生物鹼
生物鹼(英語:alkaloid)是一種天然存在的含氮鹼性化合物。一些人工合成但結構類似的化合物有時也被稱作生物鹼。除了碳、氫、氮,生物鹼也可以含有氧、硫、氯、溴、磷等元素。[2] 生物鹼與其它含氮鹼性化合物之間的分界並不明確,但氨基酸、核苷酸及胺類物質通常不被稱作生物鹼。
生物鹼在人或動物體內產生藥理反應。雖然大部份的生物鹼對人體有毒,但有些也能入藥,起鎮痛或麻醉的作用,以嗎啡及可待因尤為重要。生物鹼大都是氨基酸衍生物,嚐起來有苦澀味,是植物(如馬鈴薯、蕃茄、罌粟)、動物(如貝類)、細菌和真菌等多種生命體的次生代謝物。通過對生物體的粗提取物進行酸鹼萃取純化,可以獲得大部份的生物鹼。
發現史
[編輯]自古以來,人類就將含有生物鹼的植物用於治療和娛樂。
例如,早在公元前 2000 年左右,美索不達米亞就已發現藥用植物[3]。[30] 荷馬(作家)的奧德賽提到了埃及女王送給海倫的禮物,一種帶來遺忘的藥物。
據信,這份禮物是一種含有鴉片的藥物[4]。一本寫於公元前一至三世紀的中國室內植物書籍提到了麻黃和罌粟的醫療用途[5]。此外,古柯葉自古以來就被南美原住民使用。
含有有毒生物鹼(例如烏頭鹼和管箭毒鹼)的植物提取物自古以來就被用於毒箭[3]。
生物鹼的研究始於 19 世紀。
1804年,德國化學家弗里德里希·瑟圖納從鴉片中分離出一種「催眠原理」(拉丁語:principium somniferum),他將其稱為「嗎啡」,指的是希臘夢神墨菲斯; 在德語和其他一些中歐語言中,這仍然是該藥物的名稱。 「嗎啡」一詞在英語和法語中使用,由法國物理學家蓋-呂薩克提出。
法國研究人員皮埃爾-佩爾提埃和約瑟夫·卡旺圖在生物鹼發展的早期對化學做出了重大貢獻,他們發現了奎寧 (1820年) 和士的寧 (1818年)。
大約在同一時期還發現了其他幾種生物鹼,包括黃嘌呤(1817年)、阿托品(1819年)、咖啡因(1820年)、可尼鹼(1827年)、尼古丁(1828年)、秋水仙鹼(1833年)、金雀花鹼(1851年)和可卡因(1860年)。
20 世紀光譜和色譜方法的出現加速了生物鹼化學的發展,到 2008 年已鑑定出超過 12,000 種生物鹼[6]。
1886 年,德國化學家阿爾伯特·拉登堡首次完成了生物鹼的合成。 他通過2-甲基吡啶與乙醛反應並用鈉還原生成的2-丙烯基吡啶來生產烏頭鹼[7]。
生物鹼的分類
[編輯]與大多數其他天然化合物相比,生物鹼的特徵在於其豐富的結構多樣性,沒有統一分類。
類別 | 主要結構 | 主要合成路線 | 例子 |
---|---|---|---|
與含氮雜環生物鹼(真正生物鹼) | |||
吡咯烷 類衍生物[8] | 鳥氨酸 或 精氨酸 → 腐胺 → N-甲基腐胺 → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrroline [9] | Cuscohygrine, hygrine, hygroline, stachydrine[8][10] | |
托烷 類衍生物[11] | 阿托品類 原子取代於位置 3, 6 或 7 |
鳥氨酸或精氨酸→腐胺→N-甲基腐胺→N-甲基-Δ1-吡咯烷酮 [9] | Atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine[8][11][12] |
可卡因類 原子取代於位置 2, 3 |
Cocaine, ecgonine [11][13] | ||
吡咯里西啶 類衍生物[14] | 非酯類 | 鳥氨酸,精氨酸→腐→類精脒→惹卓裂鹼 [9] | Retronecine, heliotridine, laburnine [14][15] |
一元羧酸的複合酯 | Indicine, lindelophin, sarracine [14] | ||
大環內二酯 | Platyphylline, trichodesmine[14] | ||
1-氨基吡咯烷類 (lolines) | L-脯氨酸+ L-高絲氨酸→N-(3-氨基-3-羧丙基)脯氨酸→降黑麥草堿 [16][17] | Loline, N-formylloline, N-acetylloline[18] | |
哌啶 類衍生物[19] | 賴氨酸 → 屍胺 → Δ1-piperideine [20] | Sedamine, lobeline, anaferine, piperine [21][22] | |
辛酸 → coniceine → 毒芹鹼 [23] | Coniine, coniceine [23] | ||
喹 類衍生物[24][25] | 羽扇豆鹼 類 | 賴氨酸 → 屍胺 → Δ1-piperideine [26] | Lupinine, nupharidin [24] |
野靛鹼 類 | 野靛鹼 [24] | ||
司巴丁 類 | 司巴丁, lupanine, anahygrine[24] | ||
苦參鹼 類 | Matrine, oxymatrine, allomatridine[24][27][28] | ||
苦豆鹼 類 | Ormosanine, piptantine[24][29] | ||
吲哚聯啶 類衍生物[30] | 賴氨酸 → δ-semialdehyde of Α-氨基己二酸 → pipecolic acid → 1 indolizidinone [31] | Swainsonine, castanospermine [32] | |
吡啶 類衍生物[33][34] | 吡啶簡單衍生物 | 煙酸 → dihydronicotinic acid → 1,2-dihydropyridine [35] | Trigonelline, ricinine, arecoline [33][36] |
多環芳烴非冷凝吡啶衍生物 | Nicotine, nornicotine, anabasine, anatabine [33][36] | ||
多環芳烴冷凝吡啶衍生物 | Actinidine, gentianine, pediculinine [37] | ||
Sesquiterpene pyridine derivatives | 煙酸, 異亮氨酸 [38] | Evonine, hippocrateine, triptonine [34][35] | |
異喹啉 類衍生物及相關生物鹼[39] | Simple derivatives of isoquinoline [40] | Tyrosine or 苯丙氨酸 → 多巴胺 or 酪胺 (for alkaloids Amarillis) [41][42] | Salsoline, lophocerine [39][40] |
Derivatives of 1- and 3-isoquinolines [43] | N-methylcoridaldine, noroxyhydrastinine [43] | ||
Derivatives of 1- and 4-phenyltetrahydroisoquinolines [40] | Cryptostilin [40][44] | ||
