多囊卵巢綜合症:修订间差异

维基百科,自由的百科全书
删除的内容 添加的内容
Wolfch留言 | 贡献
Wolfch留言 | 贡献
无编辑摘要
第19行: 第19行:
| medication = [[避孕药]]、[[二甲双胍]]、[[抗雄激素]]<ref name=NIH2014Tx1/>
| medication = [[避孕药]]、[[二甲双胍]]、[[抗雄激素]]<ref name=NIH2014Tx1/>
| prognosis =
| prognosis =
| frequency = 適產年齡 2% 至 20% 的女性<ref name=NIH2013Epi/><ref name=Lub2013>{{cite book|last1=editor|first1=Lubna Pal,|title=Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Current and Emerging Concepts.|date=2013|publisher=Springer|location=Dordrecht|isbn=9781461483946|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DTUnAQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=Polycystic%20Ovary%20Syndrome%3B%20Subtitle%3A%20Current%20and%20Emerging%20Concepts%3B%20Part%20I&pg=PA7|chapter=Diagnostic Criteria and Epidemiology of PCOS|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910181322/https://books.google.com/books?id=DTUnAQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=Polycystic%20Ovary%20Syndrome%3B%20Subtitle%3A%20Current%20and%20Emerging%20Concepts%3B%20Part%20I&pg=PA7|archivedate=2017-09-10|df=}}</ref>
| frequency = 適產年齡 2% 至 20% 的女性<ref name=NIH2013Epi/><ref name=Lub2013/>
| deaths =
| deaths =
}}
}}
<!-- Definition and symptoms -->
<!-- Definition and symptoms -->
'''多囊性卵巢綜合症'''({{lang|en|Polycystic ovary syndrome}},簡稱'''PCOS'''),又稱'''斯-李二氏症'''({{lang|en|Stein-Leventhal syndrome}}),是一連串女性因為[[雄性激素]]上升所導致的症狀<ref name=NIH2013Def>{{cite web|title=Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Condition Information|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/default.aspx|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2013-05-23}}</ref>。多囊性卵巢的症狀包含[[月經]]不規律或是無[[月經]]、{{tsl|en|Menorrhagia||月經量過多}}、[[多毛症]]、[[粉刺]]、盆腔疼痛、[[不孕|難以受孕]]與[[黑棘皮症]]<ref>{{cite web|title=What are the symptoms of PCOS?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/symptoms.aspx|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov|accessdate=13 March 2015|format=05/23/2013}}</ref>。相關的病症包含[[第二型糖尿病]]、[[肥胖症]]、[[阻塞性睡眠呼吸暫停]]、[[心血管疾病]]、[[情感障礙]]與[[子宮內膜癌]]<ref name=NIH2013Def/>。
'''多囊性卵巢綜合症'''({{lang|en|Polycystic ovary syndrome}},簡稱'''PCOS'''),又稱'''斯-李二氏症'''({{lang|en|Stein-Leventhal syndrome}}),是一連串女性因為[[雄性激素]]上升所導致的症狀<ref name=NIH2013Def>{{cite web|title=Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Condition Information|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/default.aspx|website= US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health |accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2013-05-23}}</ref>。多囊性卵巢的症狀包含[[月經]]不規律或是無[[月經]]、{{tsl|en|Menorrhagia||月經量過多}}、[[多毛症]]、[[粉刺]]、盆腔疼痛、[[不孕|難以受孕]]與[[黑棘皮症]]<ref name=NIH2013Sym>{{cite web|title=What are the symptoms of PCOS?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/symptoms.aspx|website=www.nichd.nih.gov|accessdate=13 March 2015|format=05/23/2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303190314/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/symptoms.aspx|archivedate=3 March 2015|df=}}</ref>。相關的病症包含[[第二型糖尿病]]、[[肥胖症]]、[[阻塞性睡眠呼吸暫停]]、[[心血管疾病]]、[[情感障礙]]與[[子宮內膜癌]]<ref name=NIH2013Def/>。


<!-- Cause and diagnosis -->
<!-- Cause and diagnosis -->
多囊性卵巢會受基因遺傳與環境因素影響<ref name="Endo2006">{{cite journal |authors = Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Kandarakis H, Legro RS | title = The role of genes and environment in the etiology of PCOS | journal = Endocrine | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–26 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17185788 | doi = 10.1385/ENDO:30:1:19 }}</ref>。其危險因子包含[[肥胖症]]、運動量不足或是有家族病史。如果有以下三種症狀中的兩種便可診斷患者有多囊性卵巢:無排卵、雄性激素過高與卵巢囊腫<ref name="NIH2013Def" />。囊腫可以由[[超音波]]影像檢測<!-- <ref name=NIH2013Diag/> -->。其他造成類似症狀的疾病包含[[先天性腎上腺增生症]],[[甲狀腺機能低下症]]與{{le|高泌乳素血症|hyperprolactinemia}}<ref name="NIH2013Diag">{{cite web|title=How do health care providers diagnose PCOS?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/diagnose.aspx|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2013-05-23}}</ref>。
多囊性卵巢會受基因遺傳與環境因素影響<ref name=De2016>{{cite journal |vauthors=De Leo V, Musacchio MC, Cappelli V, Massaro MG, Morgante G, Petraglia F |title=Genetic, hormonal and metabolic aspects of PCOS: an update |journal=Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology : RB&E |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=38 |year=2016 |pmid=27423183 |pmc=4947298 |doi=10.1186/s12958-016-0173-x |type=Review}}</ref><ref name=Endo2006>{{cite journal |authors = Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Kandarakis H, Legro RS | title = The role of genes and environment in the etiology of PCOS | journal = Endocrine | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–26 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17185788 | doi = 10.1385/ENDO:30:1:19 }}</ref>。其危險因子包含[[肥胖症]]、運動量不足或是有家族病史<ref name=NIH2013Epi>{{cite web|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/risk.aspx|title=How many people are affected or at risk for PCOS?|date=2013-05-23|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov|accessdate=13 March 2015|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304124420/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/risk.aspx|archivedate=4 March 2015|df=}}</ref>。如果有以下三種症狀中的兩種便可診斷患者有多囊性卵巢:無排卵、雄性激素過高與卵巢囊腫<ref name="NIH2013Def" />。囊腫可以由[[超音波]]影像檢測<!-- <ref name=NIH2013Diag/> -->。其他造成類似症狀的疾病包含[[先天性腎上腺增生症]],[[甲狀腺機能低下症]]與{{le|高泌乳素血症|hyperprolactinemia}}<ref name="NIH2013Diag">{{cite web|title=How do health care providers diagnose PCOS?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/diagnose.aspx|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2013-05-23}}</ref>。


