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毒素:修订间差异

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我曾在7月27日發表[毒性]的翻譯。這次翻譯的是[toxin]。原來已有[毒素]的條目,但篇幅較短,我的翻譯會將之覆蓋,在此致歉。無論是toxin或是毒素,坊間有不少地方利用到這個名詞,英文版的作者大約想利用文章作清楚的定義,以及澄清之用吧。請指教。
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{{主條目消歧義|關於'''毒'''的其他意思,請參考「'''[[毒 (消歧義)]]'''」}}
{{主條目消歧義|關於'''毒'''的其他意思,請參考「'''[[毒 (消歧義)]]'''」}}
[[File:Skull and Crossbones.svg|thumb|200px|通用警告標誌用於指示有毒物質或環境]]
本文所指的'''毒素'''(英語:Toxin),是指[[生物體]]所生產出來的[[毒物]](poison),這個術語最早是由[[有機化學]]家[[路德維希]](Ludwig Brieger)所提出。<ref>http://books.google.co.za/books?id=oWhqhK1cE-gC&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6&dq=Ludwig+Brieger+[1849-1919]&source=bl&ots=7fa0fkkgkV&sig=ItABIJkoSsxyTdM9ts3iSSD3NQc&hl=en&ei=2lwmTKuaH4i6jAffyMGUAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Ludwig%20Brieger%20[1849-1919]&f=false</ref>這些物質通常是一些會干擾生物體中其他大分子作用的[[蛋白質]],例如[[蓖麻毒蛋白]]。由生物體産生的、極少量即可引起動物中毒的物貭。毒素在其嚴重程度差異很大,從一般輕微的急性(如蜂蜇)或是幾乎立即致命的(如肉毒毒素)。


'''毒素'''({{lang-en|toxin}})是活細胞或生物體內所產生的有害物質;<ref>{{DorlandsDict|eight/000109718|toxin}}</ref><ref name="urltoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/toxin |title=toxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |access-date=13 December 2008}}</ref>並不包括人工合成的[[殺生物劑]]。toxin這個字最早由[[有機化學]]家{{link-de|路德維希·布里格 |Ludwig Brieger}} (生卒年各為1849年和1919年) 所採用,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWhqhK1cE-gC&pg=PA6|title=Endotoxin in Health and Disease|first=Helmut|last=Brade|year=1999|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0824719449}}</ref>toxin這個字源自toxic(有毒的,引起中毒之意)。<ref>{{OEtymD|toxin}}</ref>
據[[紅十字國際委員會]]的審查[[生物武器公約]],“生物毒素是有毒的產品,不像生物製劑,它們是沒有生命的,而不是[[複製]]自己的能力。”和“自公約簽署後,不斷有各方面的[[生物製劑]]或毒素的定義各方沒有爭議……”
毒素可能是[[小分子]]、[[肽]]、或是[[蛋白質]],當[[組織 (生物學)|身體組織]]接觸或吸收這些物質後,他們與生物的[[大分子]](如[[酶]]或[[受體 (生物化學)|細胞受體]]
)發生相互作用,而引起疾病。不同毒素的[[毒性]]差異很大,從通常很小(例如來自蜂類的[[螫針]]) 到幾乎會立即致命的(例如[[肉毒桿菌毒素]])都有。毒素主要是[[次級代謝產物]],屬於有機化合物,與生物體的生長、發育、或繁殖並無關係,而常與防禦的機能有關。
==名稱用法==
毒素通常以其產生的方式而與其他化學製劑有分別 - “毒素”這個名詞並未具體表達出傳遞的方式(與也會對於生物體造成干擾的[[毒液]],和更廣義的[[毒物]]這兩種物質相比較),毒素只表達是種由生物所產生的毒物。
根據[[紅十字國際委員會]]對《[[禁止生物武器公約]]》的審查報告中提出,“毒素是有機體產生的有毒產物;與生物製劑不同,它們是無生命物體,無法自我繁殖”,“自公約簽署以來,參與簽署的團體們對於生物製劑或是毒素的定義並無爭議”。<ref name="urlThe Biological Weapons Convention – An overview">{{cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/57JNPA |title=The Biological Weapons Convention – An overview |access-date=13 December 2008}}</ref>
根據{{le|美國法典第18章|Title 18 of the United States Code}},“……”毒素“這個名詞是指[[植物]]、[[動物]]、[[微生物]](包括但不限於[[細菌]]、[[病毒]]、[[真菌]]、[[立克次體]]、或是[[原生動物]])的有毒物質或是產物,或者是[[感染]]性物質,或是[[重組DNA]]或合成分子,無論其來源和產生的方式......“<ref name="urlU.S. Code">{{cite web |url=http://law2.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+235+1++()%20%20AND%20((18)%20ADJ%20USC)%3ACITE%20AND%20(USC%20w/10%20(209))%3ACITE |title=U.S. Code |access-date=13 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721042611/http://law2.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+235+1++%28%29%20%20AND%20%28%2818%29%20ADJ%20USC%29%3ACITE%20AND%20%28USC%20w%2F10%20%28209%29%29%3ACITE |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref>
對於毒素,有種相當非正式的名詞,牽涉到它們能造成最深影響的生理部位:


