.| last2 = Greenberg| first2 = J.| last3 = Solomon| first3 = S.| last4 = Arndt| first4 = J.| last5 = Schimel| first5 = J.| journal = Psychological Bulletin| volume = 130| issue = 3| pages = 435–468}}</ref>
有些哲学上的悲观主义者认为人类的[[自我意识]]是[[进化]]的悲哀的副产品，它允许我们审视我们在宇宙中的位置，让我们强烈地想要追求正义和意义，以及免受疼痛、衰老、疾病和死亡的自由，但是又让我们清楚地意识到自然永远不可能满足所有这些基础需求。根据{{link-en|Peter Wessel Zapffe|Peter Wessel Zapffe}}和[[恐惧管理理论|恐惧管理理论（Terror Management Theory）]]，关于存在的恐惧感受来自于一组对比，人类意识到自己只是在无意义的宇宙中摸索生存的短命动物，但他们注定只能死亡和腐烂。根据Zapffe，我们通过四种机制来压抑我们对这种困境的认识，不管是有意识的还是无意识的，分别叫做隔离、锚定、转移和升华。<ref>{{cite web| url = https://philosophynow.org/issues/45/The_Last_Messiah| title = P.W. Zapffe, ''The Last Messiah'', ''Philosophy Now'', 2004, issue 45}}</ref> 根据恐惧管理理论，人类通过构造一些关于现实的符号化的概念来给现实赋予意义、秩序和永恒性，来处理关于存在的焦虑。这些概念提供一套标准来判断什么是有价值的，并承诺某种字面上或象征性的永恒，相信这套文化和世界观的人就可以以此为基准活着。<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8582423| title = Pyszczynski, Tom & Greenberg, Jeff & Solomon, Sheldon & Arndt, Jamie & Schimel, Jeff. (2004). Why Do People Need Self-Esteem? A Theoretical and Empirical Review. Psychological bulletin. 130. 435-68. 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435.| year = 2004| doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435| pmid = 15122930| last1 = Pyszczynski| first1 = T.| last2 = Greenberg| first2 = J.| last3 = Solomon| first3 = S.| last4 = Arndt| first4 = J.| last5 = Schimel| first5 = J.| journal = Psychological Bulletin| volume = 130| issue = 3| pages = 435–468}}</ref>


悲观主义者对人类的困境的回应是多种多样的。一些哲学家，如[[叔本华]]和{{link-en|Mainländer|Mainländer}}，提倡一种退出和自我否定的形式（他们认为{{link-en|印度宗教|Indian religions}}和{{link-en|基督教修道主义|Christian monasticism}}就是很好的例子）。一些追随者则倾向于相信“期待最坏的能导致最好的”。[[笛卡尔]]甚至相信，如果人不再有对“负面”事件的抵触情绪，生活会更好。[[爱德华·冯·哈特曼]]断言随着文化和技术的发展，人类最终会到达一个会主动拥抱虚无的状态。 其他的如[[尼采]], [[贾科莫·莱奥帕尔迪]]，{{link-en|Julius Bahnsen|Julius Bahnsen}}和[[加缪]]则用更肯定生命的态度回应，即尼采称为“狄奥尼亚式的悲观主义（Dionysian pessimism）”，即拥抱生命中所有的持续变化和痛苦，而不诉诸于进步和享乐主义的计算。加缪指出，对生活的荒谬性的通常反应是：[[自杀]]，{{link-en|信仰之跃|leap of faith}}，以及“承认/反抗（recognition/rebellion）”。加缪认为只有最后一种是真实的且可取的。<ref name="ReferenceA">Camus, Albert, ''The Myth of Sisyphus''</ref>
悲观主义者对人类的困境的回应是多种多样的。一些哲学家，如[[叔本华]]和{{link-en|Mainländer|Mainländer}}，提倡一种退出和自我否定的形式（他们认为{{link-en|印度宗教|Indian religions}}和{{link-en|基督教修道主义|Christian monasticism}}就是很好的例子）。一些追随者则倾向于相信“期待最坏的能导致最好的”。[[笛卡尔]]甚至相信，如果人不再有对“负面”事件的抵触情绪，生活会更好。[[爱德华·冯·哈特曼]]断言随着文化和技术的发展，人类最终会到达一个会主动拥抱虚无的状态。 其他的如[[尼采]], [[贾科莫·莱奥帕尔迪]]，{{link-en|Julius Bahnsen|Julius Bahnsen}}和[[加缪]]则用更肯定生命的态度回应，即尼采称为“狄奥尼亚式的悲观主义（Dionysian pessimism）”，即拥抱生命中所有的持续变化和痛苦，而不诉诸于进步和享乐主义的计算。加缪指出，对生活的荒谬性的通常反应是：[[自杀]]，{{link-en|信仰之跃|leap of faith}}，以及“承认/反抗（recognition/rebellion）”。加缪认为只有最后一种是真实的且可取的。<ref name="ReferenceA">Camus, Albert, ''The Myth of Sisyphus''</ref>