Derivatives of 5-naftil-isoquinoline [45] | Ancistrocladine [45] | ||
Derivatives of 1- and 2-benzyl-izoquinolines [46] | Papaverine, laudanosine, sendaverine | ||
Cularine group[47] | Cularine, yagonine [47] | ||
Pavines and isopavines [48] | Argemonine, amurensine [48] | ||
Benzopyrrocolines [49] | Cryptaustoline [40] | ||
Protoberberines [40] | Berberine, canadine, ophiocarpine, mecambridine, corydaline [50] | ||
Phthalidisoquinolines [40] | Hydrastine, narcotine (Noscapine) [51] | ||
Spirobenzylisoquinolines [40] | Fumaricine [48] | ||
Ipecacuanha alkaloids[52] | Emetine, protoemetine, ipecoside [52] | ||
Benzophenanthridines [40] | Sanguinarine, oxynitidine, corynoloxine [53] | ||
Aporphines [40] | Glaucine, coridine, liriodenine [54] | ||
Proaporphines [40] | Pronuciferine, glaziovine [40][49] | ||
Homoaporphines [55] | Kreysiginine, multifloramine [55] | ||
Homoproaporphines [55] | Bulbocodine [47] | ||
嗎啡s[56] | 嗎啡, 可待因, 蒂巴因, 青藤鹼 [57] | ||
Homomorphines [58] | Kreysiginine, androcymbine [56] | ||
Tropoloisoquinolines [40] | Imerubrine [40] | ||
Azofluoranthenes [40] | Rufescine, imeluteine [59] | ||
Amaryllis alkaloids[60] | Lycorine, ambelline, tazettine, galantamine, montanine [61] | ||
Erythrina alkaloids[44] | Erysodine, erythroidine [44] | ||
Phenanthrene derivatives [40] | Atherosperminine [40][50] | ||
Protopines [40] | Protopine, oxomuramine, corycavidine [53] | ||
Aristolactam [40] | Doriflavin [40] | ||
噁唑 類衍生物[[62] | Tyrosine → tyramine [63] | Annuloline, halfordinol, texaline, texamine[64] | |
異噁唑 類衍生物 | Ibotenic acid → Muscimol | Ibotenic acid, Muscimol | |
噻唑 類衍生物[65] | 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DOXP), tyrosine, cysteine [66] | Nostocyclamide, thiostreptone [65][67] | |
喹唑啉 類衍生物[68] | 3,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives | Anthranilic acid or phenylalanine or ornithine [69] | Febrifugine[70] |
1,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives | Glycorine, arborine, glycosminine[70] | ||
Pyrrolidine and piperidine quinazoline derivatives | Vazicine (peganine) [62] | ||
吖啶 類衍生物[62] | Anthranilic acid [71] | Rutacridone, acronicine[72][73] | |
喹啉 類衍生物[74][75] | Simple derivatives of quinoline derivatives of 2 – quinolones and 4-quinolone | Anthranilic acid → 3-carboxyquinoline [76] | Cusparine, echinopsine, evocarpine[75][77][78] |
Tricyclic terpenoids | Flindersine[75][79] | ||
Furanoquinoline derivatives | Dictamnine, fagarine, skimmianine[75][80][81] | ||
Quinines | Tryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) → korinanteal → cinhoninon [42][76] | Quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinhonidine [79] | |
吲哚 類衍生物[57] | 非異戊二烯吲哚生物鹼 | ||
Simple indole derivatives [82] | Tryptophan → tryptamine or 5-hydroxitriptofan [83] | Serotonin, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), bufotenin [84][85] | |
Simple derivatives of β-carboline [86] | Harman, harmine, harmaline, eleagnine [82] | ||
Pyrroloindole alkaloids [87] | Physostigmine (eserine), etheramine, physovenine, eptastigmine[87] | ||
