印度天文學

印度天文學的一些最早起源可以追溯到印度河流域文明或更早的時期。從史前到現代，天文學在印度次大陸有著悠久的歷史^[1]^[2]。天文學後來發展成為吠陀的一門學科，或與韋陀研究相關的"輔助學科"之一^[3]，可以追溯到西元前1,500年或更久^[4]。已知最古老的文本是"Vedanga Jyotisha（英語：Vedanga Jyotisha）"，可追溯至西元前1400-1200年（現存形式可能為西元前700-600年）^[5]。

從西元前4世紀開始，印度天文學受到希臘天文學的影響^[6]^[7]^[8]，以及通過共同時代的早期幾個世紀，例如亞瓦納賈塔卡（英語：Yavanajataka）^[6]和 羅馬卡·悉達多（英語：Romaka Siddhanta），從2世紀開始將希臘天文學的文稿翻譯成梵文^[9]。

印度天文學在5-6世紀蓬勃發展，Aryabhata作品，阿裡阿巴蒂亞（英語：Ariabhatiya）（《阿里亞哈塔曆書》）代表了當時天文學知識的頂峰。《阿里亞哈塔曆書》由四個部分組成，涵蓋的主題包括時間單位、確定行星位置的方法、晝夜原因以及其它一些宇宙學概念^[10]。後來，印度天文學對穆斯林天文學、中國天文學和歐洲天文學產生了重大影響^[11]，還有其它地區。其他古典時期的天文學家，包括Brahmagupta、瓦拉哈米希拉（Varahamihira）和拉拉，進一步闡述了阿耶波多的工作。

在整個中世紀時期，直到16或17世紀，印度本土的傳統天文學一直很活躍，尤其是在喀拉拉邦天文和數學學院（英語：Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics）內。

歷史

一些最早的天文學形式可以追溯到印度河流域文明，或更早的時期^[1]^[2]。一些宇宙學概念出現在吠陀經中，天體運動和年的過程也是如此^[3]。《梨俱吠陀》是印度最古老的文學作品之一。《梨俱吠陀》1-64-11和48參考太陽曆，將時間描述為一個有12個部分（月）和360個輻條（天）的輪子，其餘部分為5個^[12]。與其它傳統一樣，在科學的早期歷史中，天文學和宗教（英語：Astronomy and religion）之間存在密切的聯繫，天文觀測是宗教儀式要能夠正確演示（英語：Orthopraxy）空間和時間所必需的。因此，專門用於祭壇建設的文本，《修巴經（英語：Shulba Sutras）》，討論了高等數學和基礎天文學^[13]。《Vedanga Jyotisha（英語：Vedanga Jyotisha）》是另一份已知的最早印度天文學文本^[14]，它包括關於太陽、月球、二十七宿、陰陽曆的詳細資訊^[15]^[16]。《Vedanga Jyotisha》描述了為了儀式的目的跟蹤太陽和月球運動的規則。根據《Vedanga Jyotisha》的說法，在一個時代（yuga）或紀元（era），有5個太陽年、67個恆星月週期、1830天、1835恆星日和62個朔望月^[17]。

希臘天文學思想在西元前4世紀亞歷山大大帝的印度戰役（英語：Indian campaign of Alexander the Great）之後開始進入印度^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]。到西元初期，印度-希臘語對傳統天文學的影響是顯而易見的，例如Yavanajataka（英語：Yavanajataka）^[6]和Romaka Siddhanta（英語：Romaka Siddhanta）^[9]等文本。後來的天文學家提到在這一時期存在著各種各樣的悉檀（siddhanta），包括其中一個文本被稱為「Surya Siddhanta（英語：Surya Siddhanta）」。這些不是固定的文字，而只是口頭的知識傳統，其內容並不真的存在。今天被稱為「Surya Siddhanta」的文本可追溯到古普塔時期，並被阿耶波多承接。

印度天文學的古典時代始於古普塔時代晚期，即5至6世紀。

伐羅訶密希羅（505 CE）的《天文學五經論》之一的「Pañcasiddh257ntik（英語：Pancha Siddhantika）」，類似於使用晷影器從陰影的任何三個位置確定子午線方向的方法^[13]。在阿耶波多時代，行星的運動被認為是橢圓形而非圓形^[18]。其他主題包括不同時間單位的定義，行星運動的離心率模型、行星運動的周轉圓模型，以及從地球對各顆行星位置的經度校正^[18] 。

日曆

進階讀物

Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and culture, Monograph series, Volume 3. Mathematics, Astronomy and Biology in Indian Tradition edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar
Brennand, William, Hindu Astronomy, Chas.Straker & Sons, London, 1896
Maunder, E. Walter, The Indian Eclipse 1898, Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd., London, 1899
Kak, Subhash. Birth and early development of Indian astronomy. Kluwer, 2000.
Kak, S. (2000). The astronomical code of the R̥gveda. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
Kak, Subhash C. "The astronomy of the age of geometric altars." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 36 (1995): 385.
Kak, Subhash C. "Knowledge of planets in the third millennium BC." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 37 (1996): 709.
Kak, S. C. (1 January 1993). Astronomy of the vedic altars. Vistas in Astronomy: Part 1, 36, 117–140.
Kak, Subhash C. "Archaeoastronomy and literature." Current Science 73.7 (1997): 624–627.