<!-- Prevention and treatment -->
<!-- Prevention and treatment -->
多囊卵巢綜合症目前並無特效藥<ref>{{cite web|title=http://www.nichd.nih.gov|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/cure.aspx|website=Is there a cure for PCOS?|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2013-05-23}}</ref>。治療則包括減重和運動等轉變生活型態的方式<!-- <ref name=NIH2014Tx2/> -->,[[避孕藥物]]也許對於調整經期、抑制多餘的毛髮生長和青春痘有所幫助<!-- <ref name=NIH2014Tx1/> -->。[[二甲双胍]]和{{le|抗雄性激素|anti-androgen}}可能有所幫助<!-- <ref name=NIH2014Tx1/> -->。另外針對青春痘和多毛等症狀的症狀治療也有一定效果<ref name=NIH2014Tx1>{{cite web|title=Treatments to Relieve Symptoms of PCOS|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/relieve.aspx|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2014-07-14}}</ref>。減重或是使用{{tsl|en|clomiphene|可洛米分}}、降血糖藥物{{le|每福敏|metformin}}對於改善不孕的狀況有所幫助<!-- <ref name=NIH2014Tx2/> -->。當其他治療都沒有效果時,則考慮進行{{le|體外人工授精|In vitro fertilization}}<ref name=NIH2014Tx2>{{cite web|title=Treatments for Infertility Resulting from PCOS|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/infertility.aspx|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2014-07-14}}</ref>。
多囊卵巢綜合症目前並無特效藥<ref name=NIH2013Cure>{{cite web|title=http://www.nichd.nih.gov|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/cure.aspx|website=Is there a cure for PCOS?|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2013-05-23}}</ref>。治療則包括減重和運動等轉變生活型態的方式<ref name=Gia2009>{{cite journal |vauthors=Giallauria F, Palomba S, Vigorito C, Tafuri MG, Colao A, Lombardi G, Orio F |title=Androgens in polycystic ovary syndrome: the role of exercise and diet |journal=Seminars in Reproductive Medicine |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=306–15 |year=2009 |pmid=19530064 |doi=10.1055/s-0029-1225258 |type=Review}}</ref><ref name=Mor2015>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mortada R, Williams T |title=Metabolic Syndrome: Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=FP Essentials |volume=435 |issue= |pages=30–42 |year=2015 |pmid=26280343 |doi= |type=Review}}</ref><!-- <ref name=NIH2014Tx2/> -->,[[避孕藥物]]也許對於調整經期、抑制多餘的毛髮生長和青春痘有所幫助<!-- <ref name=NIH2014Tx1/> -->。[[二甲双胍]]和{{le|抗雄性激素|anti-androgen}}可能有所幫助<!-- <ref name=NIH2014Tx1/> -->。另外針對青春痘和多毛等症狀的症狀治療也有一定效果<ref name=NIH2014Tx1>{{cite web|title=Treatments to Relieve Symptoms of PCOS|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/relieve.aspx|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2014-07-14}}</ref>。減重或是使用{{tsl|en|clomiphene|可洛米分}}、降血糖藥物{{le|每福敏|metformin}}對於改善不孕的狀況有所幫助<!-- <ref name=NIH2014Tx2/> -->。當其他治療都沒有效果時,則考慮進行{{le|體外人工授精|In vitro fertilization}}<ref name=NIH2014Tx2>{{cite web|title=Treatments for Infertility Resulting from PCOS|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/PCOS/conditioninfo/Pages/infertility.aspx|website=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/|accessdate=13 March 2015|date=2014-07-14}}</ref>。


<!-- Epidemiology -->
<!-- Epidemiology -->
第157行: 第157行:
如果恢復生育能力不是主要目標,那麼[[月經]]紊亂通常可以用避孕藥來調節<ref name=MayoClinic /><ref name=emedicine_treatment>{{cite web|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256806-treatment#showall|title=Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Treatment & Management|publisher=[[eMedicine]]|date=25 October 2011|accessdate=19 November 2011}}</ref>。 調理月經的目的在本質上是為了女人的便利,也許使她的感受良好;只要經常發生,就不需要定期進行醫療。
如果恢復生育能力不是主要目標,那麼[[月經]]紊亂通常可以用避孕藥來調節<ref name=MayoClinic /><ref name=emedicine_treatment>{{cite web|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256806-treatment#showall|title=Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Treatment & Management|publisher=[[eMedicine]]|date=25 October 2011|accessdate=19 November 2011}}</ref>。 調理月經的目的在本質上是為了女人的便利,也許使她的感受良好;只要經常發生,就不需要定期進行醫療。


如果不期望定期的月經週期,則不一定需要不規則循環的治療。大多數專家說,如果至少每三個月發生一次月經,那麼子宮內膜就會經常流下來,以防止增加子宮內膜異常或癌症的風險。<ref name=verity_risks>{{cite web|url=http://www.verity-pcos.org.uk/guide_to_pcos/what_is_pcos/health_risks|title=What are the health risks of PCOS?|work=Verity&nbsp;– PCOS Charity|publisher=Verity|year=2011|accessdate=21 November 2011}}</ref> 如果月經頻率極低或根本沒來,推薦使用某些形式的助孕素。<ref name=emedicine_medications /> 其中一種替代方案即是定期服用一次口服助孕素(例如,每三個月)以誘發可預測的月經出血。<ref name=MayoClinic />
如果不期望定期的月經週期,則不一定需要不規則循環的治療。大多數專家說,如果至少每三個月發生一次月經,那麼子宮內膜就會經常流下來,以防止增加子宮內膜異常或癌症的風險。<ref name=verity_risks>{{cite web|url=http://www.verity-pcos.org.uk/guide_to_pcos/what_is_pcos/health_risks|title=What are the health risks of PCOS?|work=Verity&nbsp;– PCOS Charity|publisher=Verity|year=2011|accessdate=21 November 2011}}</ref> 如果月經頻率極低或根本沒來,推薦使用某些形式的助孕素。<ref name=emedicine_medications>{{cite web|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256806-medication#showall|title=Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Medication|publisher=eMedicine|author=Richard Scott Lucidi|date=25 October 2011|accessdate=19 November 2011|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114103933/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256806-medication#showall|archivedate=14 November 2011|df=}}</ref> 其中一種替代方案即是定期服用一次口服助孕素(例如,每三個月)以誘發可預測的月經出血。<ref name=MayoClinic />


=== 替代藥物 ===
=== 替代藥物 ===
第178行: 第178行:
* {{Internal link helper/en|自體免疫甲狀腺炎|Autoimmune thyroiditis}}<ref name="pmid21866332">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kachuei M, Jafari F, Kachuei A, Keshteli AH |title=Prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics |volume=285 |issue=3 |pages=853–6 |year=2012 |pmid=21866332 |doi=10.1007/s00404-011-2040-5 |url=}}</ref>
* {{Internal link helper/en|自體免疫甲狀腺炎|Autoimmune thyroiditis}}<ref name="pmid21866332">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kachuei M, Jafari F, Kachuei A, Keshteli AH |title=Prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics |volume=285 |issue=3 |pages=853–6 |year=2012 |pmid=21866332 |doi=10.1007/s00404-011-2040-5 |url=}}</ref>


早期診斷和治療可能會降低其中一些風險,如II型糖尿病和心臟病。<ref name="MayoClinic2" />
早期診斷和治療可能會降低其中一些風險,如II型糖尿病和心臟病。<!--<ref name="MayoClinic2" />--->


卵巢癌和乳腺癌的風險總體上沒有顯著增加。<ref name="BarryAzizia2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barry JA, Azizia MM, Hardiman PJ | title = Risk of endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Hum. Reprod. Update | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 748–758 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24688118 | doi = 10.1093/humupd/dmu012 | pmc=4326303}}</ref>
卵巢癌和乳腺癌的風險總體上沒有顯著增加。<ref name="BarryAzizia2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barry JA, Azizia MM, Hardiman PJ | title = Risk of endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Hum. Reprod. Update | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 748–758 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24688118 | doi = 10.1093/humupd/dmu012 | pmc=4326303}}</ref>