除了人类的困境，许多哲学上的悲观主义者也强调了人之外的动物的{{link-en|困境|Wild animal suffering}}，批判了认为自然是[[诉诸自然|合理且博爱的造物主]]的观点。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|title=The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1966|isbn=9780486217628|language=English}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Leopardi|first=Giacomo|title=Essays and Dialogues|publisher=University of California Press|year=1983|isbn=9780520049284}}</ref> {{link-en|Ernest Becker|Ernest Becker}}在他1973年获[[普利策奖]]的书《{{link-en|The Denial of Death|The Denial of Death}}》中做了如下叙述：

<blockquote>我们应该如何看待造物，如果有机体的日常就是用各种各样的牙齿撕碎其他生物，撕咬，磨碎肉和植物的茎，用臼齿磨碎骨头，高兴地把这些碎片贪婪地推进胃里。把它们的精华纳入自己的体内，然后用恶臭的粪便和气体排出残渣。每个人都把手伸向对于他可以食用的东西，并把它们纳入自己体内。蚊子和蛆虫吸血膨胀，杀人蜂如恶魔般带着狂怒攻击，鲨鱼会继续撕咬和吞咽即使它们的内脏已经被撕扯出来。更不用说每天都在肢解和屠杀的“自然”灾害，一次地震在秘鲁活埋了7万个人，汽车每年仅在美国就堆成5万个人的金字塔堆，一次印度洋的潮汐就带走了25万人。造物是一个噩梦般的景观，发生在已经被所有生物的血液浸泡了数亿年的星球上。对于在这个星球上实际发生了约30亿年的事情，我们可以做出最清醒的结论是，这个星球正在变成一个巨大的肥料坑。但太阳分散了我们的注意力，它总是把血液烤干，使事物在上面生长，并以它的温暖给予有机体舒适和广阔的希望。</blockquote>

