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女性不孕症:修订间差异

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===依身體部位分類===
===依身體部位分類===

====下丘腦 - 垂體因子====
*{{link-en|下丘腦功能障礙|Hypothalamic dysfunction}}
*{{link-en| 高催乳素血症|Hyperprolactinemia}}<ref>[http://www.getting-pregnant-tips.com/female-infertility.html Female Infertility] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218012801/http://www.getting-pregnant-tips.com/female-infertility.html |date=2010-02-18 }}</ref>

====卵巢因素====
* [[化学疗法]](如前所述),有些藥物的卵巢毒性很高
* 有卵巢存在,不過存在基因缺陷(如前所述)
* [[多囊卵巢綜合症]](參考{{link-en|多囊卵巢綜合症造成的不孕|infertility in polycystic ovary syndrome}})
*{{link-en|無排卵|Anovulation}}。因為無排卵造成的不孕稱為「無排卵不孕」,相對於有排卵但不孕的情形<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hull MG, Savage PE, Bromham DR |title=Anovulatory and ovulatory infertility: results with simplified management |journal=Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) |volume=284 |issue=6330 |pages=1681–5 |date=June 1982 |pmid=6805656 |pmc=1498620 |doi= 10.1136/bmj.284.6330.1681}}</ref>
*{{link-en|卵巢儲備|ovarian reserve}}減少,參考{{link-en|卵巢儲備不足|poor ovarian reserve}}
*{{link-en|過早更年期|Premature menopause}}
*[[更年期]]
*黃體功能障礙<ref>{{EMedicine|med|1340|Luteal Phase Dysfunction}}</ref>
*性腺發育不全([[特纳氏综合征]])
[[卵巢癌]]

====輸卵管(異位)/腹膜因素====
<!---{{Further|輸卵管因素不孕}}--->
*[[子宮內膜異位症]](可以參考{{link-en|子宮內膜異位症及不孕|endometriosis and infertility}})
*盆腔[[沾黏]]
*[[骨盆腔發炎]](簡稱PID,一般是因為[[披衣菌感染]]造成)<ref name="pmid17160569">{{cite journal |vauthors=Guven MA, Dilek U, Pata O, Dilek S, Ciragil P |title=Prevalence of Chlamydia trochomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma hominis infections in the unexplained infertile women |journal=Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. |volume=276 |issue=3 |pages=219–23 |year=2007 |pmid=17160569 |doi=10.1007/s00404-006-0279-z}}</ref>
*輸卵管堵塞
*之前的[[異位妊娠]]。2013的隨機研究發現異位妊娠治療2年後,若是進行放射手術後,成功子宮內懷孕的比例是64%,若使用藥物,懷孕的比例是67%,若是用保守性手術,比例是70%<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fernandez | first1 = H. | last2 = Capmas | first2 = P. | last3 = Lucot | first3 = J. P. | last4 = Resch | first4 = B. | last5 = Panel | first5 = P. | last6 = Bouyer | first6 = J. | doi = 10.1093/humrep/det037 | title = Fertility after ectopic pregnancy: The DEMETER randomized trial | journal = Human Reproduction | volume = 28 | issue = 5 | pages = 1247–1253 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23482340| pmc = }}</ref>。比較起來,40歲以下的女性二年懷孕的累計懷孕比例是90%<ref name=nice2013 />。

====子宮因素====
*[[子宫畸形]]<ref name="pmid9402295">{{cite journal |vauthors=Raga F, Bauset C, Remohi J, Bonilla-Musoles F, Simón C, Pellicer A |title=Reproductive impact of congenital Müllerian anomalies |journal=Hum. Reprod. |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=2277–81 |year=1997 |pmid=9402295 |doi=10.1093/humrep/12.10.2277}}</ref>
*[[子宮肌瘤]]
*{{link-en|阿舍曼綜合徵|Asherman's Syndrome}}<ref name="pmid12470565">{{cite journal |author=Magos A |title=Hysteroscopic treatment of Asherman's syndrome |journal=Reprod. Biomed. Online |volume=4 |issue=Suppl 3 |pages=46–51 |year=2002 |pmid=12470565 |doi=10.1016/s1472-6483(12)60116-3}}</ref>
*沒有原發因素的[[着床]]失敗。即使是在接受{{link-en|胚胎移植|embryo transfer}}後,仍無法成功懷孕。

以往曾認為[[双角子宫]]和不孕有關<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shuiqing M, Xuming B, Jinghe L |title=Pregnancy and its outcome in women with malformed uterus |journal=Chin. Med. Sci. J. |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=242–5 |year=2002 |pmid=12901513 |doi= |url=}}</ref>,不過後來的研究沒有發現其相關性<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Proctor JA, Haney AF |title=Recurrent first trimester pregnancy loss is associated with uterine septum but not with bicornuate uterus |journal=Fertil. Steril. |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=1212–5 |year=2003 |pmid=14607577 |doi= 10.1016/S0015-0282(03)01169-5}}</ref>。

