吠陀宗教
（重定向自婆羅門教）
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史上的吠陀宗教（英語：historical Vedic religion），亦稱為吠陀教（Vedism）或婆羅門教（Brahmanism），有時也稱為古代印度教（ancient Hinduism）或是吠陀印度教（Vedic Hinduism），[a] 在吠陀時期（約公元前1500–500年）構成，盛行於居住於印度次大陸西北部（旁遮普地區和恆河平原西部）印度-雅利安人當中的宗教思想和儀式。[3][4][5][6]這些思想和儀式於吠陀經中可見，且部分吠陀儀式至今仍在使用。[7][8][9]吠陀宗教是塑造現代印度教的主要傳統之一，但當今的印度教與史上的吠陀宗教有顯著不同（參見印度教歷史）。[5][10][a]
吠陀宗教的根源可追溯到歐亞大草原的辛塔什塔文化（約公元前2200–1750年）和安德羅諾沃文化（約公元前2000–1150年）的印度-伊朗人文化和宗教。[11][b]這種印度-伊朗人宗教借用中亞南部非印度-雅利安人的巴克特里亞·馬爾吉亞納文明（簡稱BMAC，公元前2250–1700年）的"獨特宗教信仰和習俗"。[12][c]當時印度-雅利安人遊牧部落在公元前二千年初曾以一個獨立的群體形式停留在此地。印度-雅利安人部落從BMAC所在地遷徙到印度次大陸西北部地區，在早期吠陀時期（約公元前1500–1100年）於此處發展出吠陀宗教，成為印度-雅利安人宗教的一個變體，發展過程中也受到晚期印度河流域文明（公元前2600–1900年）殘餘部分的影響。[13]
婆羅門教在吠陀晚期（約公元前1100–500年）從吠陀宗教中發展而出，成為俱盧-般遮羅領域的一種意識形態。等到俱盧-般遮羅領域衰亡以及非吠陀的摩揭陀文化圈佔據主導地位之後，婆羅門教反而擴展到更廣泛的地區。婆羅門教是塑造當代印度教的主要影響因素之一，當時它與恆河平原東部非吠陀的印度-雅利安人宗教遺產以及地方宗教傳統相融合，也促成佛教和耆那教的興起。[1][2][web 1][14][a]
吠陀宗教的特定儀式和獻祭包括：蘇摩儀式，涉及供奉的火焰崇拜（護摩），以及馬祭。[15][16]自《梨俱吠陀》時期開始，即可見到土葬和火葬的儀式。[17]吠陀宗教中強調的神祇有特尤斯、因陀羅、阿耆尼、樓陀羅和伐樓拿，重要的倫理概念則包括"諦"（真實）和"ṛta"（宇宙秩序）。
用語
[编辑]吠陀教與婆羅門教
[编辑]吠陀教指的是最古老形式的吠陀宗教，當時印度-雅利安人在公元前二千年之間分多波進入印度河谷。婆羅門教指的是在吠陀晚期於印度河-恆河盆地進一步發展出的形式，形成的時間約在公元前1000年左右。[18][d]根據荷蘭印度學家和宗教史學家揚·C·海斯特曼的說法："其之所以被廣泛稱為婆羅門教，是因為在此宗教和法律上，社會中的婆羅門（即祭司）階級享有重要地位。[18]《梵書》和早期《奧義書》在吠陀晚期被編纂完成。[19]吠陀教和婆羅門教都將《吠陀經》視為聖典，但婆羅門教更具包容性，它整合《吠陀經》以外的教義和主題，並納入對印度教宗教生活極重要的非吠陀元素，例如：寺廟崇拜、供奉、冥想、棄絕、素食主義以及尊崇上師（guru）等。[18]
古代印度教與吠陀印度教
[编辑]古代印度教和吠陀印度教等名稱也曾用於指稱古代的吠陀宗教。[a]
根據德國印度學家海因里希·馮·施蒂滕克龍的說法，19世紀的西方出版物中有認為吠陀宗教與印度教不同，而且不相關。他們當時認為真正的印度教是透過《往世書》和印度史詩為基礎，並結和基於家庭祭司、怛特羅密教和巴克蒂的教派而形成。[20]為回應西方殖民主義和新教在印度次大陸進行的傳教活動，發生於19世紀末和20世紀初的印度教改革運動，其中最具代表性的有婆羅門社會和新吠檀多派，這些改革者認為當時流行的"往世書印度教（Puranic Hinduism）"充斥迷信，已偏離古老的吠陀教義。因此他們提倡"回歸吠陀經"，試圖重建一個他們所"想像"[21]出來的原始、理性且一神論的古代印度教。他們的目標是讓這種經過淨化的印度教，能在道德與理性上與新教平起平坐。[20][22]