*{{le|血毒素|Hemotoxin}},導致[[紅血球]]受到破壞([[溶血反應]])
== 生物毒素 ==
*{{le|光毒素|Phototoxin}},導致危險的[[感光性]]發生
毒素有時用來明確確認的生物起源。<ref name="urlbiotoxin - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biotoxin |title=biotoxin - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |work= |accessdate=2008-12-13}}</ref><ref>{{DorlandsDict|one/000012874|biotoxin}}</ref>
從更廣大的範圍來看,毒素可分為[[外毒素]](由生物體[[排泄作用|排泄]]而來),或是[[脂多糖|內毒素]](主要是[[細菌]]{{le|裂解|Lysis}}時所釋放的毒素)。
==生物毒素==
“生物毒素”有時用來明確指出係源自生物。<ref name="urlbiotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biotoxin |title=biotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |access-date=13 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{DorlandsDict|one/000012874|biotoxin}}</ref>生物毒素可作進一步分類,例如分為{{le|真菌毒素|Mycotoxin}}、{{le|微生物毒素|microbial toxins}}、{{le|植物毒素|Phytotoxin}}、或動物生物毒素。
微生物所產生的毒素是重要的[[毒力]]決定因素,用來衡量微生物的致病性和/或避開宿主[[免疫反應]]的程度. <ref name= ProftT>{{cite book |veditors = Proft T | year=2009 |title=Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends | publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 978-1-904455-44-8}}</ref>
不同生物毒素的作用和機制差異甚大,有的高度複雜({{le|芋螺|cone snail}}的毒液含有數十種小蛋白質,每個都會對特定的神經通道或受體發生作用),也有是相對小的蛋白質。


自然界生物毒素有兩主要功能:
自然界存在的生物毒素有兩主要功能:
* 捕食(蜘蛛、蛇、蝎子、水母、黃蜂 )
* 防衛(蜜蜂、螞蟻、白蟻、黃蜂、毒鏢蛙 )


*[[捕食]]用,如[[蜘蛛]]、[[蛇]]、[[蝎子]]、[[水母]]、和[[黃蜂]]
神經毒素主要影響動物的[[神經系統]],在適當運用下也有潛力能當作藥物使用。生物體具有神經毒素包括:
*防禦用,如[[蜂系|蜂類]]、[[螞蟻]]、[[白蟻]]、[[蜜蜂屬|蜜蜂]]、[[黃蜂]]、和[[毒箭蛙]]
*[[黑寡婦]]和其他寡婦蜘蛛
*大多數蝎子
一些更為知名的生物毒素類型有:
*[[立方水母纲|立方水母]](box jellyfish)
*[[眼鏡蛇科|眼鏡蛇]](Elapid snakes)
*[[芋螺科|芋螺]](Cone Snail)