2017年10月28日 (六) 06:43的版本

多囊卵巢症候群
同义词高雄性激素無排卵(Hyperandrogenic anovulation,HA)[1]、斯-李二氏症(Stein–Leventhal syndrome)[2]
超聲波掃描下的多囊卵巢綜合症。
症状月經失調、經血過多多毛症痤疮、骨盆痛、不孕黑棘皮症[3]
併發症2型糖尿病肥胖症阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停心血管疾病情感障礙子宫内膜癌[4]
病程長期[5]
类型症候群荷爾蒙失調遺傳性疾病生殖系統疾病ovarian dysfunction[*]疾病
肇因遺傳或環境因素[6][7]
风险因子肥胖症、運動不足、家族病史[8]
診斷方法無排卵、高雄激素卵巢囊腫[4]
相似疾病或共病腎上腺增生症甲狀腺機能低下症高泌乳素血症英语hyperprolactinemia[9]
治療減肥、運動[10][11]
藥物避孕药二甲双胍抗雄激素[12]
盛行率適產年齡 2% 至 20% 的女性[8][13]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科婦科學
ICD-115A80.1
ICD-9-CM256.4
OMIM184700
MedlinePlus000369
eMedicine256806、​404754
Orphanet3185
[编辑此条目的维基数据]

多囊性卵巢綜合症Polycystic ovary syndrome,簡稱PCOS),又稱斯-李二氏症Stein-Leventhal syndrome),是一連串女性因為雄性激素上升所導致的症狀[4]。多囊性卵巢的症狀包含月經不規律或是無月經月經量過多多毛症粉刺、盆腔疼痛、難以受孕黑棘皮症[3]。相關的病症包含第二型糖尿病肥胖症阻塞性睡眠呼吸暫停心血管疾病情感障礙子宮內膜癌[4]

多囊性卵巢會受基因遺傳與環境因素影響[6][7]。其危險因子包含肥胖症、運動量不足或是有家族病史[8]。如果有以下三種症狀中的兩種便可診斷患者有多囊性卵巢:無排卵、雄性激素過高與卵巢囊腫[4]。囊腫可以由超音波影像檢測。其他造成類似症狀的疾病包含先天性腎上腺增生症甲狀腺機能低下症高泌乳素血症英语hyperprolactinemia[9]

多囊卵巢綜合症目前並無特效藥[5]。治療則包括減重和運動等轉變生活型態的方式[11][10]避孕藥物也許對於調整經期、抑制多餘的毛髮生長和青春痘有所幫助。二甲双胍抗雄性激素可能有所幫助。另外針對青春痘和多毛等症狀的症狀治療也有一定效果[12]。減重或是使用可洛米分、降血糖藥物每福敏對於改善不孕的狀況有所幫助。當其他治療都沒有效果時,則考慮進行體外人工授精[14]

多囊卵巢綜合症是18歲到44歲女性間,最常見的內分泌疾病英语endocrine disorder[15]。一般認為,多囊卵巢綜合症的發生率,從青春期開始,會在女性生育年齡期間攀升至少百分之二十(根據鹿特丹診斷指引,英國為百分之26、澳洲為百分之17.8、土耳其為百分之19.9、伊朗為百分之15.2[16]。)多囊卵巢綜合症是現今導致不孕的主要原因之一[4]。目前已知最早的多囊卵巢綜合症,是在1721年間在義大利的記錄[17]

體徵及症狀

常見的體徵和症狀如下:

原因

多囊卵巢綜合症是不確定因素造成的不勻相失調。[18][22][23]有一些證據指出它是一種基因疾病。 這些證據包括病例的家族群集、同卵雙胞胎相比更高的一致性和多囊卵巢綜合症的內分泌和代謝特徵的遺傳性[7][22][23]

致病性的基因發生在體染色體顯性遺傳,在女性身上具有高度的基因外顯性但是多變的表現度;這代表小孩有50%的機率從雙親的基因遺傳到誘發致病的異變基因片段,並且,如果女兒接受到異變基因,會出現一定程度上的病徵[23][24][25][26]。 異變基因可能從父母雙方遺傳而來,並且也同時可以遺傳給兒女(可能成為帶原者或是早期脫髮或毛髮過多症狀者) [24][26]表現型:有一部分患者個疾病表現為卵泡膜英语theca of follicle分泌過多的雄性素 [25]。確切的基因影響方式尚未被確認[7][23][27]。在少數的案例,單個基因的突變有可能造成綜合性的突變症狀[28]。目前對該綜合症的發病病理機致的研究指出,多囊卵巢綜合症為複雜的多基因疾病[29]

多囊卵巢綜合症症狀的嚴重程度似乎主要取決於肥胖症[7][15][30]

多囊卵巢綜合症也可視為一種代謝疾病,因為其的部分症狀為「可逆的」。 即便多囊卵巢綜合症由28個症狀組成,其仍被視為一種婦科疾病。

即使多囊卵巢綜合症的病名表明卵巢為該疾病的病理核心,但是囊腫為一種症況而非病因。就算兩個卵巢被摘除,部分多囊卵巢綜合症的症狀仍會持續下去,其症狀在不存在囊種的狀況下仍有可能出現。自從1935年Stein和Leventhal首次描述以來,診斷、症狀和致病因素的標準仍為爭議的主題之一。因為卵巢為首要受影響的器官,婦科學者們通常視其為一種婦科疾病。然而,近年來許多觀察顯示多囊性卵巢唯一種多重系統性失調疾病,主要問題源自於下視丘賀爾蒙調節失調 ,許多器官也與此調節有關。多囊性卵巢這個名稱源自於超聲波診斷之影像。多囊性卵巢綜合症的症狀非常多變,且只有約百分之15的患者可由超音波影像看出其卵巢中有囊腫。[31]

多囊卵巢綜合症或許與產前經期、表觀遺傳學因子、環境影響(尤其是工業中產生的內分泌干擾素[32]雙酚A與特定藥物)和肥胖比例增加有關,上述原因一有可能是使病症惡化的緣由。[32][33][34][35][36][37][38]

發病機制

多囊性卵巢的發展會刺激卵巢持續製造分泌過量的雄性激素,尤其是睪固酮,通常會伴隨著以下的其中一個症狀或是兩者皆有(幾乎肯定其具有遺傳易受性[25]):

多囊性卵巢綜合症因其在超音波診斷中普遍可見的大量卵巢囊腫聞名。這些「囊腫」其實是未成熟的濾泡而非囊腫。這些濾泡由初級濾泡發育而成, 但在空腔濾泡期早期因為卵巢功能停止發育,這些濾泡會出現在卵巢周邊,在超音波檢驗的影像中看起來像成串的珍珠[來源請求]

患有多囊性卵巢症候群的婦女因為下視丘釋放促性腺激素釋放激素的頻率增加,導致黃體成長激素與濾泡刺激素的比值升高[39]

大多數具有PCOS的婦女具有胰島素抵抗或肥胖的症狀。 他們的胰島素濃度異常的提高導致"下丘腦 - 垂體 - 卵巢軸"區域中的異常並引起PCOS的症狀。高胰島素血症提高GnRH的釋放頻率、黃體成長激素量多過濾泡刺激素,因而佔了主導地位、增加卵巢雄激素的產生、減少濾泡的成熟並減少SHBG的作用[18]