新印度教在20世紀對吠陀經根源的強調，以及對吠陀宗教及其與當代印度教共享的遺產，和在神學中有更深入的理解，使得學者們將歷史上的吠陀宗教視為現代印度教的祖先。[20]現在普遍接受史上的吠陀宗教為現代印度教的前身，但兩者並不相同，因為文獻證據顯示兩者之間存在顯著差異。[a]差異中包括相信來世，而非後來發展出來的輪迴概念。[23]雖然"通常的說法是，史上的印度教始於公元初左右"，當時"構成印度教傳統的關鍵趨勢和核心要素集體匯聚"，[24]。但一些學者已開始將"印度教"這個名稱視為不僅包括近代的融合，還涵蓋吠陀教和婆羅門教。[25]
起源與發展
[编辑]印度-雅利安人吠陀宗教
[编辑]吠陀宗教指的是部分吠陀印度-雅利安人部落，即"雅利安人"[26][27][e]的宗教信仰。這些部落在印度河流域文明崩潰後遷徙至印度次大陸的印度河谷地區。[3][b]吠陀宗教及其後繼的婆羅門教，以《吠陀經》的神話和儀式意識形態為核心，這與訴諸非吠陀文獻權威的阿含教、怛特羅密教和宗派形式的印度宗教有所區別。[3]吠陀宗教記載於《吠陀經》中，並與大量的吠陀文獻相關，包括早期《奧義書》，由不同的祭司學派保存至今。[3][29]該宗教在早期吠陀時期（約公元前1500–1100年）存在於恆河平原西部，[30][f]並在吠陀晚期（約公元前1100–500年）發展為婆羅門教。[14][33]恆河平原東部則由另一個印度-雅利安人群體主導，他們拒絕後來的婆羅門意識形態，並促成耆那教、佛教和孔雀王朝的興起。[1][2]
印歐根源與融合
[编辑]印度-雅利安人使用的語言是印歐語系中的一個分支，此分支起源於辛塔什塔文化，並進一步發展成安德羅諾沃文化，而後者又源自中亞大草原的庫爾干文化。[11][b][g]早期吠陀時代普遍被認為可追溯至公元前二千年。[53]
前古典時期的吠陀信仰與習俗與假定的原始印歐宗教密切相關，[54][h]並顯示出與安德羅諾沃文化儀式的關聯，而印度-雅利安人就是源自此文化。[55]根據美國人類學家大衛·W·安東尼的說法，古印度宗教可能在印歐移民於澤拉夫尚河（於今日烏茲別克斯坦）和（今）伊朗之間的接觸區域中出現。[56]它是一種"古老中亞元素與新印歐元素的融合混合"，[56]其中從BMAC借用"獨特的宗教信仰和習俗"。[12]非印歐語系中至少有383個詞彙從此文化中借用，包括因陀羅和蘇摩儀式飲品，這些詞彙的存在支持這種融合影響的說法。[57]大衛·W·安東尼說：
古印度語 - 即《梨俱吠陀》中所用的語言 - 最古老的銘文於敘利亞北部的米坦尼王國所在地被發現。[58]米坦尼國王使用古印度語的王位名稱，且在騎馬和駕馭戰車方面也使用古印度語的專業術語。[58]古印度語用語"r′ta"意為"宇宙秩序與真理" ，是《梨俱吠陀》的核心概念，也曾被米坦尼王國採用。包括因陀羅在內的古印度神祇在米坦尼王國中也廣為人知。[59][60][61]
南亞影響
[编辑]吠陀宗教是"印度-雅利安人和哈拉帕文化（即印度河流域文明）及文明複合體"下的產物。[62]美國印度學學者大衛·戈登·懷特於2003年引用其他三位學者的觀點，這些學者"已明確證明"吠陀宗教部分源自於印度河流域文明。[63]
目前尚不清楚各種吠陀文獻中的理論是否確實反映吠陀宗教的民間習俗、圖像學和其他實際面向。因為印度-雅利安人在公元前1100年後遷徙到恆河平原，定居而成為農民，[14][64][65]進一步與印度北部的本土文化進行融合，導致吠陀宗教發生變化。[2][3]有證據顯示吠陀宗教朝著"兩個表面上相互矛盾的方向"演變：
- 一個是越來越"精細、昂貴且專業化的儀式系統"，[66]它存續於現今的室羅多儀式中、[67]
- 另一個是將"對儀式和宇宙思辨背後原則的抽象化與內化"，即在自身內部進行探尋，[66][68]此類似於耆那教和佛教的傳統。
史上吠陀宗教的某些方面至今仍在延續。例如南布迪里婆羅門持續進行古老的"室羅多"儀式，而複雜的吠陀"室羅多"儀式仍在喀拉拉邦和安德拉邦沿海地區施行。[69]居住在巴基斯坦西北部的卡拉什人也繼續舉行一種古代吠陀宗教的儀式。[67][i]德裔美國學者邁克爾·維策爾也提出日本的本土宗教神道，含有一些源自古代吠陀宗教的影響。[74][75]