半萜類吲哚生物鹼' | |||
Ergot alkaloids[57] | Tryptophan → chanoclavine → agroclavine → elimoclavine → paspalic acid → lysergic acid [87] | Ergotamine, ergobasine, ergosine[88] | |
單萜吲哚生物鹼 | |||
Corynanthe type alkaloids[83] | Tryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) [83] | Ajmalicine, sarpagine, vobasine, ajmaline, yohimbine, reserpine, mitragynine,[89][90] group strychnine and (Strychnine brucine, aquamicine, vomicine [91]) | |
Iboga-type alkaloids[83] | Ibogamine, ibogaine, voacangine[83] | ||
Aspidosperma-type alkaloids[83] | Vincamine, vinca alkaloids, vincotine, aspidospermine[92][93] | ||
咪唑 類衍生物[62] | Directly from histidine[94] | Histamine, pilocarpine, pilosine, stevensine[62][94] | |
嘌呤 類衍生物[95] | Xanthosine (formed in purine biosynthesis) → 7 methylxantosine → 7-methyl xanthine → theobromine → caffeine [42] | Caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, saxitoxin [96][97] | |
側鏈上含氮原子的生物側鏈鹼 | |||
β-苯乙胺 類衍生物[49] | Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dioxyphenilalanine → dopamine → adrenaline and mescaline tyrosine → tyramine phenylalanine → 1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione → cathinone → ephedrine and pseudoephedrine [38][98][99] | Tyramine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, mescaline, cathinone, catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine)[38][100] | |
秋水仙素 類衍生物 [101] | Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine → autumnaline → colchicine [102] | Colchicine, colchamine[101] | |
毒蕈鹼 [103] | Glutamic acid → 3-ketoglutamic acid → muscarine (with pyruvic acid)[104] | Muscarine, allomuscarine, epimuscarine, epiallomuscarine[103] | |
芐胺[105] | Phenylalanine with valine, leucine or isoleucine[106] | Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, vanillylamine[105][107] | |
多胺生物鹼 | |||
腐胺 衍生物[108] | ornithine → putrescine → spermidine → spermine[109] | Paucine [108] | |
亞精胺 衍生物[108] | Lunarine, codonocarpine[108] | ||
精胺 衍生物[108] | Verbascenine, aphelandrine [108] | ||
Peptide (cyclopeptide) alkaloids | |||
Peptide alkaloids with a 13-membered cycle [110][111] | Nummularine C type | From different amino acids [110] | Nummularine C, Nummularine S [110] |
Ziziphine type | Ziziphine A, sativanine H [110] | ||
Peptide alkaloids with a 14-membered cycle [110][111] | Frangulanine type | Frangulanine, scutianine J [111] | |
Scutianine A type | Scutianine A [110] | ||
Integerrine type | Integerrine, discarine D [111] | ||
Amphibine F type | Amphibine F, spinanine A [110] | ||
Amfibine B type | Amphibine B, lotusine C [110] | ||
Peptide alkaloids with a 15-membered cycle [111] | Mucronine A type | Mucronine A [112][111] | |
Pseudoalkaloids (terpenes and steroids) | |||
Diterpenes [112] | Lycoctonine type | Mevalonic acid → izopentenilpyrophosfate → geranyl pyrophosphate [113][114] | Aconitine, delphinine [112][115] |
Steroids[116] | Cholesterol, arginine[117] | Solasodine, solanidine, veralkamine, batrachotoxin[118] |
參考文獻
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