====子宮頸因素====
*{{link-en|子宮頸狹窄|Stenosis of uterine cervix}}<ref name="pmid17877600">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tan Y, Bennett MJ |title=Urinary catheter stent placement for treatment of cervical stenosis |journal=The Australian & New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=406–9 |year=2007 |pmid=17877600 |doi=10.1111/j.1479-828X.2007.00766.x}}</ref>
*{{link-en|抗精子抗體|Antisperm antibodies}}<ref name=":1" />
*非受孕性宮頸[[黏液]]<ref name="pmid7745077">{{cite journal |vauthors=Farhi J, Valentine A, Bahadur G, Shenfield F, Steele SJ, Jacobs HS |title=In-vitro cervical mucus-sperm penetration tests and outcome of infertility treatments in couples with repeatedly negative post-coital tests |journal=Hum. Reprod. |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |year=1995 |pmid=7745077 |doi=10.1093/humrep/10.1.85}}</ref>

====陰道因素====
*[[陰道痙攣]]
*陰道堵塞


==診斷==
==診斷==

2019年9月20日 (五) 16:04的版本

女性不孕症
Female infertility
女性出現生育力低下、不孕月經不規則英语irregular menstruation更年期的累積比例及平均手齡[1]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科婦科學
ICD-11GA31
ICD-10N97.0
ICD-9-CM628.9、​628.8
DiseasesDB4786
MedlinePlus001191
eMedicine274143
[编辑此条目的维基数据]

女性不孕症是發生在女子身上的不孕癥,全球有近5千萬女性受此困擾[2],盛行率在南亞撒哈拉以南非洲北非中東中歐東歐中亞等地區最高[2]。不孕的原因很多,包括(但不限)營養、疾病及其他子宮結構上的異常等。世界各地都有女性不孕的問題,各地因此產生文化上及社會上的羞辱也不同。

成因

女性不孕症的成因,基本上可以依後天疾病、先天遺傳或依受影響的身體部位分類。

雖然病因可以分為先天或後天,但女性不孕症通常多少都受先天与后天因素組合影響。而且,具有任何女性不孕症的單一风险因子(如,吸烟,下面另外補充),不一定就會造成不孕。就算女性確實不孕,就算她現在(或曾經)具有某個風險因子,也無法確認一定是它造成的。

後天

根據美國生殖醫學協會英语American Society for Reproductive Medicine(ASRM)的研究,年齡、吸烟、性病、體重過輕或是過重都會影響女性生育能力[3]

廣義的來看,後天因素包括所有與突变無關的因素,甚至包括胚胎發育期在子宮內接觸到毒素英语Environmental toxicants and fetal development,可能在成年數年後才出現不孕的症狀。

年齡

女性的生育力受其年齡影響。女性初潮的平均年齡在12至13歲(美國約是12.5歲[4],加拿大是12.72歲[5],英國是12.9歲[6])。月經初潮之後的女性,頭一年的月經週期中,80%的月經週期無排卵英语anovulatory;第三年時,有50%的月經週期無排卵;第六年則降到10%[7]。女性生育力高峰出現在20歲初期到中期,之後開始下降,35歲之後下降速度變快。因各研究結果不同,仍無法準確估算特定女性在特定年齡的受孕機率。年齡較長的夫妻成功受孕的機率和許多因素有關,除了女性生育力外,也包括女性的整體健康情形和男性伴侶的生育力。

吸烟

吸菸卵巢有害,受害程度和吸菸(或暴露在二手菸環境中)的總量及持續時間有關。尼古丁以及其他有害的化學物質會影響身體產生雌激素的能力(負責調節卵泡生成英语folliculogenesis排卵)。此外,吸菸也會影響卵泡生成、胚胎運輸、子宮內膜容受性及血管新生、子宮血流及子宮肌層[8],有些損害是不可逆的,但戒菸能避免後續損害發生[9][10]。吸菸者不孕的機率比不吸菸者高60%[11]。接受體外人工受精,吸菸會減少活產機率34%和增加流產機率30%[11]。而且女性吸菸者的更年期會提早約1至4年[12]

性感染疾病

性感染疾病也是造成不孕症的主要原因。它們的症狀通常並不明顯,若未能及時適當治療,將造成生育力下降[9]

體重及飲食失調

不孕的女性中,12%有体重不足超重的情形。除了基本生殖器官外,脂肪細胞也會分泌雌激素[13]。體脂肪過多,會產生過多雌激素,使身體產生類似避孕的反應,降低懷孕的可能性[9]。而體脂肪過少會使雌激素產量不足,影響月經週期[9]。体重不足或是超重的女性都容易發生月經週期不規則,合併排卵異常或不排卵[9]。幼年時充足的營養也是日後正常生育力的來源[14]