婆羅門教
[编辑]史上的婆羅門教
[编辑]婆羅門教，亦稱為"婆羅門主義"或"婆羅門式印度教"，是從吠陀宗教發展而來，它吸納非吠陀的宗教觀念，並把影響區域從印度次大陸西北部擴展至恆河谷地區。[3][14]婆羅門教包含吠陀文獻全集，但也涵蓋後吠陀文獻，例如《法經》和《法論》，這些文獻賦予社會中的祭司（Brahmin，即婆羅門種姓）以突出的地位。[3]揚·C·海斯特曼也提到後吠陀的《斯姆里蒂》（Smriti，即《往世書》和《史詩》），[3]這些文獻也被納入後來的 "斯馬爾塔傳統中。這種強調儀式以及婆羅門主導，最初是作為俱盧-般遮羅領域的一種意識形態發展而成。在俱盧-般遮羅王國衰亡，[14]並被納入以摩揭陀為基礎的帝國之後，它擴展到更廣泛的地區。並與地方宗教（例如夜叉崇拜）共存。[2][76][77]
"婆羅門教"（葡萄牙語：Bramanismo,英語：Brahmanism）這個名詞是由葡萄牙耶穌會士貢薩洛·費爾南德斯·特朗科索（Jesuit Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso）於17世紀初所創。[78]史上至今仍有一些現代作者使用Brahmanism用來指稱印度教，將其視為印度教的同義字，交替使用。[79][80]美國宗教學學者麥可·S·艾倫（Michael S. Allen）批評用"婆羅門教"來涵蓋更廣泛的吠陀傳統的做法，他認為這樣會模糊非婆羅門人士對該傳統的貢獻。[81]婆羅門教在18世紀和19世紀，是英語中最常用來指代印度教的名稱。婆羅門教重視早期《奧義書》中關於"絕對實相"（Brahman，即"梵"）的思辨，這些思辨源於吠陀晚期的後吠陀思想，因為這些名詞在詞源上相關。[4][82][83][84]"梵"的概念被假定為宇宙創造之前就存在的實體，之後所有的存在皆由其構成，宇宙則溶於其中，隨後是類似的，無休止的創造−維護−毀滅間的循環。[85][86][87][j]
婆羅門教在後吠陀時期中的第二次城市化時開始衰落。[88][89]當時有多種政治因素威脅到鄉村婆羅門的收入和贊助取得，包括：沙門運動興起、東部有來自摩揭陀的帝國（包括難陀王朝和孔雀王朝）的征伐，[90][91]以及印度次大陸西北部的外族入侵和外國統治（繼而建立新的政治實體）。[33]婆羅門教透過提供新的服務，[92]並整合恆河平原東部的非吠陀印度-雅利安人宗教遺產和地方宗教傳統來克服困境，而促成當代印度教興起。[33][web 1][2][1][14][3][a]這種"新婆羅門教"吸引統治者，他們被婆羅門能提供的"超自然力量"和"實用建議"所吸引。[92]繼而導致婆羅門影響力復甦，並自公元初的印度教古典時代開始主導印度社會。[33]
作為一論戰性用語
[编辑]如今，"婆羅門教"（Brahmanism）與"婆羅門主義"（Brahminism）交替使用，有幾種用法。用來指稱在"室羅多"儀式中保留的特定婆羅門儀式和世界觀，這與那些（婆羅門儀式和世界觀）幾乎沒有聯繫的、範圍廣泛的民間祭祀活動截然不同。婆羅門主義也特別指稱婆羅門的意識形態，此意識形態認為婆羅門是天生享有特權、有權統治和主導社會的人。[93]這個名稱經常被反婆羅門的批評者使用，他們反對婆羅門對印度社會的統治及其排他性意識形態。[94]他們遵循19世紀殖民統治者的思路，這些統治者將印度文化視為腐敗和墮落，並將其人口視為非理性者。在這種源自基督教對宗教理解的觀點中，原本"上帝賦予的宗教" 被祭司（即婆羅門）及其宗教"婆羅門主義"所腐蝕，而後者被認為是強加到印度民眾之上的。[95]改革派印度教徒和像B.R.安倍德卡這樣的人，也以類似的思路構建他們對婆羅門主義的批評。[95]
文獻歷史
[编辑]
吠陀時期的文獻是以吠陀梵語寫成，主要包括四部《吠陀本集》，但《梵書》、《森林書》以及一些較古老的《奧義書》[k]也被歸為此時期的作品。《吠陀經》記載有與儀式和獻祭相關的禮儀。這些文獻也被視為當代印度教聖典的一部分。[96]
