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用户:It's gonna be awesome/成人注意力不足过动症 --former ADHD的症状与管理 (to be published)--

维基百科,自由的百科全书
注意力不足过动症(ADHD)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
又称注意力缺失症、过度活跃症=Hyperkinetic disorder (ICD-10)
An image of children
注意力不足过动症儿童患者可能比较难以专注在学校的作业,因此也不容易在期限内完成作业
分类和外部资源
ICD-10F90
ICD-9-CM314.00314.01
OMIM143465
DiseasesDB6158
MedlinePlus001551
eMedicinemed/3103 ped/177
MeSHD001289
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
“ADHD”的各地常用译名
中国大陆注意力缺陷多动障碍
台湾注意力不足过动症
香港专注力失调/过度活跃症
澳门专注力失调/过度活跃症
日本注意欠陥・多动性障害
大韩民国注意力缺乏过多行动障碍
越南𦇒乱增动减注意

由于注意力不足过动症(ADHD)的症状表现十分多元,容易让人误以为是其他疾病引起的,因此本条目旨在详列ADHD的症状表现形式,协助读者厘清。

ADHD典型症状包括忘东忘西、粗心大意、写作业很久、吃饭很久、常恍神、妈妈交代的事一下就忘、东西不会收、今天念的书明天就忘掉大半、怎么教都没用。且/或有明显的焦虑症状,咬手指甲,连所有的脚趾甲都咬光。[1]

ADHD在脑部发育尚平均比同一年纪的人慢了三年,因此有较慢发展的认知功能(包括注意,记忆,结构,组织,学习,反应及解决事情能力),及自我动作及情绪控制能力表现,表现出来被简要描述的症状就是注意力不足,冲动及过动表现。[1]

症状表现

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ADHD symptoms by age.

儿童(6-12岁)Children (6-12 Years) 青年(13-17岁)Teenagers (13-17 Years) 成人(18岁以上)Adult
容易分心
(Easily distracted)
内在的不安宁
(Displays inner restlessness)
专注力上的问题
(Inattention/concentration problems)
难以井然有序地完成家庭作业,常导致迟交,且作业内夹杂粗心的错误
(Homework poorly organized, contains careless errors, often not completed)
难以在各项学校/学习事务中保持有计划性、秩序性的。常常有始无终。
(Schoolwork disorganized, shows poor follow-through)
生活缺乏秩序与组织且难以在行动前事先做计划
(Disorganized and fails to plan ahead)
在问题尚未结束时抢答
(Blurts out answers in class before the question is completed)
肢体上的过动可能转变为内心的不安宁
(Hyperactivity may become less visible)
错误判断剩余时间以及完成一件事所需的时间
(Misjudges available time)
难以完成家务事
(Fails to complete chores at home)
-
难以开始即完成一个计划
(Difficulty initiating and completing projects)
难以在游戏中轮流
(Has difficulty awaiting turn in games)
-
一件事情还没做到一个阶段就转移注意力到另一件事情
(Shifts activities prematurely)
常常离开座位
(Often out of seat)
-
健忘,常常遗失东西
(Forgetful; often loses things)
常在不适当的时机点找人说话、常不自觉闯入他人的空间 (Often interrupts or intrudes on others)
-
做出冲动的决定
(Makes impulsive decisions)

[2]

Purple texts stand for translated sentences. :D

前兆与症状: ADHD是一个慢性病,通常在早期出现症状且持续一辈子。

Signs and symptoms: ADHD is a chronic condition, beginning in early childhood and persisting throughout a person's lifetime. It is estimated that 33-66% of children with ADHD will continue to have significant ADHD-related symptoms persisting into adulthood, resulting in a significant impact on education, employment, and interpersonal relationships. [3] [4]

ADHD患者往往缺乏自我管理能力(Self-control/self-regulation)、自我动机(/自我激励/self-motivation),进而形成的特质,例如:分心拖延、和缺乏规划。ADHD患者常被其他人认为嘈杂且偏好追求高度刺激好让自己比较不会分心且变得比较有效率。 其实ADHD患者的学习潜力及整体资质与常人无异。

Individuals with ADHD exhibit deficiencies in self-regulation and self-motivation which in turn foster problematic characteristics such as distractibility, procrastination and disorganization. They are often perceived by others as chaotic, with a tendency to need high stimulation to be less distracted and function effectively. The learning potential and overall intelligence of an adult with ADHD, however, are no different from the potential and intelligence of adults who do not have the disorder.