一個美國研究指出,不孕的女性中有20%曾經或現在有飲食失調的問題,這個比例比正常人的終生盛行率多五倍[15]

2010年的一篇回顧性研究指出體重過重或是肥胖的低生育力女性,接受生育治療時,成功機率較低、併發症較多且費用更高[16]。假設有1000名接受生育治療的無排卵女性,若體重正常,研究預估約會有800個活產;但若體重過重或肥胖,約會有690個活產。若是正常排卵的女性,若體重正常會有700個活產,體重過重會有550個,而肥胖的會有530個活產[17]。對過重和肥胖女性而言,若無排卵,每次活產所需費用比正常體重女性多54%和100%;若正常排卵,則分別多44%和70%[18]

輻射

輻射暴露造成不孕的風險增加,也和暴露的頻率、輻射功率以及時間長短有關。已有資料指出放射線療法會造成不孕[19],謠傳5G 毫米波可能造成不孕。

卵巢吸收的輻射量決定不育是否發生。高劑量會破壞卵巢中部分或全部的卵,並可能導致不孕或早期停經。

化療

化療導致不孕的風險很高。不孕風險高的化療藥物有丙卡巴肼以及其他烷基化藥物,例如環磷酰胺異環磷酰胺白消安美法崙英语melphalan苯丁酸氮芥氮芥[20]。不孕風險中等的化療藥物有阿黴素和含鉑類藥物(例如順鉑卡鉑[20]。另外一方面,生殖毒性風險低的化療藥物包括植物提煉的物質(如長春新鹼長春鹼)、抗生素(如博來黴素放線菌素)及抗代謝物(如甲氨蝶呤巰基嘌呤5-氟尿嘧啶[20]

化療引起的女性不孕主因是原始卵泡英语primordial follicles消失造成的卵巢早衰英语premature ovarian failure[21]。消失不一定是化療藥物本身直接的作用,但可能源自為了取代受損卵泡而造成的生長加速[21]。在經過三個療程的化療後,竇卵泡計數英语Antral follicle count減少。然而在四個療程後,促卵泡激素(FSH)會達到停經時的濃度[22]。化療後的其它荷爾蒙的變化包括抑制素 B抗穆氏管荷爾蒙濃度下降[22]

女性在接受化療之前,有許多可以保存生育能力英语fertility preservation的方式,例如將卵巢組織、卵母細胞甚至胚胎進行深低溫保存[23]

免疫性不孕

抗精子抗體英语Antisperm antibodies(ASA)造成的不孕,在不孕伴侶中約占10%至30%[24]。抗精子抗體會直接攻擊精子上的表面抗原,這會影響精子的活動力及其在女性生殖道中移動的能力、阻礙精子的獲能作用頂體反應英语acrosome reaction、抑制受精、影響胚胎著床以及後續的生長及發育。女性形成抗精子抗體的危險因子包括:免疫調節機制錯亂、感染、黏膜完整性破損、受到強姦或是進行沒有防護措施的肛交或口交[24][25]

其他後天因素

遺傳因素

許多基因的突變會造成不孕,如下表所示。還有其它情況與女性不孕有關,它們可能是基因病變引發,但尚未找到致病的單一基因,例如苗勒管发育不全(MRKH)[36]。最後,還有不知為數多少的基因突變會造成生育力低下,它們可能受其它額外因素(如:環境)影響而造成完全不孕。

造成女性不孕的染色体畸变包括了特纳氏综合征。特纳氏症的女性患者,需由其他婦女捐卵完成人工生育[37]

有些基因或染色体異常可能會導致間性,例如雄激素不敏感症英语androgen insensitivity syndrome

突变後會造成不孕的基因[38]
基因 編碼的蛋白質 缺乏的影響
BMP15英语BMP15 骨塑型蛋白 15英语Bone morphogenetic protein 15 高促性腺激素性卵巢衰竭(POF4)
BMPR1B英语BMPR1B 骨塑型蛋白受體 1B英语Bone morphogenetic protein receptor 1B 卵巢功能障礙、高促性腺激素性性腺功能低下症英语Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism、肢端肢中部骨骺軟骨發育不良(acromesomelic chondrodysplasia)
CBX2英语CBX2 (gene)M33 染色盒蛋白質同源物 2(Chromobox protein homolog 2)、果蠅多梳家族蛋白(Drosophila polycomb class)

體染色體 46,XY,男變女的性別轉換(表現型上是正常女性)