哲学上的悲观主义常常与艺术和文学联系在一起。叔本华的哲学非常受作曲家欢迎（如[[瓦格纳]]、[[勃拉姆斯]]和[[马勒]])。<ref name="Wicks">{{citation|chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schopenhauer/|title= Wicks, Robert "Arthur Schopenhauer"|chapter= Arthur Schopenhauer|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|year= 2017}}, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</ref>文学上更早就有悲观主义的例子，如[[塞万提斯]]的作品，许多哲学上的悲观主义者也写小说和诗歌（分别的例子是加缪和莱奥帕尔迪）。与悲观主义有关的一种独特的文学形式是[[箴言]]式的写作，这在莱奥帕尔迪、尼采和西奥朗身上可以看到。十九和二十世纪中受悲观主义哲学家影响或在作品中表达了悲观主义观点的作家包括：[[夏尔·波德莱尔]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marinoni|first=A.|date=1913|title=The Poetry of Charles Baudelaire|journal=The Sewanee Review|volume=21|issue=1|pages=19–33|jstor=27532587|issn=0037-3052}}</ref>，[[萨缪尔·贝克特]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=McDonald|first=Ronan|title=Tragedy and Irish Literature|chapter=Beyond Tragedy: Samuel Beckett and the Art of Confusion|date=2002|work=Tragedy and Irish Literature: Synge, O’Casey, Beckett|pages=127–171|editor-last=McDonald|editor-first=Ronan|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en|doi=10.1057/9781403913654_4|isbn=978-1-4039-1365-4}}</ref>，[[戈特弗里德·贝恩]]<ref>{{Citation|last=Eykman|first=Christoph|title=Thalassic Regression: The Cipher of the Ocean in Gottfried Benn's Poetry|date=1985|work=Poetics of the Elements in the Human Condition: The Sea: From Elemental Stirrings to Symbolic Inspiration, Language, and Life-Significance in Literary Interpretation and Theory|pages=353–366|editor-last=Tymieniecka|editor-first=Anna-Teresa|series=Analecta Husserliana|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-015-3960-9_25|isbn=978-94-015-3960-9}}</ref>，[[豪尔赫·路易斯·博尔赫斯]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Santis|first=Esteban|date=2012-05-01|title=Towards the finite a case against infinity in Jorge Luis Borges|url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/honorstheses1990-2015/1300|journal=Him 1990-2015}}</ref>，[[查理·布考斯基]]，[[迪诺·布扎蒂]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wordswithoutborders.org/book-review/dino-buzzatis-poem-strip|title=Dino Buzzati's "Poem Strip"|last=Zanca|first=Valentina|date=January 2010|website=Words Without Borders|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref>，[[拜伦勋爵]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wieman|first=Henry N.|date=1931|editor-last=Tsanoff|editor-first=Radoslav A.|title=The Paradox of Pessimism|journal=The Journal of Religion|volume=11|issue=3|pages=467–469|doi=10.1086/481092|jstor=1196632|s2cid=170257475|issn=0022-4189}}</ref>，[[路易-费迪南·塞利纳]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://brooklynrail.org/2014/06/fiction/correspondence-of-louis-ferdinand-celine|title=The Selected Correspondence of Louis-Ferdinand Céline|date=2014-06-05|website=The Brooklyn Rail|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref>，[[约瑟夫·康拉德]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1991/0422/22131.html|title=Joseph Conrad: A Writer's Writer|date=1991-04-22|work=Christian Science Monitor|access-date=2020-04-24|issn=0882-7729}}</ref>，[[费奥多尔·陀思妥耶夫斯基]]<ref name="Dienstag" />{{Rp|6}}，[[米哈伊·爱明内斯库]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tappe|first=E. D.|date=1951|title=The Centenary of Mihai Eminescu|journal=American Slavic and East European Review|volume=10|issue=1|pages=50–55|doi=10.2307/2491746|jstor=2491746|issn=1049-7544}}</ref>，[[西格蒙德·弗洛伊德]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Southard|first=E. E.|date=1919|title=Sigmund Freud, pessimist.|journal=The Journal of Abnormal Psychology|language=en|volume=14|issue=3|pages=197–216|doi=10.1037/h0072095|issn=0021-843X|url=https://zenodo.org/record/2328806}}</ref>，[[托马斯·哈代]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/hardy/diniejko3.html|title=Thomas Hardy's Philosophical Outlook|last=Diniejko|first=Andrzej|date=2014-09-06|website=The Victorian Web|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref>，{{link-en|Sadegh Hedayat|Sadegh Hedayat}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=A|first1=Razi|last2=Masoud|first2=Bahrami|date=2006-01-01|title=Origins and Causes of Sadegh Hedayat's Despair|url=https://www.sid.ir/en/Journal/ViewPaper.aspx?ID=57280|journal=Literary Research|volume=3|issue=11|pages=93–112}}</ref>，[[霍华德·菲利普斯·洛夫克拉夫特]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Stoneman|first=Ethan|date=2017-04-01|title=No, everything is not all right: Supernatural horror as pessimistic argument|journal=Horror Studies|volume=8|issue=1|pages=25–43|doi=10.1386/host.8.1.25_1}}</ref>，[[托马斯·曼]]<ref name="Dienstag" />{{Rp|6}}，[[庇山耶]]，{{link-en|Edgar Saltus|Edgar Saltus}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saltus|first=Edgar|url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofdise00saltiala|title=The Philosophy of Disenchantment|publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Co.|year=1887|location=Boston, New York}}</ref>和{{link-en|James Thomson|James Thomson (poet, born 1834)}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Seed|first=David|title=Spectral Readings|chapter=Hell is a city: symbolic systems and epistemological scepticism in The City of Dreadful Night|date=1999|work=Spectral Readings: Towards a Gothic Geography|pages=88–107|editor-last=Byron|editor-first=Glennis|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230374614_6|isbn=978-0-230-37461-4|editor2-last=Punter|editor2-first=David}}</ref>。二十世纪晚期和二十一世纪的表达了或探索了哲学上的悲观主义的作者包括：[[大卫·贝纳塔]]<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/culture/persons-of-interest/the-case-for-not-being-born|title=The Case for Not Being Born|last=Rothman|first=Joshua|date=2017-11-27|magazine=The New Yorker|language=en|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref>，[[托马斯·伯恩哈德]]<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/12/25/the-art-of-extinction|title=The Art of Extinction|last=Franklin|first=Ruth|date=2006-12-18|magazine=The New Yorker|language=en|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref>，[[弗里德里希·迪伦马特]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Plouffe|first=Bruce|date=2007-02-20|title=Friedrich Dürrenmatt's Der Auftrag : An Exception within an Oeuvre of Cultural Pessimism and Worst Possible Outcomes|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/210400|journal=Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies|language=en|volume=43|issue=1|pages=19–36|doi=10.1353/smr.2007.0018|s2cid=170925530|issn=1911-026X}}</ref>，{{link-en|John Gray|John Gray (philosopher)}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/node/156198|title=The philosopher of pessimism. John Gray is one of the most daring and original thinkers in Britain. But his new book, a bold, anti-humanist polemic, fails to convince Edward Skidelsky|last=Skidelsky|first=Edward|date=2002-10-02|website=New Statesman|language=en|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref>，[[米歇尔·韦勒贝克]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://catholicherald.co.uk/why-is-houellebecqs-remorseless-pessimism-so-appealing/|title=Why is Houellebecq's remorseless pessimism so appealing?|last=Thomson|first=Ian|date=2019-10-30|website=Catholic Herald|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref>，{{link-en|Alexander Kluge|Alexander Kluge}}，[[托马斯·利戈蒂]]<ref name=":1" />，[[戈马克·麦卡锡]]<ref>{{Cite news|last=Cowley|first=Jason|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jan/12/fiction|title=Jason Cowley on the novels of Cormac McCarthy|date=2008-01-12|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-04-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>，{{link-en|Eugene Thacker|Eugene Thacker}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thacker|first=Eugene|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtJeDwAAQBAJ|title=Infinite Resignation: On Pessimism|publisher=Watkins Media|year=2018|isbn=978-1-912248-20-9|language=en}}</ref>和{{link-en|Peter Wessel Zapffe|Peter Wessel Zapffe}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://philosophynow.org/issues/45/The_View_from_Mount_Zapffe|title=The View from Mount Zapffe|last=Tangenes|first=Gisle R.|date=March–April 2004|website=Philosophy Now|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref>。