特徵
[编辑]輪迴的概念，並未在史上吠陀宗教文獻的早期層次（例如《梨俱吠陀》）中提及。[100][101]根據印度學者、哲學家與神祕主義者拉姆錢德拉·達塔特里亞·拉納德的說法，《梨俱吠陀》的較晚層次確實提到暗示趨向於重生概念的思想。[102][103]
《吠陀經》的早期層次並未提及業和重生的教義，但提到來世的信仰。[104][105]根據當代美國宗教學者馬修·R·賽耶斯（Matthew R. Sayers） 的說法，這些最古老的吠陀文獻層次展現祖先崇拜和儀式，例如"施拉達"（向祖先供奉食物）。較晚的吠陀文獻，例如《森林書》和《奧義書》，則展現基於輪迴，但不相同的救贖論，它們很少關注祭祀祖先儀式，但開始對早期的儀式進行哲學詮釋。[106][107][108]輪迴和業的思想植根於吠陀晚期的《奧義書》，早於釋迦摩尼和筏馱摩那（也稱大雄）的出現。[109][23]同樣地，吠陀文獻的較晚層次，例如《廣林奧義書》（約公元前800年），在其第4.4節中討論業報學說的最早形式，以及因果關係。[110][111]
古代吠陀宗教缺乏對輪迴或涅槃等概念的信仰。它是一種具有多神論和泛神論面向，複雜泛靈論宗教。祖先崇拜是古代吠陀宗教的一個重要，甚至可能是核心部分。祖先崇拜的元素至今仍以"施拉達"的形式在現代印度教中普遍存在。[112]
根據在美國任教的梵文與印度宗教學教授派崔克·奧利維爾的說法，一些學者認為棄絕（或稱遁世）傳統是"吠陀宗教文化中思想的有機和邏輯發展"，而另一些學者則認為這些思想是源自"本土非雅利安人口"。這場學術爭論由來已久，且仍在持續中。[113]
儀式
[编辑]
吠陀宗教的特定儀式和祭祀，包括（但不限於）：[15]
- 涉及供奉的火焰崇拜：
- "帕舒班杜"("Pashubandhu")，即（半）年度動物獻祭[114]
- "蘇摩儀式 "("Soma rituals")，涉及蘇摩的製作、使用和飲用：[114]
- 王祭（為國王進行加冕的神聖典禮）
- "馬祭" ("aśvamedha")，即獻給王國或帝國榮耀、福祉和繁榮的耶若[16]
- "人祭（"Purushamedha"，後世學者在是否為模擬人祭，或是真的殺人獻祭仍有爭辯[114]
- "《阿闥婆吠陀》" ("Atharvaveda") 中提及的儀式和符咒與醫學和治療有關[116]
- "牛祭" ("Gomedha")：
- 《夜柔吠陀》 的《鷓鴣氏梵書》 （"Taittiriya Brahmana"）中提及根據神祇選擇用於獻祭用牛的指示[117]
- "五舍利夜祭" ("Panchasaradiya sava") – 每五年舉行一次，祭祀過程中會獻祭十七頭母牛。《鷓鴣氏梵書》主張那些希望成就偉大事業的人應當舉行此五舍利夜祭。[117]
- "蘇拉加瓦祭" ("Sulagava") – 是一種獻上烤牛肉的祭祀儀式。此儀式在《"家宅經"》（"Grihya Sutra"）中有所提及。[117]
- 根據印度學者和歷史學家拉金德拉拉爾·米特拉 （Raja Rajendralal Mitra）博士的說法，如《阿濕婆羅延家宅經》 (Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Sūtra)中的詳述，所獻祭的動物是供人食用。《高巴塔梵書》 ("The Gopatha Brahmana") 列出不同的人將會領取的不同部位，例如："祭祀官爾塔" ("Pratiharta"，領取頸部和駝峰)、"歌唱官" ("Udgatr")、"引導官" ("Neshta")、"督導官"("Sadasya")、舉行獻祭的戶主（領取兩隻右腳），以及他的妻子（領取兩隻左腳）等等。[117]
印度教的火葬儀式自《梨俱吠陀》時期便已可見。雖然它們從早期就在H墓地文化中得到證明，但在《梨俱吠陀》後期一節經文（10.15.14）在召喚祖先時，是同時提及"已火化"和"未火化"這兩類亡者。顯示在吠陀晚期，土葬和火葬可能仍是並存的儀式傳統。
眾神系統