診斷

並不是每一個多囊卵巢綜合症的病人都有出現多囊卵巢的症狀, 也並非所有卵巢曩腫的病患都有多囊卵巢綜合症的症狀;雖然骨盆超聲波 是主要的診斷工具, 但也並不是唯一個診斷工具[51]。 雖然該綜合徵與廣泛的症狀相關,最直接的診斷方法是使用鹿特丹診斷標準。

定義

以下是兩種常見的定義:

美國國立衛生研究院診斷標準

在1990年,由國立衛生研究院 (美國)/ 美國國家兒童健康與人類發展中心英语NICHD贊助的協商研討會提出,如果一個人具有以下所有症狀,表示該員罹患多囊卵巢綜合症[52]:
  1. 出現排卵不規則的症狀
  2. 出現雄性素過剩英语androgen excess的症狀 (臨床上或生化上)
  3. 排除可能導致月經不規則和雄激素過多的其他疾病導致上述症狀的產生

鹿特丹診斷標準(Rotterdam diagnostic criteria)

2003年,鹿特丹 ESHRE / ASRM贊助的共識研討會提出,在沒有可能導致這些發現的其他實體的情況下,如果滿足3項標準中的任何一項,多囊卵巢就會出現[15][53][54]
  1. 出現排卵不規則無排卵英语anovulation或是兩者同時出現
  2. 具有雄性激素過剩英语androgen excess症狀
  3. 具有多囊卵巢症狀 (藉由 婦科超聲波英语gynecologic ultrasound檢查)

鹿特丹診斷標準涵蓋更廣泛的有症狀婦女,最顯著的部分是在於並未有雄性素過剩的婦女也被列入在其中。 評論家認為,從研究雄激素過多的婦女獲得的結果不一定可以推廣到給沒有雄激素過剩的婦女身上[55][56]

Androgen Excess PCOS Society
2006年,Androgen Excess PCOS Society提出了一套嚴謹診斷標準[15]
  1. 具有雄性激素過剩症狀
  2. 出現排卵不規則、無排卵或多囊卵巢症狀,亦或同時出現上述症狀
  3. 排除會引起過量雄激素活性的其他因素*

標準評估

  • 若需依據病史診斷上,月經週期、痤瘡、多毛症、肥胖症均為具體的判斷依據。 一份臨床預測規則英语clinical prediction rule發現這四項指標在診斷PCOS方面具有77.1%的靈敏度(95%的信賴區間下62.7%–88.0%)和93.8%的特異性(95%的信賴區間下82.8%–98.7%)[57]

鑑別診斷

應該調查其他原因,例如甲狀腺機能低下症先天性腎上腺增生症(21-羥化酶缺乏症)、庫興氏症候群高乳促素血症英语hyperprolactinemia、雄激素分泌性腫瘤以及其他垂體或腎上腺疾病。[15][54][61]

管理

多囊卵巢綜合症的主要治疗方法包括:生活方式的改變及藥物治療[70]

主要治療目標大致可分為下列四點:

在各個領域間,何為最佳治療方式仍是相當大的爭議,其中一個主要原因即是缺乏比較不同療程的大規模臨床試驗。樣本往往是不太可靠英语Sampling error因此可能產生矛盾的結果。

而有助於減輕體重或降低胰島素排斥的一般干預措施對於所有這些目標都是有益的,因為它們被認為是潛在的病因。

由於多囊卵巢綜合症似乎會引起嚴重的情緒障礙,因此適當的精神支持對於病情可能是有益的。[71]

飲食

多囊卵巢綜合症與超重或肥胖有關,減肥是恢復規律月經的最有效方法,但是很多女性很難達到並維持顯著的體重減輕。 2013年的科學評估發現,與飲食組成無關,重量和體重組成、懷孕率英语Pregnancy rate、月經規律、排卵、雄激素過高、胰島素抗性、脂質以及生活質量均有相似的降低。[72]然而,低GI飲食英语low GI diet其中大部分的碳水化合物從水果、蔬菜和全穀物獲得,而不是營養素均衡的健康飲食,會導致更嚴重的月經失衡[72]

維生素D缺乏症可能在代謝症候群的發展中發揮一定的作用,故遵照醫囑補充缺乏的營養素是極為重要的[73][74]。然而,2015年的系統評估並沒有發現維生素D具有減輕多囊卵巢綜合症中代謝和激素失調情況的證據。[75]截至2012年,使用營養補充品預防多囊卵巢綜合症患者代謝缺陷的干預措施已經在小型、不受控制的和非隨機的臨床試驗中進行了測試;而所得數據不足以推薦使用。[76]

藥物

用於治療多囊卵巢綜合症的藥物有避孕藥二甲雙胍。口服避孕藥能增加體內性激素结合球蛋白生產,促進游離睾酮的結合。這減少了由高睾丸激素引起的多毛症狀,並調節恢復正常月經週期。二甲雙胍是在2型糖尿病中常用的一種降低胰島素排斥的藥物,並在英國,美國,澳大利亞和歐盟標示外使用英语Off-label use用來治療多囊卵巢綜合症中的胰島素排斥。在許多情況下,二甲雙胍也能協助卵巢功能並恢復正常排卵[18][73][77]螺內酯可用於其抗雄激素作用,而二氟甲基鳥氨酸則可用於減少面部毛髮。較新的胰島素抵抗藥物噻唑烷二酮(格列酮)英语thiazolidinedione顯示出與二甲雙胍相當的功效,但二甲雙胍具有更輕微的副作用[78][79]英國國家健康與照顧卓越研究院英语National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence在2004年提出建議,當其他治療未能產生效果時,將給予給予BMI高於25的病患服用二甲雙胍[80][81]。二甲雙胍在每種類型的多囊卵巢綜合症中可能並非有效的,因此對於是否應該用作一般一線治療存在一些分歧[82]羟甲基戊二酸单酰辅酶A还原酶抑制剂在治療潛在代謝綜合徵方面的應用尚不清楚[83]

多囊卵巢綜合症可能導致難以受孕,因為它會導致不規律排卵。試圖懷孕時,會使用誘導生育的藥物包括排卵誘導劑克羅米酚或 脈衝亮丙瑞林 。 二甲雙胍與克羅米酚組合使用時,可提高生殖治療的療效。[84]二甲雙胍被認為在懷孕期間使用是安全的,於美國的懷孕分級為B[85]。2014年的評論得出結論,在三個月內使用二甲雙胍治療的女性並不會增加產下先天性障礙嬰兒的風險[86]

不孕症

多毛症及痤瘡

月經不規律

如果恢復生育能力不是主要目標,那麼月經紊亂通常可以用避孕藥來調節[18][73]。 調理月經的目的在本質上是為了女人的便利,也許使她的感受良好;只要經常發生,就不需要定期進行醫療。

如果不期望定期的月經週期,則不一定需要不規則循環的治療。大多數專家說,如果至少每三個月發生一次月經,那麼子宮內膜就會經常流下來,以防止增加子宮內膜異常或癌症的風險。[87] 如果月經頻率極低或根本沒來,推薦使用某些形式的助孕素。[88] 其中一種替代方案即是定期服用一次口服助孕素(例如,每三個月)以誘發可預測的月經出血。[18]