==認識論==
==認識論==
一些哲學家質疑我們的特定概念是否能以任何絕對方式與世界相關，或與其他方式相比，我們能否證明我們描述世界的方式是合理的。總的來說，這些哲學家認為，真理不是要追求正確或代表現實，而是主觀社會權力關係的一部分，或者是特定時期的語言遊戲。因此，這些主義雖然本身並不悲觀，但它拒絕任何聲稱已發現有關世界的絕對「真相」或以基礎事實為有效的定義。
一些哲學家質疑我們的特定概念是否能以任何絕對方式與世界相關，或與其他方式相比，我們能否證明我們描述世界的方式是合理的。總的來說，這些哲學家認為，真理不是要追求正確或代表現實，而是主觀社會權力關係的一部分，或者是特定時期的語言遊戲。因此，這些主義雖然本身並不悲觀，但它拒絕任何聲稱已發現有關世界的絕對「真相」或以基礎事實為有效的定義。

2022年5月13日 (五) 23:25的版本

悲观主义（Pessimism）是一种消极的精神态度，对一个给定的状况总是可以预见不好的结果。悲观主义者倾向于关注生活中的暗面，一个常见的用来测试悲观主义对问题是“杯子是半空还是半满？”一个悲观主义者被认为会说半空，而一个乐观主义者被认为会回复半满。在整个历史中，悲观主义的信念在主要的思想领域都产生了影响。[1]

哲学上的悲观主义(Philosophical pessimism)是另一种相关的观念，对世界持有严格的反乐观主义态度。这种形式的悲观主义并不是如它的名字是一种情绪的倾向，而是一种哲学或世界观，为生命和存在赋予消极的意义。哲学上的悲观主义通常为以下观点辩护，从经验的观察上看，痛苦要比快乐更为普遍，生活在本体论上或本质上就是对活着的生命不利的，存在在本质上是无意义的或缺少目的的。[2][3][4]不过，悲观主义者对这个事实的回应却是多样的，甚至可以是肯定生活的。