Whereas teachers and caregivers responsible for children are often attuned to the symptoms of ADHD, employers and others who interact with adults are less likely to regard such behaviors as a symptom. In part, this is because symptoms do change with maturity; adults who have ADHD are less likely to exhibit obvious hyperactive behaviors. Instead they may report constant mental activity and inner restlessness, as their hyperactivity internalizes. [5]

Symptoms of ADHD (see table below) can vary widely between individuals and throughout the lifetime of an individual. As the neurobiology of ADHD is becoming increasingly understood, it is becoming evident that difficulties exhibited by individuals with ADHD are due to problems with the parts of the brain responsible for executive functions (see below: Pathophysiology). These result in problems with sustaining attention, planning, organization, prioritization, time blindness, impulse control and decision making.

The difficulties generated by these deficiencies can range from moderate to extreme, resulting in the inability to effectively structure their lives, plan daily tasks, or think of and act accordingly even when aware of potential consequences. These lead to poor performance in school and work, followed by underachievement in these areas. In young adults, poor driving record with traffic violations[6] as well as histories of alcoholism or substance abuse may surface. The difficulty is often due to the ADHD person's observed behaviour (e.g. the impulsive types, who may insult their boss for instance, resulting in dismissal), despite genuinely trying to avoid these and knowing that it can get them in trouble. Often, the ADHD person will miss things that an adult of similar age and experience should catch onto or know. These lapses can lead others to label the individuals with ADHD as "lazy" or "stupid" or "inconsiderate".

As problems accumulate, a negativistic self-view becomes established and a vicious circle of failure is set up. Up to 80% of adults may have some form of psychiatric comorbidity[7] such as depression or anxiety.[3] Many with ADHD also have associated learning disabilities, such as dyslexia, which contributes to their difficulties.[8]

Studies on adults with ADHD have shown that, more than often, they experience self stigma and depression in childhood, commonly resulting from feeling neglected and different from their peers.[9] These problems may play a role to the high levels of depression, substance abuse, and relationship problems that affect adults with ADHD later in life.[10]


Inattentive-type (ADHD-PI) Hyperactive/Impulsive-type (ADHD-PH)
In children:
  • Forgetful during daily activities
  • Easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
  • Losing important items (e.g. pencils, homework, toys, etc.)
  • Always asking for attention, but
  • Not listening and not responding to name being called out
  • Unable to focus on tasks at hand, cannot sustain attention in activities
  • Avoids or dislikes tasks requiring sustained mental effort
  • Makes careless mistakes by failing to pay attention to details
  • Difficulty organizing tasks and activities
  • Fails to follow-through on complex instructions and tasks (e.g. homework, chores, etc.)

In children:

  • Squirms and fidgets (with hands and/or feet)
  • Cannot sit still
  • Cannot play quietly or engage in leisurely activities
  • Talks excessively
  • Runs and climbs excessively
  • Always on the go, as if "driven by a motor"
  • Cannot wait for their turn
  • Blurts out answers
  • Intrudes on others and interrupts conversations
In adults, these evolve into:[7]
  • Avoiding tasks or jobs that require concentration
  • Procrastination
  • Difficulty initiating tasks
  • Difficulty organizing details required for a task
  • Difficulty recalling details required for a task
  • Difficulty multitasking
  • Poor time management, losing track of time
  • Indecision and doubt
  • Hesitation of execution
  • Difficulty persevering or completing and following through on tasks
  • Delayed stop and transition of concentration from one task to another

In adults:

  • Chooses highly active, stimulating jobs
  • Avoids situations with low physical activity or sedentary work
  • May choose to work long hours or two jobs
  • Seeks constant activity
  • Easily bored
  • Impatient
  • Intolerant and frustrated, easily irritated
  • Impulsive, snap decisions and irresponsible behaviors
  • Loses temper easily, angers quickly
  • The tendency to hyperfocus on particularly stimulating or emotionally engaging tasks.

