真菌：修订间差异
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* <ref name="科-1">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 國立自然科學博物館 | title = 自然界中的真菌 | url = http://web2.nmns.edu.tw/fungi/Module/Module.php?Level1_ID=14&cookie=del_L1&Level1_BgDir=nature | author = | date = | accessdate = 2011-6-6查閱 }}</ref> |
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<ref name="科-1">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 國立自然科學博物館 | title = 自然界中的真菌 | url = http://web2.nmns.edu.tw/fungi/Module/Module.php?Level1_ID=14&cookie=del_L1&Level1_BgDir=nature | author = | date = | accessdate = 2011-6-6查閱 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Samuels2006>For an example, see {{cite journal |author=Samuels GJ. |title=''Trichoderma'': systematics, the sexual state, and ecology |journal=Phytopathology |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=195–206 |year=2006 |pmid=18943925 |doi=10.1094/PHYTO-96-0195}}</ref> |
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2012年2月19日 (日) 06:43的版本
| 真菌 化石時期： 志留紀早期 - 現代 | ||||||
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| 科學分類 | ||||||
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| 亞界/門/亞門[2] | ||||||
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真菌是真核生物中的一大類群，包含酵母、黴菌之類的微生物，及最為人熟知的菇類。真菌自成一門，和植物、動物和細菌相區別。真菌和其他三種生物最大的不同之處在於，真菌的細胞有含甲殼素為主要成分的細胞壁，和植物的細胞壁主要是由纖維素組成的不同。卵菌和黏菌在構造上和真菌相似，但都不算是真菌。研究真菌的學科稱為真菌學，通常被視為植物學的一個分支，雖然事實顯示，真菌和動物之間的關係比和植物之間來得親近。
雖然真菌遍及全世界，但大部分的真菌並不顯眼，因為它們很小，而且它們會以保護色生活在土壤內、在腐質上、以及和植物、動物或其他真菌共生。部分菇類及黴菌可能會在結成孢子時變得較顯眼。真菌在有機物質的分解中扮演著極重要的角色，對養分的循環及交換有著基礎的作用。真菌從很久以前便被當做直接的食物來源（如菇類及松露）、麵包的膨鬆劑及發酵各種食品（如葡萄酒、啤酒及醬油）。1940年代後，真菌亦被用來製造抗生素，而現在，許多的酵素是由真菌所製造的，並運用在工業上。真菌亦被當做生物農藥，用來抑制雜草、植物疾病及害蟲。真菌中的許多物種會產生有生物活性的物質，稱為黴菌毒素（如生物鹼和聚酮），對包括人類在內的動物有毒。一些物種的孢子含有精神藥物的成份，被用在娛樂及古代的宗教儀式上。真菌可以分解人造的物質及建物，並使人類及其他動物致病。因真菌病（如稻熱病）或食物腐敗引起的作物損失會對人類的食物供給和區域經濟產生很大的引響。
真菌門的物種之間不論是在生態、生命週期及形態（從單細胞水生的壺菌到巨大的菇類）都有很大的差別。然而，對真菌門真正的生物多樣性其實了解得還很少，預估大約有150萬個物種，而之中被正式分類的則只有約5%。自從18、19世紀，卡爾·林奈、克里斯蒂安·漢德里克·珀松及伊利阿斯·馬格努斯·弗里斯等人在分類學上有了開創性的研究成果之後，真菌便已依其形態（如孢子顏色或微觀構造等特徵）或生理給予分類。在分子遺傳學上的進展開啟了將DNA測序加入分類學的道路，這有時會挑戰傳統依形態及其他特徵分類的類群。最近十幾年來在親緣關係學上的研究已幫助真菌界重新分類，共分為一個亞界、七個門及十個亞門。
結構