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《梨俱吠陀》中記載大量的神祇名稱，但從神學角度來看，吠陀眾神總數始終被界定為三十三位。[118]這三十三位神祇平均分佈於宇宙的三個層次：大地、空間和天堂，每一層各有十一位神祇。吠陀眾神系統有兩大類：提婆和阿修羅（後者有時被視為暴力的神靈）。提婆（如密特拉、伐樓拿、阿利雅曼、跋伽、安舍等）是宇宙和社會秩序的神祇，其管轄範圍從宇宙和王國下至個體。《梨俱吠陀》是一部讚美各種神祇的頌歌集，其中最著名的是英雄因陀羅、祭祀之火和諸神使者阿耆尼，以及印度-伊朗人的神聖飲品蘇摩的神格化。[119]同樣突出的是伐樓拿（通常與密特拉成對出現）以及一切神，是所有神祇的群體。[120]
聖賢
[编辑]於這個時代的印度教傳統中，受人尊敬的聖賢有：耶若伐客耶、[121][122]阿闥婆、[123]阿低利、[124]婆羅墮若、[125]喬達摩、賈馬達格尼（持火仙人）、[126]迦葉佛、[127]婆私吒、[128]苾力古、[129]俱薩、[130]補羅斯底耶、克拉圖、補羅訶、眾友仙人、迦那瓦、勒沙婆、婆摩提婆，以及鴦耆羅仙人 ("Angiras")。
倫理 – "諦"與"理"
[编辑]《吠陀經》 中的倫理基於像諦和理 ("ṛta") 這樣的概念。[131]
在《吠陀經》和後來的 《契經》 中，諦的含義演變為一個關於真實性的倫理概念，並被認為是一種重要的美德。[132][133]它代表一個人的思想、言語和行動都應真實，並與現實保持一致。[132]
吠陀的理及其阿維斯陀語的對應字阿沙·瓦希什塔，都被一些人認為源自原始印歐度-伊朗語的*Hr̥tás（真實）。[134]而這個字可能又延續自可能的原始印歐語 *h₂r-tós （恰當地結合、正確、真實），來自一個假定的字根 *h₂er-。其衍生名詞理 ("ṛta") 被定義為"固定或既定的秩序、規則、神聖的法則或真實"。[135]然而，正如宗教學者威廉·K·馬洪尼（William K. Mahony於1998年所指出的，這個名詞可被翻譯為"以適當方式移動的事物" – 然而這個意思並未被權威的梵語字典實際引用，但它是動詞詞根的常規衍生 - 其抽象含義是"普世法則"或"宇宙秩序"，或僅僅是"真實"。[136]後者的含義在理的阿維斯陀語同源字"阿沙"中佔據主導地位。[137]
由於吠陀梵語的性質，"理"這個名詞可直接或間接地用來指代眾多事物。因此，無論是印度學者還是歐洲學者，在對"理"在《吠陀經》中所有各種用法進行恰當的詮釋時，都遇到困難，但其"有序行動"的潛在含義仍然普遍明確。[138]
這個名詞也出現在原始印度-伊朗宗教中，即印度-伊朗民族的宗教。[139]"法"這個名詞早已被用於後來的婆羅門思想中，它在那裡被視為"理"的一個方面。[140]
吠陀神話
[编辑]吠陀儀式的核心神話圍繞著因陀羅：他飲用蘇摩後醉了，殺死弗栗多（巨蛇 - "ahi"），將河流、牛群和黎明釋放。
吠陀神話包含許多與印歐神話傳統共通的元素，例如波斯、古希臘、古羅馬的神話，以及凱爾特人、日耳曼人、波羅的地區人和斯拉夫人的神話。吠陀神祇因陀羅在某種程度上與特尤斯 (天空之父，吠陀教神話)、宙斯和朱比特（古希臘神話）、索爾和提爾（北歐神話），或是霹隆（斯拉夫神話）相對應。死亡之主閻摩，被假設與波斯神話中的賈姆希德相關。吠陀讚美詩中提到這些和其他神祇，通常是33位，包括8位婆藪 、11位樓陀羅、12位阿底提耶，以及在《梨俱吠陀》後期出現的生主。這些神祇分屬於宇宙的三個區域：天堂、大地和中間空間。
吠陀傳統中的一些主要神祇有：因陀羅、特尤斯、蘇利耶、阿耆尼、烏莎斯、伐由、伐樓拿、密特拉、阿底提、閻摩、蘇摩、辯才天女、頗哩提毗，以及樓陀羅。[141]
後吠陀宗教