儿童时期

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青年时期

[编辑]

成人时期

[编辑]

成人注意力不足过动症(Adult ADHD, Adult with ADHD, ADHD in Adult)\其实是注意力不足过动症的症状从幼年延续到成年期,并不是成年后才出现的疾病。其症状基本上仍未脱离分心、过动-冲动的核心概念,只是表现方式有很多(比起幼年期更为多样),一般大众不一定能将这些多样的表现型式与ADHD的核心症状相连结。

研究发现,儿童青少年时期的ADHD症状若未经治疗,约有六成进入成年期后仍有明显症状。

有鉴于目前台湾社会对于成人ADHD的认识有限,不少成人ADHD患者在生活中经历了可能比别人更多的困难和挫折且在迷糊和混乱中度过了不少岁月,却不知其问题的根源,于是只能不断的自我批判欲借此改善现况,然而却反而使自己变得更负面以及精神状况每况愈下。因此下表主要乃根据国立台湾大学医学院附设医院精神医学部、基因医学部主任高淑芬医师之著作摘要整理出成人ADHD的特征,帮助疑似患者自我察觉。[11]

  • 当患者必须进行一件枯燥或困难的计划时,可能常粗心犯错。[12]
  • 当患者正在做枯燥或重复性的工作时,常有持续专注的困难。[12]
  • 患者常难以专注于他人跟患者讲话的内容(比如说:听演讲等),甚至是当有人直接一对一对着患者说话。[12]
  • 一旦患者完成任何计划中最具挑战性的部分后,常会有完成该计划最后细节的困难。[12]
  • 当患者必须从事需要有组织规划性的事时,常会发现自己难以井然有序地去做。 [12]
  • 当患者有一件需要动脑的事情时,患者常逃避或是延后开始去做。[12]
  • 患者在家里或是在工作时,常没有把东西物归原位或是常找不到东西。[12]
  • 患者常因周遭的活动或声音而分心。[12]
  • 患者可能发现自己很健忘,常忘了做该做的事、个人应尽到的义务(obligations)和行事历上的任务(appointments)。[12]

--上述为“注意力缺损”的表现型的大致归纳--

--下述为“过动/冲动”的表现型的大致归纳--

  • 当患者必须长时间坐着时,患者常出现“坐不安稳”或“扭动手脚”的情形。[12]
  • 患者可能常在开会时或在其他被认为应该坐好的场合中离开座位。[12]
  • 患者可能常觉得静不下来或烦躁不安。[12]
  • 患者在自己独处的时间时,可能常觉得使自己保持平静和放松是有困难的。[12]
  • 患者可能常感觉自己像被马达所驱动一样,觉得自己过度地活跃,不得不做事情。 [12]
  • 在社交场合中,患者会可能常发现自己话讲得太多。[12]
  • 当与他人交谈时,患者可能常在别人还没把话讲完前就插嘴或接话替对方把话讲完。[12]
(When you are in a conversation, how often do you find yourself finishing the sentences of the people you are talking to, before they can finish them themselves?)
  • 在需要轮流排队的场合时,患者可能(发觉自己)难以轮流等待。[12]
  • 患者可能常在别人忙碌时打断别人。[12]