蕈類包括菌柄、菌盖和产生孢子的菌褶等三个部分。菌盖高于地面，这样散落的孢子就可以被空气气流带走。菌柄的底部有许多叫作菌丝的细线，蕈類就是通过它们来寻找养料的。
生殖
分類
雖然一般被放在植物學的課程及教科書之中，但真菌其實比起植物，和動物之間的關係要來得更親近，且和動物一樣為後鞭毛生物內的單系群[4]利用分子親緣關係學的分析，證實了真菌為一單系群[3]真菌的分類是不斷地在變動的，特別是在以DNA比對為基礎的最近研究之中。最近在親緣關係學上的研究時常會推翻之前由形態特徵及由實驗配種獲得的物種概念等舊方法得來的分類。[5]
在高層的分類單元中還不存在一個唯一且被廣泛接受的系統，並且在每一層之中都會有頻繁的名稱異動，由物種上至門。學者們現在正在努力建立且促使一個統一且更一致的命名法的使用[3][6]。真菌的物種依其生命週期及生殖方法（有性或無性），可以有兩種以上的科學名稱。一些如真菌索引及ITIS之類的網站有列出真菌物種的最新名稱（交叉參酌舊式的命名）。
2007年真菌界分類法是許多真菌學家及其他研究真菌分類學的科學家們進行大規模合作研究所得來的成果[3]。此分類法將真菌界分成七個門，其中的子囊菌門及擔子菌門歸於雙核亞界之中。左邊的分支圖描繪出真菌界主要的分類單元，以及真菌界和後鞭毛生物與單鞭毛生物之間的關係。分支的長度並不正比於演化的長度。
分類類群
真菌主要的門是由其生殖結構上的特徵來分類的。現在，共分成七個門：微孢子蟲門、壺菌門、芽枝霉門、新麗鞭毛菌門、球囊菌門、子囊菌門及擔子菌門[3]。
親緣關係學上的研究已證實微孢子蟲門（動物及單細胞生物上的單細胞寄生蟲）是相當近期且高度衍生的組織內寄生真菌（生存於其他物種的組織內）[7][8]。2006年的一項研究斷定微孢子蟲門為其他真菌的旁系群[9]。 Hibbett和其同事認為此一研究並不會和他們對真菌的分類產生衝突，雖然微孢子蟲門提昇到門這一分類單元，為了弄清楚此類群之內的演化關係，還需要更多的研究[3]。
壺菌門的真菌分佈在世界各地。壺菌會產生游動孢子，可以在液體中以單一個鞭毛自主地移動，這使早期的分類學家誤以為它們是單細胞生物。由核醣體內的rRNA序列做出的分子親緣關係學研究推定，壺菌為其他（由四個推定為並系群，或可能為多系群的分支所組成的）真菌門的基本分支[10]。
芽枝霉門之前被認為是壺菌門內的一分支。然而，最近的分子資料及超微構造上的特徵將芽枝霉門歸成接合菌門、球囊菌門及雙核亞界（子囊菌門及擔子菌門）的旁系群。芽枝霉門是腐生生物，分解有機物質來獲取養分，且為所有真核生物的寄生蟲。不像其最親近的壺菌門是行合子減數分裂，芽枝霉門行孢子減數分裂[7]。
新麗鞭毛菌門之前歸於壺菌門內。此門內的真菌為厭氧生物，生存於大型草食性哺乳動物的消化系統內，亦可能生存於其他的地上及水中環境裡。新麗鞭毛菌門缺乏粒線體，但含有氫化酶體。做為壺菌門的近親，新麗鞭毛菌門亦會產生游動孢子，其孢子有單一後鞭毛或多鞭毛等類型[3]。
球囊菌門會形成叢生菌根，會侵入植物的根部細胞，和植物共生，以增加養份的供給來使雙方都獲得好處。所有現知的球囊菌門的物種皆行無性生殖[11]。球囊菌門和植物之間的共生關係非常久遠，可追溯至4億年前之久[12]。球囊菌門之前為接合菌門的一部份，但在2001年提昇為門，且在現在取代了接合菌門[13]。之前歸於接合菌門的真菌現在被重新歸於球囊菌門，或地位未知的亞門（毛黴菌亞門、梳霉亞門、捕蟲黴菌亞門及蟲黴菌亞門）之中[3]。和醫學相關的屬有毛黴屬、根粘黴屬及根黴屬。
子囊菌門是真菌界中最大的分類類群[14]。此類真菌會產生減數分裂的孢子，稱為囊孢子，被包在稱為子囊的特化囊狀構造中。子囊菌門包含牛肚菌、一些菇類及松露、單細胞的酵母（如酵母屬、克魯維酵母屬、畢赤酵母屬及假絲酵母屬），以及其他生為腐生生物、寄生蟲及共生生物的絲狀真菌。絲狀的子囊菌門生物中較顯著及重要的屬包括麴黴屬、青黴菌、鐮孢菌屬及麥角菌屬。許多子囊菌門的物種只被觀察到行無性生殖，但在分子資料上的分析則時常能確認出其有性世代[15]。因為減數分裂的產品會留在囊狀的子囊內，子囊菌門曾被用來說明遺傳學的原理（如粉色麵包黴菌）[16]。
擔子菌門會在稱為擔子的柄上產生稱為擔孢子的孢子。最常見的菇類屬於此類群，柄銹菌及會黑穗菌等主要的穀物病原體也一樣屬於此類群。其他重要的擔子菌門生物亦包括玉米病原體（玉米黑穗菌）[17]、與人類偏利共生的屬（馬拉色菌屬）[18]及會機會性感染人類的病原體（新型隱球菌）[19]。
養分
真菌不能自行製造養分（某些真菌會"捕食"其他生物，其他生物如線蟲[來源請求]），因而無法獨自於自然界生存，必須與別種生物藉由寄生、腐生或者共生方式來吸取生活需要的營養。[20] 它主要依靠营养菌丝（酵母菌除外）来吸收营养物质。真菌的菌丝有四种：气生菌丝、营养菌丝、匍伏菌丝、直立菌丝。
其他
參見
參考文獻與註釋
注釋
參考資料
- ^ Taxonomic proposals for the classification of marine yeasts and other yeast-like fungi including the smuts. Bot. Mar. 1980, 23: 371.