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吠陀時期被認為大約結束於公元前500年。公元前800年至公元前200年這段時期是後來的印度教、耆那教和佛教的形成期。[144][145]根據海德堡大學教授阿克塞爾·邁克爾斯的說法，公元前500年至公元前200年是"苦修改革主義"的時期，[146]而公元前200年至公元1100年則是"古典印度教"時期，阿克塞爾·邁克爾斯強調，這整個階段構成一個重要的轉捩點，標誌著吠陀宗教向後來的印度教的轉變與形成。[10]美國宗教學教授和哲學家馬克·W·穆斯則劃定一個更長的轉變期，即公元前800年至公元前200年，並稱之為古典時期。他強調傳統的宗教儀式和信仰在這個時期受到重新審視，其中最顯著的變化是婆羅門及其所主持的儀式，不再擁有像它們在吠陀時期那樣的崇高威望。[147]
印度教由婆羅門教發展而來，但兩者之間存在著顯著的不同。[a]然而人們為方便計，通常還是會使用印度教這一個單一名稱來涵蓋所有這些相互關聯的複雜宗教傳統。[5]從古代婆羅門教到印度教各學派的轉變是一種與非吠陀傳統互動的演化形式。這種轉變保留《吠陀經》中的許多核心思想和神智學，同時協同整合非吠陀的思想。[1][2][14][148][l]印度教內部的吠檀多、數論和瑜伽等學派，都和佛教一樣，共同關注如何從世間存在的痛苦中獲得解脫。[157]
正統儀式的延續
[编辑]根據阿克塞爾·邁克爾斯的說法，吠陀神祇雖已衰落，但並未消失，而地方崇拜被同化進入吠陀-婆羅門眾神系統中，這個系統後來演變為印度教眾神系統。像濕婆和毗濕奴這樣的神祇變得更加突出，並催生出濕婆教和毗濕奴派。[158]
根據美國宗教學歷史學家大衛·M·奈佩的說法，印度的一些社群保留，並持續實施史上吠陀宗教的部分內容，例如在喀拉拉邦和安德拉邦等仍可見到。[7]根據邁克爾·維策爾的說法，卡拉什人的一些儀式具有歷史上吠陀宗教的元素，但也存在一些差異，例如火是放置在祭壇旁邊，而非像吠陀宗教那樣放置在祭壇之中。[8][9]
彌曼差與吠檀多
[编辑]彌曼差哲學家主張沒必要為世界假設一位"創造者"，就像無需一位作者來創作《吠陀經》，或一位神祇來驗證儀式的有效性一樣。[159]彌曼差主張《吠陀進》 中命名的神祇，除"念誦他們名字的咒語"之外，並不獨立存在。因此"咒語的力量"即被視為"神祇的力量"。[160]
關於吠陀傳統在《奧義書》中的延續，美國宗教學者和印度學家珍妮安·D·福勒 (Jeaneane D. Fowler)寫道：
| “ | 儘管《奧義書》與《吠陀經》之間存在根本性質上的差異，但必須記住，兩者的材料共同構成《吠陀經》，即"知識"，屬於"天啟文學"。因此，《奧義書》將《吠陀》的思想發展超越其儀式形式主義，不應被視為與之互為獨立。事實上，在吠檀多中被特別強調的是：吠陀儀式的功效並未被否定，只是人們開始尋求賦予該儀式意義的"實相"。[161] | ” |
《奧義書》 逐漸演變為吠檀多，後者是印度教內部的主要思想流派之一。吠檀多的字面意義就是"吠陀的終結" 。因此，該學派自認為代表"《吠陀經》的" 最終旨趣或目標" ，亦即《吠陀經》所追求的終極真理。[162]
沙門傳統
[编辑]非吠陀的"沙門"傳統與婆羅門教並存。[163][164][m][165][166]這些傳統並非直接源自吠陀教，而是與婆羅門傳統之間相互影響的運動，[163]它們反映出"印度東北部一個更古老、前雅利安上層階級的宇宙學和人類學"。[167]耆那教和佛教都由沙門傳統演變而來。[168]
耆那教文獻提到22位史前的蒂爾丹嘉拉（即筏師或開拓者)。根據這種觀點，耆那教在大雄 (傳統上定位在公元前6世紀) 的時代達到頂峰。[169][170]相較之下，佛教（約始於公元前500年）在印度本土的命運則大不相同。佛教從公元5世紀到12世紀，由於往世書印度教（Puranic Hinduism）的興起以及伊斯蘭教傳入，而在其發源地逐漸走向衰落。[171][172][173]
參閱
[编辑]
註記
[编辑]- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Scholars such as Jan Gonda have used the term ancient Hinduism, distinguishing it from "recent Hinduism".