以下为更详细的症状表现型概述

  • 经常天马行空地想东想西,脑海中不断迸发出新的点子,兴致勃勃地告诉别人后却鲜少具体实践,让美丽的梦想成真。即便兴冲冲开始执行,通常也只是三分钟热度。
  • 喜欢热心主动的帮助别人或提供别人各式各样的建议,不过与此同时,对自己的事却显得吊儿啷当,拖拖拉拉,好像没有作完的一天。
  • 喜欢说话,无论是在会议中或是上课的场合中,仍会忍不住一直跟旁边的人聊天。经常吵到人而不自知。
  • 对注意力不足过动症患者来说,跟别人好好聊天可能不是一件容易的事,因为不耐于倾听,经常插嘴或岔(离)题。
  • 对于时间这个东西没什么概念,常常无法准时赴约,不是迟到,就是根本把这件事抛到九云通宵外,把这件事情给忘了。(缺乏时间观念)
  • 粗心、忽略细节、因为不耐烦而便宜行事。只想求快的结果就是做事的品质令人不敢恭维。
  • 因为注意力不足过动症的缘故,患者显得容易冲动又没耐心,例如:开快车,抢黄灯或闯红灯、插嘴、插队、抢话、发生交通事故、收到罚单或与人起冲突。
  • 注意力不足过动症患者常挨批评像长不大的人、迷迷糊糊、懒懒散散、不用心、说说哥、说说姊、不负责任、白目、生活习惯不好、以自己为中心等。
  • 患者每当遭受到类似的批判,往往觉得无奈又委屈并为此而焦虑。因为患者本身也不想这样,但就是心有余而力不足,无法自我控制。
  • ADHD患者的言行举止往往令周遭的亲友感到纳闷,一来是他们的表现有时候很不错、学习力也不差,但为何就是需要旁人再三提醒专心把事情做好,还需周遭亲友们不时替患者操心。
  • 一心只讲求快速、效率,却未顾及到做事的品质,以至于语焉不详、字迹潦草、漏洞百出。像是刚拿到一样新东西,连看说明书都不耐烦,便直接动手安装或使用,导致事倍功半,或是不小心就把东西给弄坏了。
  • 对于金钱和财务不太有概念、粗心大意,因此在收支上维持平衡对于成人ADHD患者来说,可能不是一件轻松的事情。
  • 对于ADHD-患者来说,时间通常只有‘现在’没有‘未来’,所以常会把很多事情都挤在同一个时间。ADHD患者的空间能力也不太好,家中的桌子、地上、床铺、和柜子经常堆满东西。书桌上的东西堆积成了一座小山坡,没有归类,然而其抽屉可能空空的,只装了点小纸屑。
  • 当ADHD患者想要或需要某些人、事、物时,他们可能会立马插嘴或打断别人,无论别人是不是正在忙、谈话中。ADHD可能就会要对方放下正在做的事,立即回应他们。ADHD患者之所以会急性子,除了是肇因于冲动的核心症状外,他们也担心如果不现在说出来,未来可能就会忘记啦。
  • 为了找东西而浪费很多宝贵的时间,甚至为此进出家门多次而迟到。
  • 分辨事情缓急轻重的能力不好。例如:明明人家急着要一份资料,ADHD患者却因为别人的一句话或一个动作而分心,转而关注其他的人事时地物,于是原本正在进行的事情全抛诸脑后。对于ADHD来说,一旦应该做的事被打断,就很难再回来持续做完。
  • 常常会从ADHD患者身上观察到一些好似不安、不安稳的小动作,例如:摸东摸西、拉扯衣服、碰碰文具、在椅子上旋转、剥指甲、在纸上涂鸦等。
  • 常觉得静不下来。
  • 丢三落四的,不是找不到手机、钱包、钥匙、账单就是忘了带应该记得带的重要东西。
  • 说话的时候常常更换主题,使得别人不易厘清重点。
  • 因为冲动的特质,ADHD患者经常不假思索就脱口而出不得体的话。(常讲错话)
  • 不耐于倾听他人,往往对方的话还没讲完,他们就插嘴或急着接话:“我知道,我知道,我告诉你⋯⋯”。但别人要说的并不一定与ADHD患者预测的相同。
  • 可能会借由超车、闯红灯来摆脱等待停等红灯、堵车时的不耐烦。因此容易出车祸和吃罚单。
  • 排队、等待火车对于ADHD来说可能是件非常烦人的事情。
  • 可能因为肢体容易碰撞到别人而引起人际冲突。(肢体协调性可能不足)
  • 遇到稍微比较复杂的指令,就容易乱掉。即便是每天的例行公事,也需要不断地叮咛。
  • 倘若没有明确严格的时间限制,ADHD可能会把他应该做的事、应该缴交的作业、......,无限期的延后,没有完成的一天。
  • 经常从一件事情切换至另一件事情的结果可能是每一件事情都没做完或花很长的时间才能做完。
  • 做事欠缺规划、分辨事情缓急轻重的能力有待加强、缺乏时间观念可能带给人不可靠、不守信的感觉。
  • ADHD患者们也不太容易与别人维持长时间的对话和互动、或者看电视(锁定同一个节目)。总之就是很难持续,还没有到一个段落,就中断离开了。
  • 是一个热心的人,点子很多也很好动,但就是常常恍神、糊里糊涂、少根筋似的。
  • 做事情容易拖拖拉拉,拖延到最后一刻。
  • 思考或者做事情上常看起来心不在焉、虎头蛇尾,讲不听。
  • 不耐久坐、才刚坐下看东西、看资料,不到几分钟就想站起来找人聊天。
  • 各种坐姿,有时候会把脚搁在桌上,或者一直扭动,旁若无人似的。
  • 手上的书已经翻开超过半小时,却因为一直无法专心阅读,所以书还停留在刚翻开时的那一页。
  • 不擅于整理东西、打理生活,不论是随身携带的包包里、家里的房间、抑或是桌子上,基本上都塞著或堆著各种东西。随着时间的流转,这些小平原、小丘陵会变成乱乱的大台地和大山坡。
  • 忘东忘西的,经常忘记答应别人的事情、东西放在哪里、安排好的行程规划、证件、约会的时间地点、资料、应该做到的事、......。注意力不足过动症患者脑部的记忆功能并无缺损,但就是太健忘了,让自己和周边的人都感到十分的无奈。
  • 易粗心犯错、工作效率不足、不易与人建立并维持良好的沟通、常常换工作、换老板、虎头蛇尾、有始无终、恍神、处事乱无章法、坦率直接、没有心机、天真、兴趣广泛、少根筋的乐天派、活泼好动、热心助人、讲义气、喜欢打抱不平、爱讲话所以很容易交朋友、创意十足、热情洋溢、活力充沛、开朗活泼、单纯、时间管理能力有待加强、三思而后行的能力不足。