替代藥物

2017年的一項審查得出結論,肌醇D-手性肌醇英语D-chiro-Inositol可以調節月經週期和改善排卵,但缺乏影響懷孕機率的證據[89]。 2012年審查發現,肌醇的補充似乎有效改善多囊性卵巢綜合症的幾種激素紊亂 [90] 。2011年的審查,沒有足夠的證據來證實D-手性肌醇英语D-chiro-Inositol有任何有益的作用 [91]。沒有足夠的證據支持使用針灸 [92]

預測

多囊性卵巢綜合症的高風險伴隨症狀:

早期診斷和治療可能會降低其中一些風險,如II型糖尿病和心臟病。

卵巢癌和乳腺癌的風險總體上沒有顯著增加。[93]

流行病學

多囊性卵巢綜合症的盛行率受到診斷標準的影響。 世界衛生組織在2010年時估計全世界約有一億一千六百萬名女性(約3.4%的女性)受多囊性卵巢綜合症影響。[104]一份以鹿特丹診斷診斷指引為準的多囊性卵巢綜合症流行率社區研究發現大約有百分之18的女性患有多囊性卵巢,而這些患者約有百分之70先前並未被確診出患有多囊性卵巢綜合症。[15]

約有百分之8到25的一般女性到超音波診斷中會看到有多囊性卵巢。[105][106][107][108]百分之14服用口服避孕藥的女性發現有多囊性卵巢14%[106]。卵巢囊腫也是使用子宮環後常見的副作用。[109]

歷史

這種症狀最早在1935年由美國婦科醫生Irving F. Stein, Sr.與Michael L. Leventhal首次描述,其原始名稱為斯-李二氏症[51][52]

目前已知最早的多囊卵巢綜合症,是在1721年間在義大利的記錄[17]。而有關於卵巢囊腫的相關變化描述最早紀錄於1844年[17]

名稱

這種綜合徵的其他名稱包括多囊卵巢疾病、功能性卵巢雄激素過多症、卵巢濾泡膜細胞增殖英语Hyperthecosis、硬皮囊性卵巢綜合徵和斯-李二氏症。 斯-李二氏症為其原始名稱,現在使用這個名稱都僅限於具有不孕症多毛症和擴大的多囊性卵巢的閉經女性患者[51]

這種疾病最常見的名稱來自逾期在醫學影像中可見多囊性卵巢而得此稱[18]。多囊性卵巢在靠近卵巢表面處有極大量正在發育的卵,其在超音波影響中可用肉眼鑑別[51],看起來像許多小囊腫[110]或一串珍珠。