哲学上的悲观主义

维基语录上的Philosophical pessimism语录

哲学上的悲观主义并不是一种情绪状态或者心理上的倾向，而是一种哲学或世界观，为生命和存在赋予消极的意义。哲学上的悲观主义通常为以下观点辩护，从经验的观察上看，痛苦要比快乐更为普遍，生活在本体论上或本质上就是对活着的生命不利的，存在在本质上是无意义的或缺少目的的。哲学上的悲观主义的雏形可以在佛教的转法轮经中看到，其中释迦牟尼指出苦是真谛，亦即存在的基本属性：

若诸比丘本未闻道，当已知甚苦为真谛，已一心受眼受禅思受慧见，觉所念令意解，当知甚苦习尽为真谛，已受眼观禅思慧见，觉所念令意解，如是尽真谛。何谓为苦？谓生老苦、病苦，忧、悲、恼苦，怨憎会苦，所爱别苦，求不得苦，要从五阴受盛为苦。
— 释加牟尼， 转法轮经

在西方哲学中，哲学上的悲观主义不是一个单一的一致的思潮，而是相对松散的一群思想家用他们彼此相似的观点组成的。[5]在Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900, Frederick C. Beiser（英语：Frederick C. Beiser）指出悲观主义的核心命题是“生活并不值得过，没有存在好过存在，或者活着比不活更坏。”[6] 然而，对很多哲学上的悲观主义者来说，这种对生命的观点并不直接导致自杀是值得追求的，而只是追求反出生主义，也就是停止繁殖，来慢慢让苦痛消失。[7][8][9]

有些哲学上的悲观主义者认为人类的自我意识是进化的悲哀的副产品，它允许我们审视我们在宇宙中的位置，让我们强烈地想要追求正义和意义，以及免受疼痛、衰老、疾病和死亡的自由，但是又让我们清楚地意识到自然永远不可能满足所有这些基础需求。根据Peter Wessel Zapffe（英语：Peter Wessel Zapffe）和恐惧管理理论（Terror Management Theory），关于存在的恐惧感受来自于一组对比，人类意识到自己只是在无意义的宇宙中摸索生存的短命动物，但他们注定只能死亡和腐烂。根据Zapffe，我们通过四种机制来压抑我们对这种困境的认识，不管是有意识的还是无意识的，分别叫做隔离、锚定、转移和升华。[10] 根据恐惧管理理论，人类通过构造一些关于现实的符号化的概念来给现实赋予意义、秩序和永恒性，来处理关于存在的焦虑。这些概念提供一套标准来判断什么是有价值的，并承诺某种字面上或象征性的永恒，相信这套文化和世界观的人就可以以此为基准活着。[11]

悲观主义者对人类的困境的回应是多种多样的。一些哲学家，如叔本华和Mainländer（英语：Mainländer），提倡一种退出和自我否定的形式（他们认为印度宗教和基督教修道主义（英语：Christian monasticism）就是很好的例子）。一些追随者则倾向于相信“期待最坏的能导致最好的”。笛卡尔甚至相信，如果人不再有对“负面”事件的抵触情绪，生活会更好。爱德华·冯·哈特曼断言随着文化和技术的发展，人类最终会到达一个会主动拥抱虚无的状态。 其他的如尼采, 贾科莫·莱奥帕尔迪，Julius Bahnsen（英语：Julius Bahnsen）和加缪则用更肯定生命的态度回应，即尼采称为“狄奥尼亚式的悲观主义（Dionysian pessimism）”，即拥抱生命中所有的持续变化和痛苦，而不诉诸于进步和享乐主义的计算。加缪指出，对生活的荒谬性的通常反应是：自杀，信仰之跃（英语：leap of faith），以及“承认/反抗（recognition/rebellion）”。加缪认为只有最后一种是真实的且可取的。[12]

除了人类的困境，许多哲学上的悲观主义者也强调了人之外的动物的困境，批判了认为自然是合理且博爱的造物主的观点。[13][3][14] Ernest Becker（英语：Ernest Becker）在他1973年获普利策奖的书《The Denial of Death（英语：The Denial of Death）》中做了如下叙述：