同为注意力不足过动症患者之哈洛威尔医师对于成人注意力不足过动症的观察 [13]

哈洛威尔:“虽然‘注意力不足过动症’常认为是好发于儿童青少年时期,然而到目前为止,我们已经知道,成人‘注意力不足过动症’的数量远多于我们原本的预测。即便有些幼年‘注意力不足过动症’患者会在其成年时期摆脱‘注意力不足过动症’,但我们已经了解到,其实绝大多数的幼年‘注意力不足过动症’患者之症状会持续至成年时期。”

哈洛威尔:以下表列之特征为我们历经数年临床经验所得之成人注意力不足过动症患者的特征:

  • 不耐烦。
  • 摇摆不定的心情。
  • 忽略真实的危机。
  • 易怒、容易被激怒。
  • 挫折容忍度。
  • 不安全感常萦绕在心头。
  • 心理上或身(肢)体上的不安宁。
  • 常常追求高度的刺激感。
  • 容易不耐烦或感到无聊、难忍无聊的感觉。
  • 难以让自己的人生有组织。
  • 长期的(慢性的)低自尊、低自信。
  • 冲动。(言语上或是行动上)
  • 常有花钱的冲动。(此乃属行动上的冲动)
  • 常带有高度创意、精确的直觉。十分聪颖。
  • 常常杞人忧天,无止尽的、不必要的担忧。
  • 不一定按照既有的管道、寻常的程序行事。
  • 慢(惯)性拖延、逃避,不然就是难以开始行动。
  • 想到什么就立刻说出来,没有考虑到时机与场合是否合适。(此乃属言语上的冲动)
  • 成瘾高危险群。(较负面的解读。以负面角度观之。)
  • 过度投入有兴趣的事物。(较正面的解读。以正面角度观之。)
  • 不一定正确的自我观察。(特别是在盲目的乐观或悲观的心境下。)
  • ADHD或任何情感性疾患、冲动控制问题、物质滥用的家庭病史。
  • 无论已达成过何种目标/成就,心中一直有种觉得自己没有发挥应有能力/潜力/实力的感觉。
  • 容易分心,难以维持注意力。看似对于一篇文章或是一段对话(交谈)不理不睬(或注意力/专注力/心思不知不觉地就飘离了已读到一半的文章或进行到一半的交谈、......)并长期伴随着难以维持专注力的障碍。
  • 计划常常变来变去,无论在计划或生涯规划上都显得三分钟热度。
  • 常常用眼睛扫描地平线、水平线等视野范围去寻找事情来担心、检查所担心的东西(频繁地反复检查)。
  • 当(或被迫)离开某人或某事的时候,心情上会有过于重大的负面冲击及剥夺感。
  • 因为难以随着时间演进有效订定和掌握各计划的进度与期程,遂干脆让好几个计划同时进行。