參見

參考文獻

  1. ^ Kollmann M, Martins WP, Raine-Fenning N. Terms and thresholds for the ultrasound evaluation of the ovaries in women with hyperandrogenic anovulation. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2014, 20 (3): 463–4. PMID 24516084. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu005. 
  2. ^ USMLE-Rx. MedIQ Learning, LLC. 2014. Stein-Leventhal syndrome, also known as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), is a disorder characterized by hirsutism, obesity, and amenorrhea because of luteinizing hormone-resistant cystic ovaries. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 What are the symptoms of PCOS? (05/23/2013). www.nichd.nih.gov. [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于3 March 2015). 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Condition Information. US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. 2013-05-23 [13 March 2015]. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 http://www.nichd.nih.gov. Is there a cure for PCOS?. 2013-05-23 [13 March 2015].  外部链接存在于|title= (帮助)
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 De Leo V, Musacchio MC, Cappelli V, Massaro MG, Morgante G, Petraglia F. Genetic, hormonal and metabolic aspects of PCOS: an update. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology : RB&E (Review). 2016, 14 (1): 38. PMC 4947298可免费查阅. PMID 27423183. doi:10.1186/s12958-016-0173-x. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Kandarakis H, Legro RS. The role of genes and environment in the etiology of PCOS. Endocrine. 2006, 30 (1): 19–26. PMID 17185788. doi:10.1385/ENDO:30:1:19. 
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 How many people are affected or at risk for PCOS?. http://www.nichd.nih.gov. 2013-05-23 [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于4 March 2015).  外部链接存在于|website= (帮助)
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 How do health care providers diagnose PCOS?. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/. 2013-05-23 [13 March 2015]. 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Mortada R, Williams T. Metabolic Syndrome: Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. FP Essentials (Review). 2015, 435: 30–42. PMID 26280343. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Giallauria F, Palomba S, Vigorito C, Tafuri MG, Colao A, Lombardi G, Orio F. Androgens in polycystic ovary syndrome: the role of exercise and diet. Seminars in Reproductive Medicine (Review). 2009, 27 (4): 306–15. PMID 19530064. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1225258. 
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Treatments to Relieve Symptoms of PCOS. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/. 2014-07-14 [13 March 2015]. 
  13. ^ editor, Lubna Pal,. Diagnostic Criteria and Epidemiology of PCOS. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Current and Emerging Concepts.. Dordrecht: Springer. 2013: 7. ISBN 9781461483946. (原始内容存档于2017-09-10). 
  14. ^ Treatments for Infertility Resulting from PCOS. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/. 2014-07-14 [13 March 2015]. 
  15. ^ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 Teede H, Deeks A, Moran L. Polycystic ovary syndrome: a complex condition with psychological, reproductive and metabolic manifestations that impacts on health across the lifespan. BMC Med. 2010, 8 (1): 41. PMC 2909929可免费查阅. PMID 20591140. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-8-41. 
  16. ^ Diagnostic Criteria and Epidemiology of PCOS; Heather R. Burks and Robert A. Wild; Book Title: Polycystic Ovary Syndrome; Subtitle: Current and Emerging Concepts; Part I; Pages: pp 03-10; Copyright: 2014; DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8394-6_17; Print ISBN 978-1-4614-8393-9; Online ISBN 978-1-4614-8394-6; Publisher: Springer New York. (http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-8394-6_17).
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Kovacs, Gabor T.; Norman, Robert. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Cambridge University Press. 2007-02-22: 4 [29 March 2013]. ISBN 9781139462037. 
  18. ^ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 18.10 18.11 18.12 18.13 18.14 18.15 18.16 18.17 18.18 18.19 Mayo Clinic Staff. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome – All. MayoClinic.com. Mayo Clinic. 4 April 2011 [15 November 2011]. 
  19. ^ Christine Cortet-Rudelli; Didier Dewailly. Diagnosis of Hyperandrogenism in Female Adolescents. Hyperandrogenism in Adolescent Girls. Armenian Health Network, Health.am. Sep 21, 2006 [2006-11-21]. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 Huang A, Brennan K, Azziz R. Prevalence of hyperandrogenemia in the polycystic ovary syndrome diagnosed by the National Institutes of Health 1990 criteria. Fertil. Steril. 2010, 93 (6): 1938–41. PMC 2859983可免费查阅. PMID 19249030. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.138. 
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Nafiye Y, Sevtap K, Muammer D, Emre O, Senol K, Leyla M. The effect of serum and intrafollicular insulin resistance parameters and homocysteine levels of nonobese, nonhyperandrogenemic polycystic ovary syndrome patients on in vitro fertilization outcome. Fertil. Steril. 2010, 93 (6): 1864–9. PMID 19171332. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.024. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Page 836 (Section:Polycystic ovary syndrome) in: Fauser BC, Diedrich K, Bouchard P, Domínguez F, Matzuk M, Franks S, Hamamah S, Simón C, Devroey P, Ezcurra D, Howles CM. Contemporary genetic technologies and female reproduction. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2011, 17 (6): 829–47. PMC 3191938可免费查阅. PMID 21896560. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmr033. 
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Legro RS, Strauss JF. Molecular progress in infertility: polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil. Steril. 2002, 78 (3): 569–76. PMID 12215335. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(02)03275-2. 
  24. ^ 24.0 24.1 Crosignani PG, Nicolosi AE. Polycystic ovarian disease: heritability and heterogeneity. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2001, 7 (1): 3–7. PMID 11212071. doi:10.1093/humupd/7.1.3. 
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Strauss JF. Some new thoughts on the pathophysiology and genetics of polycystic ovary syndrome. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2003, 997: 42–8. Bibcode:2003NYASA.997...42S. PMID 14644808. doi:10.1196/annals.1290.005. 
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 Ada Hamosh. POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME 1; PCOS1. OMIM. McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. 12 September 2011 [15 November 2011]. 
  27. ^ Amato P, Simpson JL. The genetics of polycystic ovary syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004, 18 (5): 707–18. PMID 15380142. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2004.05.002. 
  28. ^ Draper; et al. Mutations in the genes encoding 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase interact to cause cortisone reductase deficiency. Nature Genetics. 2003, 34: 434–439. PMID 12858176. doi:10.1038/ng1214. 
  29. ^ Ehrmann David A. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2005, 352: 1223–1236. doi:10.1056/NEJMra041536. 
  30. ^ Faghfoori Z, Fazelian S, Shadnoush M, Goodarzi R. Nutritional management in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: A review study. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome (Review). 2017. PMID 28416368. doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2017.03.030. 
  31. ^ Dunaif A, Fauser BC. Renaming PCOS—a two-state solution. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2013, 98 (11): 4325–8. PMC 3816269可免费查阅. PMID 24009134. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-2040. 
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 Palioura E, Diamanti-Kandarakis E. Industrial endocrine disruptors and polycystic ovary syndrome. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 2013, 36 (11): 1105–11. PMID 24445124. doi:10.1007/bf03346762. 
  33. ^ Hoeger KM. Developmental origins and future fate in PCOS. Semin. Reprod. Med. 2014, 32 (3): 157–158. PMID 24715509. doi:10.1055/s-0034-1371086. 
  34. ^ Harden CL. Polycystic ovaries and polycystic ovary syndrome in epilepsy: evidence for neurogonadal disease. Epilepsy Curr. 2005, 5 (4): 142–6. PMC 1198730可免费查阅. PMID 16151523. doi:10.1111/j.1535-7511.2005.00039.x. 
  35. ^ Rasgon N. The relationship between polycystic ovary syndrome and antiepileptic drugs: a review of the evidence. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2004, 24 (3): 322–34. PMID 15118487. doi:10.1097/01.jcp.0000125745.60149.c6. 
  36. ^ Hu X, Wang J, Dong W, Fang Q, Hu L, Liu C. A meta-analysis of polycystic ovary syndrome in women taking valproate for epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 2011, 97 (1–2): 73–82. PMID 21820873. doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.07.006. 
  37. ^ Abbott DH, Barnett DK, Bruns CM, Dumesic DA. Androgen excess fetal programming of female reproduction: a developmental aetiology for polycystic ovary syndrome?. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2005, 11 (4): 357–74. PMID 15941725. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmi013. 