我们应该如何看待造物，如果有机体的日常就是用各种各样的牙齿撕碎其他生物，撕咬，磨碎肉和植物的茎，用臼齿磨碎骨头，高兴地把这些碎片贪婪地推进胃里。把它们的精华纳入自己的体内，然后用恶臭的粪便和气体排出残渣。每个人都把手伸向对于他可以食用的东西，并把它们纳入自己体内。蚊子和蛆虫吸血膨胀，杀人蜂如恶魔般带着狂怒攻击，鲨鱼会继续撕咬和吞咽即使它们的内脏已经被撕扯出来。更不用说每天都在肢解和屠杀的“自然”灾害，一次地震在秘鲁活埋了7万个人，汽车每年仅在美国就堆成5万个人的金字塔堆，一次印度洋的潮汐就带走了25万人。造物是一个噩梦般的景观，发生在已经被所有生物的血液浸泡了数亿年的星球上。对于在这个星球上实际发生了约30亿年的事情，我们可以做出最清醒的结论是，这个星球正在变成一个巨大的肥料坑。但太阳分散了我们的注意力，它总是把血液烤干，使事物在上面生长，并以它的温暖给予有机体舒适和广阔的希望。

哲学上的悲观主义常常与艺术和文学联系在一起。叔本华的哲学非常受作曲家欢迎（如瓦格纳、勃拉姆斯和马勒)。[15]文学上更早就有悲观主义的例子，如塞万提斯的作品，许多哲学上的悲观主义者也写小说和诗歌（分别的例子是加缪和莱奥帕尔迪）。与悲观主义有关的一种独特的文学形式是箴言式的写作，这在莱奥帕尔迪、尼采和西奥朗身上可以看到。十九和二十世纪中受悲观主义哲学家影响或在作品中表达了悲观主义观点的作家包括：夏尔·波德莱尔[16]，萨缪尔·贝克特[17]，戈特弗里德·贝恩[18]，豪尔赫·路易斯·博尔赫斯[19]，查理·布考斯基，迪诺·布扎蒂[20]，拜伦勋爵[21]，路易-费迪南·塞利纳[22]，约瑟夫·康拉德[23]，费奥多尔·陀思妥耶夫斯基[5]:6，米哈伊·爱明内斯库[24]，西格蒙德·弗洛伊德[25]，托马斯·哈代[26]，Sadegh Hedayat（英语：Sadegh Hedayat）[27]，霍华德·菲利普斯·洛夫克拉夫特[28]，托马斯·曼[5]:6，庇山耶，Edgar Saltus（英语：Edgar Saltus）[29]和James Thomson（英语：James Thomson (poet, born 1834)）[30]。二十世纪晚期和二十一世纪的表达了或探索了哲学上的悲观主义的作者包括：大卫·贝纳塔[31]，托马斯·伯恩哈德[32]，弗里德里希·迪伦马特[33]，John Gray[34]，米歇尔·韦勒贝克[35]，Alexander Kluge（英语：Alexander Kluge），托马斯·利戈蒂[28]，戈马克·麦卡锡[36]，Eugene Thacker（英语：Eugene Thacker）[37]和Peter Wessel Zapffe（英语：Peter Wessel Zapffe）[38]。

認識論

一些哲學家質疑我們的特定概念是否能以任何絕對方式與世界相關，或與其他方式相比，我們能否證明我們描述世界的方式是合理的。總的來說，這些哲學家認為，真理不是要追求正確或代表現實，而是主觀社會權力關係的一部分，或者是特定時期的語言遊戲。因此，這些主義雖然本身並不悲觀，但它拒絕任何聲稱已發現有關世界的絕對「真相」或以基礎事實為有效的定義。