哈洛威尔:“治疗成人ADHD患者与治疗儿童青少年ADHD患者,两者是同等重要的。因为ADHD对于一位成人的冲击相当广泛,例如:生涯英语career婚姻家庭、......等。” [13]

症状的管理

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Treatment for adult ADHD may combine medication and behavioral, cognitive, or vocational interventions. Treatment often begins with medication selected to address the symptoms of ADHD, along with any comorbid conditions that may be present. Medication alone, while effective in correcting the physiological symptoms of ADHD, will not address the paucity of skills which many adults will have failed to acquire because of their ADHD (e.g., one might regain ability to focus with medication, but skills such as organizing, prioritizing and effectively communicating have taken others time to cultivate).[14]

The Multimodal Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Study (MTA):Questions and Answers

Medications

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Stimulants, the first line medications in adult ADHD are typically formulated in immediate and long-acting formulations.

Methylphenidate, a stimulant, with short and long-acting formulations, is often the first-line therapy and appears effective.[15] In the short term, methylphenidate is well tolerated. However, long term studies have not been conducted in adults and concerns about increases in blood pressure have not been established.[16] Methylphenidate increases concentrations of dopamine and norepinephrine in the synaptic cleft, promoting increased neurotransmission. It acts to block the dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake transporters, thus slowing the removal at which these neurotransmitters are cleared from the synapses.

Amphetamine and its derivatives, prototype stimulants, are likewise available in immediate and long-acting formulations. Amphetamines act by multiple mechanisms including reuptake inhibition, displacement of transmitters from vesicles, reversal of uptake transporters and reversible MAO inhibition. Thus amphetamines actively increases the release of these neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.[17] They may have a better side-effect profile than methylphenidate cardiovascularly and potentially better tolerated.[18]

The non-stimulant atomoxetine (Strattera), is also an effective treatment for adult ADHD. Although atomoxetine has a half life similar to stimulants it exhibits delayed onset of therapeutic effects similar to antidepressants. Unlike the stimulants which are controlled substances, atomoxetine lacks abuse potential. It is particularly effective for those with the predominantly inattentive concentration type of attention deficit due to being primarily a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor.[19] It is often prescribed in adults who cannot tolerate the side effects of amphetamines or methylphenidate. It is also approved for ADHD by the US Food and Drug Administration. A rare but potentially severe side effect includes liver damage and increased suicidal ideation.[20]

Bupropion and desipramine are two antidepressants that have demonstrated some evidence of effectiveness in the management of ADHD particularly when there is comorbid major depression,[21] although antidepressants have lower treatment effect sizes.[22]

[14] [23] [24] [25] [17] [18] [19] [20] [22]

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【注意力不足过动儿的认识与行为治疗技术】马偕纪念医院精神科 / 早疗中心儿童临床心理师 王加恩心理师

文章--注意力不足过动症(张学岺医师提供)