  38. ^ Rutkowska A, Rachoń D. Bisphenol A (BPA) and its potential role in the pathogenesis of the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Gynecol. Endocrinol. 2014, 30 (4): 260–5. PMID 24397396. doi:10.3109/09513590.2013.871517. 
  39. ^ Lewandowski KC, Cajdler-Łuba A, Salata I, Bieńkiewicz M, Lewiński A. The utility of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) test in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Endokrynol Pol. 2011, 62 (2): 120–8. PMID 21528473. 
  40. ^ Munir, Iqbal; Yen, Hui-Wen; Geller, David H.; Torbati, Donna; Bierden, Rebecca M.; Weitsman, Stacy R.; Agarwal, Sanjay K.; Magoffin, Denis A. Insulin Augmentation of 17α-Hydroxylase Activity Is Mediated by Phosphatidyl Inositol 3-Kinase But Not Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase-1/2 in Human Ovarian Theca Cells. Endocrinology. January 2004, 145 (1): 175–183. doi:10.1210/en.2003-0329. 
  41. ^ Diamanti-Kandarakis, Evanthia; Dunaif, Andrea. Insulin Resistance and the Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Revisited: An Update on Mechanisms and Implications. Endocrine Reviews. December 2012, 33 (6): 981–1030. PMID 23065822. doi:10.1210/er.2011-1034. 
  42. ^ Kumar Cotran Robbins: Basic Pathology 6th ed. / Saunders 1996[页码请求]
  43. ^ Sathyapalan T, Atkin SL. Mediators of inflammation in polycystic ovary syndrome in relation to adiposity. Mediators Inflamm. 2010, 2010: 1–5. PMC 2852606可免费查阅. PMID 20396393. doi:10.1155/2010/758656. 
  44. ^ Fukuoka M, Yasuda K, Fujiwara H, Kanzaki H, Mori T. Interactions between interferon gamma, tumour necrosis factor alpha, and interleukin-1 in modulating progesterone and oestradiol production by human luteinized granulosa cells in culture. Hum. Reprod. 1992, 7 (10): 1361–4. PMID 1291559. 
  45. ^ González F, Rote NS, Minium J, Kirwan JP. Reactive oxygen species-induced oxidative stress in the development of insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2006, 91 (1): 336–40. PMID 16249279. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-1696. 
  46. ^ Murri M, Luque-Ramírez M, Insenser M, Ojeda-Ojeda M, Escobar-Morreale HF. Circulating markers of oxidative stress and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2013, 19 (3): 268–88. PMID 23303572. doi:10.1093/humupd/dms059. 
  47. ^ Kelly CJ, Stenton SR, Lashen H. Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 in PCOS: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2010, 17 (1): 4–16. PMID 20634211. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmq027. 
  48. ^ Gleicher N, Weghofer A, Lee IH, Barad DH. FMR1 genotype with autoimmunity-associated polycystic ovary-like phenotype and decreased pregnancy chance. PLoS ONE. 2010, 5 (12): e15303. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...515303G. PMC 3002956可免费查阅. PMID 21179569. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015303. 
  49. ^ http://www.obgyn.net/articles/transgenderpcos[需要完整来源]
  50. ^ http://www.cancer-network.org/cancer_information/transgender_gender-nonconforming_people_and_cancer/transgender_men_and_ovarian_cancer.php[需要完整来源]
  51. ^ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 Marrinan, Greg. Lin, Eugene C , 编. Imaging in Polycystic Ovary Disease. eMedicine. eMedicine. 20 April 2011 [19 November 2011]. 
  52. ^ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 52.5 52.6 52.7 52.8 Richard Scott Lucidi. Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome. eMedicine. 25 October 2011 [19 November 2011]. 
  53. ^ Azziz R. Controversy in clinical endocrinology: diagnosis of polycystic ovarian syndrome: the Rotterdam criteria are premature. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2006, 91 (3): 781–5. PMID 16418211. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-2153. 
  54. ^ 54.0 54.1 Revised 2003 consensus on diagnostic criteria and long-term health risks related to polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Hum. Reprod. 2004, 19 (1): 41–7. PMID 14688154. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh098. 
  55. ^ Carmina E. Diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome: from NIH criteria to ESHRE-ASRM guidelines. Minerva Ginecol. 2004, 56 (1): 1–6. PMID 14973405. 
  56. ^ Hart R, Hickey M, Franks S. Definitions, prevalence and symptoms of polycystic ovaries and polycystic ovary syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004, 18 (5): 671–83. PMID 15380140. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2004.05.001. 
  57. ^ Pedersen SD, Brar S, Faris P, Corenblum B. Polycystic ovary syndrome: validated questionnaire for use in diagnosis. Can Fam Physician. 2007, 53 (6): 1042–7, 1041. PMC 1949220可免费查阅. PMID 17872783. 
  58. ^ 58.0 58.1 Dewailly D, Lujan ME, Carmina E, Cedars MI, Laven J, Norman RJ, Escobar-Morreale HF. Definition and significance of polycystic ovarian morphology: a task force report from the Androgen Excess and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Society. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2013, 20 (3): 334–52. PMID 24345633. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt061. 
  59. ^ O'Brien, William T. Top 3 Differentials in Radiology. Thieme. 1 January 2011: 369 [30 August 2014]. ISBN 978-1-60406-228-1. Ultrasound findings in PCOS include enlarged ovaries with peripheral follicles in a "string of pearls" configuration. 
  60. ^ Somani N, Harrison S, Bergfeld WF. The clinical evaluation of hirsutism. Dermatol Ther. 2008, 21 (5): 376–91. PMID 18844715. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8019.2008.00219.x. 
  61. ^ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4 61.5 61.6 61.7 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Workup. eMedicine. 25 October 2011 [19 November 2011]. 
  62. ^ Sharquie KE, Al-Bayatti AA, Al-Ajeel AI, Al-Bahar AJ, Al-Nuaimy AA. Free testosterone, luteinizing hormone/follicle stimulating hormone ratio and pelvic sonography in relation to skin manifestations in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Saudi Med J. 2007, 28 (7): 1039–43. PMID 17603706. 
  63. ^ Robinson S, Rodin DA, Deacon A, Wheeler MJ, Clayton RN. Which hormone tests for the diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome?. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1992, 99 (3): 232–8. PMID 1296589. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb14505.x. 
  64. ^ Li X, Lin JF. [Clinical features, hormonal profile, and metabolic abnormalities of obese women with obese polycystic ovary syndrome]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2005, 85 (46): 3266–71. PMID 16409817 (Chinese). 
  65. ^ 65.0 65.1 Banaszewska B, Spaczyński RZ, Pelesz M, Pawelczyk L. Incidence of elevated LH/FSH ratio in polycystic ovary syndrome women with normo- and hyperinsulinemia. Rocz. Akad. Med. Bialymst. 2003, 48: 131–4. PMID 14737959. 
  66. ^ Dumont A, Robin G, Catteau-Jonard S, Dewailly D. Role of Anti-Müllerian Hormone in pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: a review. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology : RB&E (Review). 2015, 13: 137. PMC 4687350可免费查阅. PMID 26691645. doi:10.1186/s12958-015-0134-9. 
  67. ^ Dewailly D, Andersen CY, Balen A, Broekmans F, Dilaver N, Fanchin R, Griesinger G, Kelsey TW, La Marca A, Lambalk C, Mason H, Nelson SM, Visser JA, Wallace WH, Anderson RA. The physiology and clinical utility of anti-Mullerian hormone in women. Human Reproduction Update (Review). 2014, 20 (3): 370–85. PMID 24430863. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt062. 
  68. ^ Broer SL, Broekmans FJ, Laven JS, Fauser BC. Anti-Müllerian hormone: ovarian reserve testing and its potential clinical implications. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2014, 20 (5): 688–701. PMID 24821925. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu020. 
  69. ^ 69.0 69.1 Legro RS, Kunselman AR, Dodson WC, Dunaif A. Prevalence and predictors of risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance in polycystic ovary syndrome: a prospective, controlled study in 254 affected women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1999, 84 (1): 165–9. PMID 9920077. doi:10.1210/jcem.84.1.5393. 
  70. ^ Legro, Richard S.; Arslanian, Silva A.; Ehrmann, David A.; Hoeger, Kathleen M.; Murad, M. Hassan; Pasquali, Renato; Welt, Corrine K.; Endocrine Society. Diagnosis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. December 2013, 98 (12): 4565–4592. ISSN 1945-7197. PMC 5399492可免费查阅. PMID 24151290. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-2350. 
  71. ^ Veltman-Verhulst SM, Boivin J, Eijkemans MJ, Fauser BJ. Emotional distress is a common risk in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 studies. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2012, 18 (6): 638–51. PMID 22824735. doi:10.1093/humupd/dms029. 
  72. ^ 72.0 72.1 Moran LJ, Ko H, Misso M, Marsh K, Noakes M, Talbot M, Frearson M, Thondan M, Stepto N, Teede HJ. Dietary composition in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review to inform evidence-based guidelines. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2013, 19 (5): 432. PMID 23727939. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt015. 
  73. ^ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Treatment & Management. eMedicine. 25 October 2011 [19 November 2011]. 