著名悲觀主義者

參考


情绪
世界观
  1. ^ Bennett, Oliver. Cultural Pessimism: Narratives of Decline in the Postmodern World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-7486-0936-9 （英语）. 
  2. ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1. Dover Publications. 1966. ISBN 9780486217611 （English）. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Benatar, David. The Human Predicament: A Candid Guide to Life's Biggest Questions. Oxford University Press. 2017. ISBN 978-0190633813 （English）. 
  4. ^ J. Cabrera, Discomfort and Moral Impediment: The Human Situation, Radical Bioethics and Procreation, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019. [1] A thirty-page extract on the publisher's website. J. Cabrera, Mal-estar e moralidade: situação humana, ética e procriação responsável, Brasília: UnB, 2018 (original Portuguese edition).
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 引用错误：没有为名为Dienstag的参考文献提供内容
  6. ^ Beiser, Frederick C. Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900. Oxford University Press. 2018. ISBN 978-0198822653 （English）. The philosophical discussion of pessimism in late 19th-century Germany shows a remarkable unanimity about its central thesis. According to all participants in this discussion, pessimism is the thesis that life is not worth living, that nothingness is better than being, or that it is worse to be than not be. 
  7. ^ Arthur Schopenhauer, Studies in Pessimism, translated by Thomas Bailey Saunders (1913). On the Sufferings of the World, p. 15: "If children were brought into the world by an act of pure reason alone, would the human race continue to exist? Would not a man rather have so much sympathy with the coming generation as to spare it the burden of existence? or at any rate not take it upon himself to impose that burden upon it in cold blood". On Suicide, p. 48: "In my chief work I have explained the only valid reason existing against suicide on the score of mortality. It is this: that suicide thwarts the attainment of the highest moral aim by the fact that, for a real release from this world of misery, it substitutes one that is merely apparent."
  8. ^ Benatar, David. Still Better Never to Have Been: A Reply to (More of) My Critics. The Journal of Ethics. 2013, 17 (1/2, p. 148): 121–151. S2CID 170682992. doi:10.1007/s10892-012-9133-7. A few of my critics have claimed that I am committed to the desirability of suicide and even speciecide. They clearly intend this as a reductio ad absurdum of my position. However, I considered the questions of suicide and speciecide in Better Never to Have Been and argued that these are not implications of my view. First, it is possible to think that both coming into existence is a serious harm and that death is (usually) a serious harm. Indeed, some people might think that coming into existence is a serious harm in part because the harm of death is then inevitable. 
  9. ^ Ligotti, Thomas. The Conspiracy against the Human Race: A Contrivance of Horror.. Hippocampus Press. 2011: 50. ISBN 978-0984480272. Simply because someone has reached the conclusion that the amount of suffering in this world is enough that anyone would be better off never having been born does not mean that by force of logic or sincerity he must kill himself. It only means he has concluded that the amount of suffering in this world is enough that anyone would be better off never having been born. 
  10. ^ P.W. Zapffe, The Last Messiah, Philosophy Now, 2004, issue 45. 
  11. ^ Pyszczynski, T.; Greenberg, J.; Solomon, S.; Arndt, J.; Schimel, J. Pyszczynski, Tom & Greenberg, Jeff & Solomon, Sheldon & Arndt, Jamie & Schimel, Jeff. (2004). Why Do People Need Self-Esteem? A Theoretical and Empirical Review. Psychological bulletin. 130. 435-68. 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435.. Psychological Bulletin. 2004, 130 (3): 435–468. PMID 15122930. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435. 
  12. ^ Camus, Albert, The Myth of Sisyphus
  13. ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2. Dover Publications. 1966. ISBN 9780486217628 （English）. 
  14. ^ Leopardi, Giacomo. Essays and Dialogues. University of California Press. 1983. ISBN 9780520049284. 