注意力不足过动症的认识和治疗

注释

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参考文献

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书目

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引用

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  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 嘉义长庚精神科副教授级主治医师、教育部部定副教授 陈锦宏 医师. 心動家族:注意力不足過動症ADHD的第三條路. 台湾心动家族儿童青少年关怀协会. Tc-adhd.com. 2016-12-13 [February 2017] (中文(台湾)). 典型症状包括忘东忘西,粗心大意,写作业很久,吃饭很久,常恍神,妈妈交代的事一下就忘,东西不会收,今天念的书明天就忘掉大半,怎么教都没用。且有明显的焦虑症状,咬手指甲,连所有的脚趾甲都咬光。...注意力不足过动症(ADHD),长期追踪研究显示主要是脑部发育较慢(平均慢了三年),因此比同一年纪的人有较慢发展的认知功能(包括注意,记忆,结构,组织,学习,反应及解决事情能力),及自我动作及情绪控制能力表现,表现出来被简要描述的症状就是注意力不足,冲动及过动表现。因现代研究发展,逐渐了解大多数是生理的问题,症状起源无关教养及教育环境,但表现严重度及后续后遗症会受到教养及教育环境的影响。 其诊断并非根据症状有无而已,还包含持续长时间,症状严重度,要对功能造成影响及排除其他疾病。每一个部分均需有经验的专家评估,而非症状学字面上的意义。ADHD经多年研究,治疗改善率至少80%,比许多内外科疾病治疗效果要好。治疗主要是整合性模式,包括药物治疗、(认知)行为治疗及学校特教环境,也是少数做过上百个对照研究的疾病。 
  2. ^ ADHD and You. ADHD: What Do Symptoms Look Like at Different Ages?. [2017-03-09]. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Gentile, J. P.; Atiq, R.; Gillig, P. M. Adult ADHD: Diagnosis, Differential Diagnosis, and Medication Management. Psychiatry (Edgmont (Pa. : Township)). 2006, 3 (8): 25–30. PMC 2957278可免费查阅. PMID 20963192. 
  4. ^ Valdizán, JR; Izaguerri-Gracia, AC. Trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad en adultos [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults]. Revista de neurologia. 27 February 2009, 48 (Suppl 2): S95–9. PMID 19280582 (Spanish). 
  5. ^ Kooij, SJ; Bejerot, S; Blackwell, A; Caci, H; Casas-Brugué, M; Carpentier, PJ; Edvinsson, D; Fayyad, J; Foeken, K; Fitzgerald, M; Gaillac, V; Ginsberg, Y; Henry, C; Krause, J; Lensing, MB; Manor, I; Niederhofer, H; Nunes-Filipe, C; Ohlmeier, MD; Oswald, P; Pallanti, S; Pehlivanidis, A; Ramos-Quiroga, JA; Rastam, M; Ryffel-Rawak, D; Stes, S; Asherson, P. European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry. 3 September 2010, 10: 67. PMC 2942810可免费查阅. PMID 20815868. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-10-67.  开放获取
  6. ^ Stanford, Clare; Tannock, Rosemary. Behavioral Neurobiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Its Treatment. Springer. 29 February 2012: 10–. ISBN 978-3-642-24611-1. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Katragadda, S; Schubiner, H. ADHD in Children, Adolescents, and Adults. Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice. June 2007, 34 (2): 317–341. PMID 17666230. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2007.04.012. 
  8. ^ Eden, GF; Vaidya, CJ. ADHD and developmental dyslexia: two pathways leading to impaired learning.. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2008, 1145: 316–27. PMID 19076406. doi:10.1196/annals.1416.022. 
  9. ^ McKeague, Lynn; Hennessy, Eilis; O'Driscoll, Claire; Heary, Caroline. Retrospective Accounts of Self-Stigma Experienced by Young People With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Depression. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal. 2015, 38 (2): 158–163 [15 October 2015]. PMID 25799297. doi:10.1037/prj0000121. 
  10. ^ Derrer, David. Conditions Similar to ADHD. WebMD. WebMD. [16 October 2015]. 
  11. ^ 高淑芬. 找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 台北: 心灵工坊. 2016-05-09 [2016-12-12]. ISBN 9789863570592 (中文(台湾)). from section of 成人ADHD的诊断 
  12. ^ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 Adler, Lenard; Kessler, Ronald C; Spencer, Thomas, 成人 ADHD 自填量表 (ASRS)症狀 檢核表 (PDF), Gau, Susan Shur-Fen (编), Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale-V1.1 (ASRS-V1.1) Symptoms Checklist from WHO Composite International Diagnostic Interview (PDF), V1.1, Harvard Medical School, New York University Medical School.: World Health Organization, 2005 
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 Dr. Hallowell on the Today show discussing Adult ADD. Drhallowell.com. 2014-10-16 [2016-12-09]. Dr. Hallowell on the Today show discussing Adult ADHD\ While ADHD tends to be associated with childhood, we’ve learned that it is far more widespread among adults than previously understood. While there are some children with ADHD who will outgrow it, we now know that the vast majority will not. Listed below are criteria for adult ADHD that we developed from our clinical experience: A sense of underachievement, of not meeting one’s goals , regardless of how much one has actually accomplished. Difficulty getting organized. Chronic