- ^ 此分類系統是基於2007年Hibbett等人對親緣關係學上的研究
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Hibbett DS, Binder M, Bischoff JF, Blackwell M, Cannon PF, Eriksson OE; et al. A higher level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi (PDF). Mycological Research. 2007, 111 (5): 509–547. PMID 17572334. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004.
- ^ Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge MA, Espelund M, Orr R, Ruden T, Jakobsen KS, Cavalier-Smith T. Multigene phylogeny of choanozoa and the origin of animals. PLoS ONE. 2008, 3 (5): e2098. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2098S. PMC 2346548
. PMID 18461162. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002098.
- ^ 見 Palaeos: Fungi，介紹真菌的分類，包括一些最近的爭論。
- ^ Celio GJ, Padamsee M, Dentinger BT, Bauer R, McLaughlin DJ. Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life: constructing the structural and biochemical database. Mycologia. 2006, 98 (6): 850–859. PMID 17486962. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.850.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 James TY, Kauff F, Schoch CL, Matheny PB, Hofstetter V, Cox CJ; et al. Reconstructing the early evolution of Fungi using a six-gene phylogeny. Nature. 2006, 443 (7113): 818–822. Bibcode:2006Natur.443..818J. PMID 17051209. doi:10.1038/nature05110.
- ^ Gill EE, Fast NM. Assessing the microsporidia-fungi relationship: Combined phylogenetic analysis of eight genes. Gene. 2006, 375: 103–109. PMID 16626896. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2006.02.023.
- ^ Liu YJ, Hodson MC, Hall BD. Loss of the flagellum happened only once in the fungal lineage: phylogenetic structure of kingdom Fungi inferred from RNA polymerase II subunit genes. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2006, 6: 74. PMC 1599754 . PMID 17010206. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-6-74.
- ^ James TY, Letcher PM, Longcore JE, Mozley-Standridge SE, Porter D, Powell MJ, Griffith GW, Vilgalys R. A molecular phylogeny of the flagellated fungi (Chytridiomycota) and description of a new phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia. 2006, 98 (6): 860–871. PMID 17486963. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.860.
- ^ Redecker D, Raab P. Phylogeny of the Glomeromycota (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi): recent developments and new gene markers. Mycologia. 2006, 98 (6): 885–895. PMID 17486965. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.885.
- ^ Remy W, Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H. 4-hundred million year old vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 1994, 91 (25): 11841–11843. Bibcode:1994PNAS...9111841R. PMC 45331 . PMID 11607500. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.25.11841.
- ^ Schüssler A, Schwarzott D, Walker C. A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution. Mycological Research. 2001, 105 (12): 1413–1421. doi:10.1017/S0953756201005196.
- ^ 引证错误：没有为名为
Kirk et al., p. 489的参考文献提供内容 - ^ For an example, see Samuels GJ. Trichoderma: systematics, the sexual state, and ecology. Phytopathology. 2006, 96 (2): 195–206. PMID 18943925. doi:10.1094/PHYTO-96-0195.
- ^ Radford A, Parish JH. The genome and genes of Neurospora crassa. Fungal Genetics and Biology: FG & B. 1997, 21 (3): 258–266. PMID 9290240. doi:10.1006/fgbi.1997.0979.
- ^ Valverde ME, Paredes-López O, Pataky JK, Guevara-Lara F. Huitlacoche (Ustilago maydis) as a food source—biology, composition, and production. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 1995, 35 (3): 191–229. PMID 7632354. doi:10.1080/10408399509527699.
- ^ Zisova LG. Malassezia species and seborrheic dermatitis. Folia Medica. 2009, 51 (1): 23–33. PMID 19437895.
- ^ Perfect JR. Cryptococcus neoformans: the yeast that likes it hot. FEMS Yeast Research. 2006, 6 (4): 463–468. PMID 16696642. doi:10.1111/j.1567-1364.2006.00051.x.
- ^ 自然界中的真菌. 國立自然科學博物館. [2011-6-6查閱] （中文（臺灣））.
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