Jamison & Witzel (1992，第3頁) use the term "Vedic Hinduism," but state:"... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism".
Michaels (2004，第38頁) also emphasizes the differences: "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
See also Halbfass (1991，第1–2頁)
The Encyclopædia Britannica explains that from the Vedic religion emerged Brahmanism, a religious tradition of ancient India. It states, "Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about Brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas, or scriptures)." From Brahmanism developed Hinduism, when it was synthesized, around the start of the Common Era, with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and with local religious traditions; see Witzel 1995; Hiltebeitel 2002; Samuel 2010; Welbon 2004; Bronkhorst 2007. - ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[14] who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization,[28][34][35] bringing with them their language[36] and religion.[37][38] They were closely related to the Indo-Aryans who founded Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria[39] (c.1500–1300 BCE).
Both groups were rooted in the Andronovo-culture[40] in the Bactria–Margiana era, in present northern Afghanistan,[39] and related to the Indo-Iranians, from which they split off around 1800–1600 BCE.[41] Their roots go back further to the Sintashta culture, with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rig Veda.[42]
The immigrations consisted probably of small groups of people.[11] Kenoyer (1998) notes that "there is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Harappan phase, about 1900 B.C. and the beginning of the Early Historic period around 600 B.C."[43]
For an overview of the current relevant research, see the following references.[44][45][46][11] - ^ BMAC-influences:
- Beckwith (2011，第32頁): "Although the Indo-Europeans settled in new lands, in some cases (such as Greece) evidently by conquest, they did not always dominate the local people in the beginning. Instead, they often served the local peoples as mercenary warriors, or came under their domination in general. In either case, the Indo-European migrants–who were mostly men–married local women and, by mixing with them, developed their distinctive creole dialect features. The most influential of the new dialects was Proto-Indo-Iranian, the speakers of which appear to have been influenced linguistically by a non-Indo-European people from whom the Indo-Iranians borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The locus of this convergence is increasingly thought to have been the area of the advanced, non-Indo-European-speaking Bactria–Margiana Culture's centred on what is now northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. The other Indo-Europeans developed different dialects and beliefs under the influence of other non-Indo-European languages and cultures."
- Anthony (2007，第454–455頁) states that at least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma, which was "probably borrowed from the BMAC religion."
- Anthony (2007，第454頁): "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rigveda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers."
- ^ See Witzel 1995 for an elaborate description of the religious and socio-political development of the late Vedic society
- ^ Michaels: "They called themselves arya ('Aryans', literally 'the hospitable', from the Vedic arya, 'homey, the hospitable') but even in the Rgveda, arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one."[28]
- ^ There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.[31] Flood (1996) mentions 1500 BCE.[32]
- ^ Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India,[47][48][28][49] due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity,[28] hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation[28] or transformation.[34] According to Upinder Singh, "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists, and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as invaders. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent."[49] Edwin Bryant used the term "Indo-Aryan controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan migration theory, and some of its opponents.[50]
Mallory and Adams note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency", namely the Anatolian hypothesis, and a migration out of the Eurasian steppes.[51] Linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE,[28] with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion.[52] According to Singh, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."[49]
An overview of the "Indigenist position" can be obtained from Bryant & Patton (2005).[50] See also the article Indigenous Aryans - ^ See Kuzʹmina (2007), The Origin of the Indo-Iranians, p. 339, for an overview of publications up to 1997 on this subject.
- ^ Up to the late 19th century, the Nuristanis of Afghanistan observed a primitive form of Hinduism until they were forcibly converted to Islam under the rule of Abdur Rahman Khan.[70][71][72] However, aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in other corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as Kerala, where the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals. The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practise a form of the ancient Vedic religion.[67][73]
- ^ For the metaphysical concept of Brahman, see: Lipner, Julius. Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge. 2012: 251–252, 283, 366–369. ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5; Perrett, Roy W. Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study. University of Hawaii Press. 1998: 53–54. ISBN 978-0-8248-2085-5.
- ^ Upanishads thought to date from the Vedic period are Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chāndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana.