CHD7英语CHD7 染色質結構域解旋酶DNA结合蛋白7(Chromodomain-helicase-DNA-binding protein 7) CHARGE聯合畸形卡门氏症候群(KAL5)
DIAPH2英语DIAPH2 DIAPH2蛋白 高促性腺激素性卵巢早衰(POF2A)
FGF8英语FGF8 成纖維細胞生長因子 8英语FGF8 嗅覺正常的低促性腺激素性性腺功能低下症及卡門氏症候群(KAL6)
FGFR1英语FGFR1 成纖維細胞生長因子受體 1英语Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 卡门氏症候群(KAL2)
HFM1英语HFM1 原發性卵巢功能衰竭英语Primary ovarian failure[39]
FSHR 促卵泡激素受体 高促性腺激素性性腺功能低下症及卵巢过激综合征英语Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
FSHB 促卵泡激素β亚基 促卵泡激素不足,原發性無月經症及不孕
FOXL2英语FOXL2 FOX蛋白L2英语Forkhead Box Protein L2 和第一型先天性家族性瞼口狹小症(BPES)有關的孤立性卵巢早衰(POF3); FOXL2 402C 變成 G 的突變和卵巢顆粒細胞瘤有關
FMR1英语FMR1 X染色體脆折症英语Fragile X mental retardation 和潛在突變有關的卵巢早衰(POF1)
GNRH1 促性腺激素释放激素 正常嗅觉低性腺激素性性腺功能減退症(nHH)
GNRHR英语GNRHR GnRH受體英语GnRH receptor 低性腺激素性性腺功能減退症英语Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
KAL1英语KAL1 卡门氏症候群 低性腺激素性性腺功能減退症及失眠,X染色體串聯的卡门氏症候群(KAL1)
KISS1R英语KISS1R,GPR54 KISS1受體 低性腺激素性性腺功能減退症
LHB 黄体生成素β亚基 性腺功能減退症及假雌雄同体
LHCGR 黄体生成素/绒毛膜促性腺激素受体 高性腺激素性性腺功能減退症(luteinizing hormone resistance)
DAX1英语DAX1 X染色体上与剂量敏感的性逆转-先天肾上腺发育不全相关基因-1英语Dosage-sensitive sex reversal, adrenal hypoplasia critical region, on chromosome X, gene 1 X染色體串聯先天性腎上腺發育不全,伴隨著低性腺激素性性腺功能減退症,剂量敏感,由男變女的性逆转
NR5A1英语NR5A1SF1英语SF1 (gene) 類固醇生成因子1英语Steroidogenic factor 1 染色体46,XY男變女的性別轉換,性腺退化,先天性脂質腎上腺增生,染色体46,XX性腺發育不全,以及染色体46,XX 原發性卵巢功能不全
POF1B英语POF1B 1B型卵巢早衰 促性腺激素過多,原發性無月經(POF2B)
PROK2 激肽原英语Prokineticin 正常嗅觉低性腺激素性性腺功能減退症及卡门氏症候群(KAL4)
PROKR2英语PROKR2 激肽原受體 2英语Prokineticin receptor 2 卡门氏症候群(KAL3)
RSPO1英语RSPO1 R-spondin家族,成員1 染色体46,XX,女變男的性別轉換
SRY SRY基因 Mutations lead to 46,XY females; translocations lead to 46,XX males
SCNN1A英语SCNN1A 上皮組織鈉通道英语Epithelial sodium channel(ENaC)的Alpha亞基 無義突變,導致女性生殖道ENaC的表達缺陷[40]
SOX9 SRY相關的HMB盒基因9
STAG3英语STAG3 (gene) 基质抗原3英语Stromal antigen 3 卵巢早衰英语Premature ovarian failure[41]
TAC3英语TAC3 速激肽3(Tachykinin 3) 正常嗅觉低性腺激素性性腺功能減退症
TACR3英语TACR3 速激肽受体3英语Tachykinin receptor 3 正常嗅觉低性腺激素性性腺功能減退症
ZP1英语ZP1 透明帶糖蛋白1英语zona pellucida glycoprotein 1 功能不良的透明帶形成[42]

依身體部位分類

下丘腦 - 垂體因子

卵巢因素

卵巢癌

輸卵管(異位)/腹膜因素

子宮因素

以往曾認為双角子宫和不孕有關[51],不過後來的研究沒有發現其相關性[52]

子宮頸因素

陰道因素

診斷

英國國家健康與照顧卓越研究院英语National Institute for Health and Care Excellence(NICE)表示:“如適齡女性在經過一年無避孕措施的阴道性交之後還不能懷孕,且不明不孕原因時,應當和她的伴侶一起接受進一步的醫療診斷”[48]。如果該女子已經超過35歲,更應該盡早咨詢醫生[48]世界衛生組織也將時間定為一年[55]

相關條目

參考文獻

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外部連結