  15. ^ Arthur Schopenhauer, Wicks, Robert "Arthur Schopenhauer", Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2017 , The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
  16. ^ Marinoni, A. The Poetry of Charles Baudelaire. The Sewanee Review. 1913, 21 (1): 19–33. ISSN 0037-3052. JSTOR 27532587. 
  17. ^ McDonald, Ronan. Beyond Tragedy: Samuel Beckett and the Art of Confusion. McDonald, Ronan (编). Tragedy and Irish Literature. Tragedy and Irish Literature: Synge, O’Casey, Beckett (Palgrave Macmillan UK). 2002: 127–171. ISBN 978-1-4039-1365-4. doi:10.1057/9781403913654_4 （英语）. 
  18. ^ Eykman, Christoph, Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa , 编, Thalassic Regression: The Cipher of the Ocean in Gottfried Benn's Poetry, Poetics of the Elements in the Human Condition: The Sea: From Elemental Stirrings to Symbolic Inspiration, Language, and Life-Significance in Literary Interpretation and Theory, Analecta Husserliana (Springer Netherlands), 1985: 353–366, ISBN 978-94-015-3960-9, doi:10.1007/978-94-015-3960-9_25 （英语） 
  19. ^ Santis, Esteban. Towards the finite a case against infinity in Jorge Luis Borges. Him 1990-2015. 2012-05-01. 
  20. ^ Zanca, Valentina. Dino Buzzati's "Poem Strip". Words Without Borders. January 2010 [2020-04-24]. 
  21. ^ Wieman, Henry N. Tsanoff, Radoslav A. , 编. The Paradox of Pessimism. The Journal of Religion. 1931, 11 (3): 467–469. ISSN 0022-4189. JSTOR 1196632. S2CID 170257475. doi:10.1086/481092. 
  22. ^ The Selected Correspondence of Louis-Ferdinand Céline. The Brooklyn Rail. 2014-06-05 [2020-04-24] （美国英语）. 
  23. ^ Joseph Conrad: A Writer's Writer. Christian Science Monitor. 1991-04-22 [2020-04-24]. ISSN 0882-7729. 
  24. ^ Tappe, E. D. The Centenary of Mihai Eminescu. American Slavic and East European Review. 1951, 10 (1): 50–55. ISSN 1049-7544. JSTOR 2491746. doi:10.2307/2491746. 
  25. ^ Southard, E. E. Sigmund Freud, pessimist.. The Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1919, 14 (3): 197–216. ISSN 0021-843X. doi:10.1037/h0072095 （英语）. 
  26. ^ Diniejko, Andrzej. Thomas Hardy's Philosophical Outlook. The Victorian Web. 2014-09-06 [2020-04-24]. 
  27. ^ A, Razi; Masoud, Bahrami. Origins and Causes of Sadegh Hedayat's Despair. Literary Research. 2006-01-01, 3 (11): 93–112. 
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 Stoneman, Ethan. No, everything is not all right: Supernatural horror as pessimistic argument. Horror Studies. 2017-04-01, 8 (1): 25–43. doi:10.1386/host.8.1.25_1. 
  29. ^ Saltus, Edgar. The Philosophy of Disenchantment. Boston, New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. 1887. 
  30. ^ Seed, David. Hell is a city: symbolic systems and epistemological scepticism in The City of Dreadful Night. Byron, Glennis; Punter, David (编). Spectral Readings. Spectral Readings: Towards a Gothic Geography (Palgrave Macmillan UK). 1999: 88–107. ISBN 978-0-230-37461-4. doi:10.1057/9780230374614_6 （英语）. 
  31. ^ Rothman, Joshua. The Case for Not Being Born. The New Yorker. 2017-11-27 [2020-04-24] （英语）. 
  32. ^ Franklin, Ruth. The Art of Extinction. The New Yorker. 2006-12-18 [2020-04-24] （英语）. 
  33. ^ Plouffe, Bruce. Friedrich Dürrenmatt's Der Auftrag : An Exception within an Oeuvre of Cultural Pessimism and Worst Possible Outcomes. Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies. 2007-02-20, 43 (1): 19–36. ISSN 1911-026X. S2CID 170925530. doi:10.1353/smr.2007.0018 （英语）. 
  34. ^ Skidelsky, Edward. The philosopher of pessimism. John Gray is one of the most daring and original thinkers in Britain. But his new book, a bold, anti-humanist polemic, fails to convince Edward Skidelsky. New Statesman. 2002-10-02 [2020-04-24] （英语）. 
  35. ^ Thomson, Ian. Why is Houellebecq's remorseless pessimism so appealing?. Catholic Herald. 2019-10-30 [2020-04-24] （英国英语）. 
  36. ^ Cowley, Jason. Jason Cowley on the novels of Cormac McCarthy. The Guardian. 2008-01-12 [2020-04-24]. ISSN 0261-3077 （英国英语）. 
  37. ^ Thacker, Eugene. Infinite Resignation: On Pessimism. Watkins Media. 2018. ISBN 978-1-912248-20-9 （英语）. 
  38. ^ Tangenes, Gisle R. The View from Mount Zapffe. Philosophy Now. March–April 2004 [2020-04-24]. 
取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=悲观主义&oldid=71620797”