procrastination or trouble getting started. Many projects going simultaneously; trouble with follow through. A tendency to say what comes to mind without necessarily considering the timing or appropriateness of the remark. A frequent search for high stimulation. An intolerance of boredom. Easy distractibility; trouble focusing attention, tendency to tune out or drift away in the middle of a page or conversation, often coupled with an inability to focus at times. Often creative, intuitive, highly intelligent. Trouble in going through established channels and following “proper” procedure. Impatient; low tolerance of frustration. Impulsive, either verbally or in action, as an impulsive spending of money. Changing plans, enacting new schemes or career plans and the like; hot-tempered. A tendency to worry needlessly, endlessly; a tendency to scan the horizon looking for something to worry about, alternating with attention to or disregard for actual dangers. A sense of insecurity. Mood swings, mood iability, especially when disengaged from a person or a project. Physical or cognitive restlessness. A tendency toward addictive behavior. Chronic problems with self-esteem. Inaccurate self-observation. Family history of ADHD or manic depressive illness or depression or substance abuse or other disorders of impulse control or mood.Recognizing and treating ADHD is just as important for adults as it is for children, as it has a wide ranging impact in careers, marriages and families. 
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Searight, H. Russel; Burke, John M.; Rottnek, Fred. Adult ADHD: Evaluation and Treatment in Family Medicine. American Family Physician. November 2000, 62 (9): 2077–2086 [22 March 2013]. PMID 11087189. 
  15. ^ Epstein, T; Patsopoulos, NA; Weiser, M. Immediate-release methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. Sep 18, 2014, 9 (9): CD005041. PMID 25230710. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005041.pub2. 
  16. ^ Godfrey J. Safety of therapeutic methylphenidate in adults: a systematic review of the evidence. J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford). May 2008, 23 (2): 194–205. PMID 18515459. doi:10.1177/0269881108089809. 
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 Retz W, Retz-Junginger P, Thome J, Rösler M. Pharmacological treatment of adult ADHD in Europe. World J. Biol. Psychiatry. September 2011,. 12 Suppl 1: 89–94. PMID 21906003. doi:10.3109/15622975.2011.603229. 
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 Kolar D, Keller A, Golfinopoulos M, Cumyn L, Syer C, Hechtman L. Treatment of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. April 2008, 4 (2): 389–403. PMC 2518387可免费查阅. PMID 18728745. 
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 Simpson D, Plosker GL. Spotlight on atomoxetine in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. CNS Drugs. 2004, 18 (6): 397–401. PMID 15089111. doi:10.2165/00023210-200418060-00011. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 Santosh PJ, Sattar S, Canagaratnam M. Efficacy and tolerability of pharmacotherapies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. CNS Drugs. September 2011, 25 (9): 737–63. PMID 21870887. doi:10.2165/11593070-000000000-00000. 
  21. ^ Wilens, Timothy E.; Morrison, Nicholas R.; Prince, Jefferson. An update on the pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. October 2011, 11 (10): 1443–65. PMC 3229037可免费查阅. PMID 21955201. doi:10.1586/ern.11.137. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Verbeeck W, Tuinier S, Bekkering GE. Antidepressants in the treatment of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. Adv Ther (systematic review (secondary source)). February 2009, 26 (2): 170–184. PMID 19238340. doi:10.1007/s12325-009-0008-7. 
  23. ^ ADA Division, Office of Legal Counsel. Enforcement Guidance: Reasonable Accommodation and Undue Hardship Under the Americans with Disabilities Act. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. 22 October 2002. 
  24. ^ Office of Civil Rights. Questions and Answers on Disability Discrimination under Section 504 and Title II. U.S. Department of Education. 25 June 2012. 
  25. ^ Division of Human Development, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 29 September 2014. 

参见

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外部链接

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