註解

^ ^1.0 ^1.1 Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy. A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. 2010-03-11: 197. ISBN 9780521180665.
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 Ashfaque, Syed Mohammad. Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars. Centaurus. 1977, 21 (2): 149–193. Bibcode:1977Cent...21..149A. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x.
^ ^3.0 ^3.1 Sarma (2008), Astronomy in India
^ The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188
^ Subbarayappa, B. V. Indian astronomy: An historical perspective. Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (編). Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. 14 September 1989: 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.
^ ^6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 ^6.3 Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [1]
^ ^7.0 ^7.1 Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [2]
^ ^8.0 ^8.1 The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [3]
^ ^9.0 ^9.1 ^9.2 Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [4]
^ Clark, Walter. Aryabhatiya: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy - An English Translation. The University of Chicago Press. 1930 （英語）.
^ "Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography", p. 17, by Nick Kanas, 2012
^ Sidharth, B.G. The Calendric Astronomy of the Vedas. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 1998, 26: 108 –透過NASA Astrophysics Data System.
^ ^13.0 ^13.1 引用錯誤：沒有為名為abraham08的參考文獻提供內容
^ N. P. Subramania Iyer. Kalaprakasika. Asian Educational Services. 1917: 3.
^ Ōhashi (1993)
^ Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta. Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War. Pearson Education India. : 33.
^ Kak, Shubash. The Astronomy of the Age of Geometric Altars. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1995, 36: 385–395.
^ ^18.0 ^18.1 Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I

參考資料

Abraham, G. (2008), "Gnomon in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 1035–1037, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Almeida, D. F.; et al. Keralese Mathematics: Its Possible Transmission to Europe and the Consequential Educational Implications. Journal of Natural Geometry. 2001, 20: 77–104.
Baber, Zaheer (1996), The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2919-9.
Dallal, Ahmad (1999), "Science, Medicine and Technology", The Oxford History of Islam edited by John Esposito, Oxford University Press.
Hayashi, Takao (2008), Aryabhata I, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Hayashi, Takao (2008), Bhaskara I, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Hayashi, Takao (2008), Brahmagupta, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Hayashi, Takao (2008), Shripati, Encyclopædia Britannica.
J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), calendar, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Joseph, George G. (2000), The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Penguin Books, ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
King, David A. A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus. Journal for the History of Astronomy. 2002, 33 (3): 237–255. Bibcode:2002JHA....33..237K. S2CID 125329755. doi:10.1177/002182860203300302.
Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2003), "Hinduism, History of Science and Religion", Encyclopedia of Science and Religion edited by J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen, pp. 405–410, Macmillan Reference USA, ISBN 0-02-865704-7.
Raju, C. K. Computers, Mathematics Education, and the Alternative Epistemology of the Calculus in the Yuktibhasa. Philosophy East and West. 2001, 51 (3): 325–362. S2CID 170341845. doi:10.1353/pew.2001.0045.
Ramasubramanian. Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 CE) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion. Current Science. 1994, 66: 784–790.
Sarma, K.V. (2008), "Acyuta Pisarati", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, p. 19, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Sarma, K.V. (2008), "Armillary Spheres in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, p. 243, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Sarma, K.V. (2008), "Astronomy in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 317–321, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Sarma, K.V. (2008), "Lalla", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, p. 1215, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Sarma, Nataraja. Diffusion of Astronomy in the Ancient World. Endeavour. 2000, 24 (4): 157–164. PMID 11196987. doi:10.1016/s0160-9327(00)01327-2.
Sharma, V.N. (1995), Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1256-5.
Sharma, V.N. (2008), "Observatories in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 1785–1788, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press.
Subbaarayappa, B.V. (1989), "Indian astronomy: an historical perspective", Cosmic Perspectives edited by Biswas etc., pp. 25–41. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34354-2.
Tripathi, V.N. (2008), "Astrology in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 264–267, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.

[question-1] 1.0 ^1.1 Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy. A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. 2010-03-11: 197. ISBN 9780521180665.

[wiley-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Ashfaque, Syed Mohammad. Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars. Centaurus. 1977, 21 (2): 149–193. Bibcode:1977Cent...21..149A. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x.

[Sarma-Ast-Ind-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Sarma (2008), Astronomy in India

[4] The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188

[Cosmic-5] Subbarayappa, B. V. Indian astronomy: An historical perspective. Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (編). Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. 14 September 1989: 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.

[Andersen-6] 6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 ^6.3 Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [1]

[Leverington-7] 7.0 ^7.1 Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [2]

[Evans-8] 8.0 ^8.1 The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [3]

[Naskar-9] 9.0 ^9.1 ^9.2 Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [4]

[10] Clark, Walter. Aryabhatiya: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy - An English Translation. The University of Chicago Press. 1930 （英語）.

[11] "Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography", p. 17, by Nick Kanas, 2012

[12] Sidharth, B.G. The Calendric Astronomy of the Vedas. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 1998, 26: 108 –透過NASA Astrophysics Data System.

[abraham08-13] 13.0 ^13.1 引用錯誤：沒有為名為abraham08的參考文獻提供內容

[14] N. P. Subramania Iyer. Kalaprakasika. Asian Educational Services. 1917: 3.

[15] Ōhashi (1993)

[16] Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta. Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War. Pearson Education India. : 33.

[17] Kak, Shubash. The Astronomy of the Age of Geometric Altars. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1995, 36: 385–395.

[Hayashi08Aryabhata-18] 18.0 ^18.1 Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I

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