  74. ^ Krul-Poel YH, Snackey C, Louwers Y, Lips P, Lambalk CB, Laven JS, Simsek S. The role of vitamin D in metabolic disturbances in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review. European Journal of Endocrinology (Review). 2013, 169 (6): 853–65. PMID 24044903. doi:10.1530/EJE-13-0617. 
  75. ^ He C, Lin Z, Robb SW, Ezeamama AE. Serum Vitamin D Levels and Polycystic Ovary syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients (Meta-analysis). 2015, 7 (6): 4555–77. PMC 4488802可免费查阅. PMID 26061015. doi:10.3390/nu7064555. 
  76. ^ Huang, G; Coviello, A. Clinical update on screening, diagnosis and management of metabolic disorders and cardiovascular risk factors associated with polycystic ovary syndrome.. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity. December 2012, 19 (6): 512–9. PMID 23108199. doi:10.1097/med.0b013e32835a000e. 
  77. ^ Lord JM, Flight IH, Norman RJ. Metformin in polycystic ovary syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2003, 327 (7421): 951–3. PMC 259161可免费查阅. PMID 14576245. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7421.951. 
  78. ^ Li, X.-J.; Yu, Y.-X.; Liu, C.-Q.; Zhang, W.; Zhang, H.-J.; Yan, B.; Wang, L.-Y.; Yang, S.-Y.; Zhang, S.-H. Metformin vs thiazolidinediones for treatment of clinical, hormonal and metabolic characteristics of polycystic ovary syndrome: a meta-analysis. Clinical Endocrinology. 2011-03, 74 (3): 332–339. ISSN 1365-2265. PMID 21050251. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2010.03917.x. 
  79. ^ Grover, Anjali; Yialamas, Maria A. Metformin or thiazolidinedione therapy in PCOS?. Nature Reviews Endocrinology. 2011-03, 7 (3): 128– [2015-05-24]. ISSN 1759-5029. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2011.16. 
  80. ^ National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence英语National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. 11 Clinical guideline 11 : Fertility: assessment and treatment for people with fertility problems . London, 2004.
  81. ^ Balen A. Metformin therapy for the management of infertility in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PDF). Scientific Advisory Committee Opinion Paper 13. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. December 2008 [2009-12-13]. 
  82. ^ Leeman L, Acharya U. The use of metformin in the management of polycystic ovary syndrome and associated anovulatory infertility: the current evidence. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2009, 29 (6): 467–72. PMID 19697191. doi:10.1080/01443610902829414. 
  83. ^ Legro, RS; Arslanian, SA; Ehrmann, DA; Hoeger, KM; Murad, MH; Pasquali, R; Welt, CK; Endocrine, Society. Diagnosis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline.. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. December 2013, 98 (12): 4565–92. PMID 24151290. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-2350. 
  84. ^ Nestler, John E.; Jakubowicz, Daniela J.; Evans, William S.; Pasquali, Renato. Effects of Metformin on Spontaneous and Clomiphene-Induced Ovulation in the Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998-06-25, 338 (26): 1876–1880 [2015-05-24]. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 9637806. doi:10.1056/NEJM199806253382603. 
  85. ^ Feig, Denice S.; Moses, Robert G. Metformin Therapy During Pregnancy Good for the goose and good for the gosling too?. Diabetes Care. 2011-10-01, 34 (10): 2329–2330 [2015-05-24]. ISSN 0149-5992. PMC 3177745可免费查阅. PMID 21949224. doi:10.2337/dc11-1153. 
  86. ^ Cassina M, Donà M, Di Gianantonio E, Litta P, Clementi M. First-trimester exposure to metformin and risk of birth defects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2014, 20 (5): 656–69. PMID 24861556. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu022. 
  87. ^ What are the health risks of PCOS?. Verity – PCOS Charity. Verity. 2011 [21 November 2011]. 
  88. ^ Richard Scott Lucidi. Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Medication. eMedicine. 25 October 2011 [19 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于14 November 2011). 
  89. ^ Pundir, J; Psaroudakis, D; Savnur, P; Bhide, P; Sabatini, L; Teede, H; Coomarasamy, A; Thangaratinam, S. Inositol treatment of anovulation in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomised trials.. BJOG : an international journal of obstetrics and gynaecology. 24 May 2017. PMID 28544572. 
  90. ^ Unfer V, Carlomagno G, Dante G, Facchinetti F. Effects of myo-inositol in women with PCOS: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 2012, 28 (7): 509–15. PMID 22296306. doi:10.3109/09513590.2011.650660. 
  91. ^ Galazis N, Galazi M, Atiomo W. D-Chiro-inositol and its significance in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 2011, 27 (4): 256–62. PMID 21142777. doi:10.3109/09513590.2010.538099. 
  92. ^ Lim, Chi Eung Danforn; Ng, Rachel W. C.; Xu, Ke; Cheng, Nga Chong Lisa; Xue, Charlie C. L.; Liu, Jian Ping; Chen, Nini. Acupuncture for polycystic ovarian syndrome. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016-05-03, (5): CD007689. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 27136291. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007689.pub3. 
  93. ^ 93.0 93.1 Barry JA, Azizia MM, Hardiman PJ. Risk of endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2014, 20 (5): 748–758. PMC 4326303可免费查阅. PMID 24688118. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu012. 
  94. ^ New MI. Nonclassical congenital adrenal hyperplasia and the polycystic ovarian syndrome. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1993, 687: 193–205. Bibcode:1993NYASA.687..193N. PMID 8323173. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb43866.x. 
  95. ^ Hardiman P, Pillay OC, Atiomo W. Polycystic ovary syndrome and endometrial carcinoma. Lancet. 2003, 361 (9371): 1810–2. PMID 12781553. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13409-5. 
  96. ^ Mather KJ, Kwan F, Corenblum B. Hyperinsulinemia in polycystic ovary syndrome correlates with increased cardiovascular risk independent of obesity. Fertil. Steril. 2000, 73 (1): 150–6. PMID 10632431. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(99)00468-9. 
  97. ^ Moran LJ, Misso ML, Wild RA, Norman RJ. Impaired glucose tolerance, type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2010, 16 (4): 347–63. PMID 20159883. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmq001. 
  98. ^ Barry JA, Kuczmierczyk AR, Hardiman PJ. Anxiety and depression in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. 2011, 26 (9): 2442–51. PMID 21725075. doi:10.1093/humrep/der197. 
  99. ^ Rocha MP, Maranhão RC, Seydell TM, Barcellos CR, Baracat EC, Hayashida SA, Bydlowski SP, Marcondes JA. Metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and lipid transfer to high-density lipoprotein in young obese and normal-weight patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil. Steril. 2010, 93 (6): 1948–56. PMID 19765700. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.044. 
  100. ^ de Groot PC, Dekkers OM, Romijn JA, Dieben SW, Helmerhorst FM. PCOS, coronary heart disease, stroke and the influence of obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2011, 17 (4): 495–500. PMID 21335359. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmr001. 
  101. ^ Goldenberg N, Glueck C. Medical therapy in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome before and during pregnancy and lactation. Minerva Ginecol. 2008, 60 (1): 63–75. PMID 18277353. 
  102. ^ Boomsma CM, Fauser BC, Macklon NS. Pregnancy complications in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Semin. Reprod. Med. 2008, 26 (1): 072–084. PMID 18181085. doi:10.1055/s-2007-992927. 
  103. ^ Kachuei M, Jafari F, Kachuei A, Keshteli AH. Prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2012, 285 (3): 853–6. PMID 21866332. doi:10.1007/s00404-011-2040-5. 
  104. ^ Vos T, Flaxman AD, et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2012, 380 (9859): 2163–96. PMID 23245607. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2. 
  105. ^ Polson DW, Adams J, Wadsworth J, Franks S. Polycystic ovaries—a common finding in normal women. Lancet. 1988, 1 (8590): 870–2. PMID 2895373. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(88)91612-1. 
  106. ^ 106.0 106.1 Clayton RN, Ogden V, Hodgkinson J, Worswick L, Rodin DA, Dyer S, Meade TW. How common are polycystic ovaries in normal women and what is their significance for the fertility of the population?. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf). 1992, 37 (2): 127–34. PMID 1395063. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.1992.tb02296.x. 
  107. ^ Farquhar CM, Birdsall M, Manning P, Mitchell JM, France JT. The prevalence of polycystic ovaries on ultrasound scanning in a population of randomly selected women. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1994, 34 (1): 67–72. PMID 8053879. doi:10.1111/j.1479-828X.1994.tb01041.x. 
  108. ^ van Santbrink EJ, Hop WC, Fauser BC. Classification of normogonadotropic infertility: polycystic ovaries diagnosed by ultrasound versus endocrine characteristics of polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil. Steril. 1997, 67 (3): 452–8. PMID 9091329. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(97)80068-4. 
  109. ^ Hardeman J, Weiss BD. Intrauterine devices: an update.. Am Fam Physician. 2014, 89 (6): 445–50. PMID 24695563. 
  110. ^ What is Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)?. Verity – PCOS Charity. Verity. 2011 [21 November 2011]. 

Category:Endocrine gonad disorders英语Category:Endocrine gonad disorders