- ^ Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis[149][150] of various Indian cultures and traditions,[149][151] with diverse roots and no single founder.[152] Among its roots are the Vedic religion[151] of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,[153] but also the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation,[154] the Sramana[155] or renouncer traditions[151] of east India,[155] and "popular or local traditions".[151] This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between 约500[149] – 200[156] {{{2}}} and 约300 {{{2}}},[149] in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early Hindu synthesis, and later classical Hinduism (约200 {{{2}}} – 1200 {{{2}}} )
- ^ Cromwell: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."[163]
參考文獻
[编辑]- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Bronkhorst 2007.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Samuel 2010.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Heesterman 2005，第9552–9553頁.
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Vedic religion. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2024-09-21.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Sullivan 2001，第9頁.
- ^ Samuel 2010，第97–99, 113–118頁.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Knipe 2015，第41–45, 220–223頁.
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Witzel, Michael. Kalash religion (extract from The Ṛgvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents ...) (PDF). Griffiths, A.; Houben, J.E.M. (编). The Vedas: Texts, language, and ritual. Groningen: Forsten. 2004: 581–636 [2025-08-21]. 原始内容存档于2021-11-19. 已忽略未知参数
|df=(帮助) - ^ 9.0 9.1 Witzel, Michael. §1.5 The Hindukush area: Nuristanis and Dards (PDF). Kalasha religion. 1.5.2 Ritual (p. 5 in PDF). 2004 [2025-08-21]. 原始内容存档于2021-11-19.
Extract from: The Ṛgvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents. A. Griffiths & J.E.M. Houben (eds.). The Vedas: Texts, Language and Ritual. Groningen: Forsten 2004: 581-636
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The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral, Pakistan, the capital of North-West Frontier Province, which borders Afghanistan. Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghani and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to Islam. During the mid-20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion, but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion. Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits ... given their Indo-Aryan language, ... the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.
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Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of the ancient Vedic religion with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called imr'o or imra by the Nuristani tribes.
- ^ Barrington, Nicholas; Kendrick, Joseph T.; Schlagintweit, Reinhard. A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the mysterious Afghan hinterland. I.B. Tauris. 2006-04-18: 111. ISBN 9781845111755 （英语）.
Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practice an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.
- ^ Weiss, Mitch; Maurer, Kevin. No Way Out: A story of valor in the mountains of Afghanistan. Berkley Caliber. 2012-12-31: 299. ISBN 9780425253403 （英语）.
Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practiced a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.
- ^ Bezhan, Frud. Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans get their Due. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 2017-04-19 [2017 -07-31] （英语）.
About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.
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- ^ Allen 2022，第208頁: "This greater Vedic tradition is sometimes referred to as "Brahminism," but that label is less than ideal. First, as McGovern (2019) has pointed out in a recent book, the term "Brahmin" was originally not exclusive to followers of the Vedas, but was also used by Buddhists, Jains, and others. Second, although (Vedic) Brahmins were jealous of their teaching authority, they regarded the Vedas as the ultimate source of that authority, and referring to their tradition as "Brahminism" rather than "Vedism" would be subject to the same objections that have led scholars of Tibetan Buddhism to abandon the term "Lamaism." Third, and perhaps most importantly, the term obscures the participation of non-Brahmins in the greater Vedic tradition."
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This [the primitive religion of the Vedas] resulted, after a period of confusion, in the formation of a new system, Brahmanism (or Hinduism), which is essentially a philosophy, a metaphysic, a work of human speculation, ...; [footnote 1]... the neuter, Brahman, as the one impersonal substance.
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The early Upanishads are primarily metaphysical treatises concerned with identifying the Brahman, the ground of the universe. ... The essence of early Brahmanism is the search for the Absolute and its natural development is in Vedantin monism which claims that the soul is identical with the Absolute.
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... in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.
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There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to Vedic sacrifices, Vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed ... much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.
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Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-Vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism.
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Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 {{{2}}}, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period.
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Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the 8th or 7th centuries {{{2}}}.
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- Zimmer, Heinrich. Phiosophies of India. Princeton University Press. 1989.
網路來源
[编辑]- ^ 1.0 1.1 Vedic religion. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2024-09-21.
It [Vedic religion] takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism.
延伸閱讀
[编辑]- Bronkhorst, Johannes, Brahmanism: Its place in ancient Indian society, Contributions to Indian Sociology, 2017, 51 (3): 361–369, S2CID 220050987, doi:10.1177/0069966717717587
外部連結
[编辑]- Vedic religion. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2024 -09-21.
- The Vedas. World History Encyclopedia.