*[[藍藻門|藍藻]]所產生的{{le|藍藻毒素|Cyanotoxin}}
==環境毒素==
*[[雙鞭毛蟲門|雙鞭毛蟲]]所產生的{{le|Dinotoxin|Dinotoxin}}毒素
所謂“環境毒素”是在環境中存在的微量生物毒素。<ref name="pmid15783252">{{cite journal |author=Lanphear BP, Vorhees CV, Bellinger DC |title=Protecting children from environmental toxins |journal=PLoS Med. |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=e61 |pmid=15783252 |pmc=1069659 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020061 |url=http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020061|date=March 2005}}</ref><ref name="pmid17942951">{{cite journal |author=Grollman AP, Jelaković B |title=Role of environmental toxins in endemic (Balkan) nephropathy. October 2006, Zagreb, Croatia |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=2817–23 |pmid=17942951 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2007050537 |url=http://jasn.asnjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17942951|date=November 2007}}</ref><ref name="pmid18075622">{{cite journal |author=Cohen M |title=Environmental toxins and health--the health impact of pesticides |journal=Aust Fam Physician |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=1002–4 |pmid=18075622 |doi= |url=http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200712/21201|date=December 2007}}</ref>該毒素因為會從[[食物鏈]]累積,特別是海產中累積藻類生成的毒素,這些毒素對海洋生物影響不大,但吃掉這些生物後可能對人類健康造成危險,包括:
*由[[艱難梭菌]]或是[[葡萄球菌屬|葡萄球菌]]產生的Necrotoxin毒素,<ref>https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/necrotoxin</ref>會導致細胞[[壞死]](即為[[死亡]])<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary]] |date=2012 |publisher=Saunders/Elsevier |location=Philadelphia, PA |isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8 |page=1236 |edition=32nd}}</ref>
* 麻痺性貝類中毒(PSP)
* 失憶性貝類中毒(ASP)
**[[棕色遁蛛]](也稱為提琴背蜘蛛)
* 腹瀉性貝類中毒(DSP)
**多數[[響尾蛇]]和[[蝰科|蝰蛇]]會產生[[磷脂酶]]和各種[[胰蛋白酶]]般的[[絲氨酸蛋白酶]]毒素
* 神經性貝類中毒(NSP)<ref name=nspb>{{Cite journal
**[[鼓腹噝蝰]]
| last = Poli
**由{{le|成孔毒素|pore forming toxin}}造成的[[壞死性筋膜炎]](由“肉食性”{{le|化膿性鏈球菌|Streptococcus pyogenes}}所引起)
| first = Mark A. ''et al.''
| authorlink =
*[[神經毒素]]主要是對動物的神經系統產生影響。這類毒素通常會破壞[[離子通道]]的電導。會產生神經毒素的生物體有:
| coauthors =
| title = Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and brevetoxin metabolites: a case study from Florida
**多數蝎子
| journal = [[毒素 (學術期刊)|Toxicon]]
**[[立方水母綱|立方水母]]
| volume = 38
**[[眼鏡蛇科|眼鏡蛇]]
| issue = 7
**芋螺
| pages = 981–993
**[[藍圈章魚屬|藍圈章魚]]
| publisher = [[Elsevier]]
**[[毒魚]]
| year = 2000
**[[無尾目|蛙類]]
| url =
**{{le|盤花沙群海葵|Palythoa}}
| issn =
**不同類型的[[藻類]]、藍藻、和雙鞭毛蟲
| doi = 10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00191-9
| pmid=10728835}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=bnba>{{Cite journal
*{{le|肌肉毒素|Myotoxin}}是種存在蛇和蜥蜴毒液中的基本型肽,它們通過非酶受體的機制而造成肌肉組織損傷。擁有這類毒素的生物體有:
| last = Morohashi
| first = Akio ''et al.''
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Brevetoxin B3, a new brevetoxin analog isolated from the greenshell mussel perna canaliculus involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in new zealand
| journal = [[Tetrahedron Letters]]
| volume = 36
| issue = 49
| pages = 8995–8998
| publisher = [[Elsevier]]
| year = 1995
| url =
| issn =
| doi = 10.1016/0040-4039(95)01969-O
| last2 = Satake
| first2 = M
| last3 = Murata
| first3 = K
| last4 = Naoki
| first4 = H
| last5 = Kaspar
| first5 = H
| last6 = Yasumoto
| first6 = T}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=bigm>
{{Cite journal
|last = Morohashi
|first = Akio ''et al.''
|authorlink =
|coauthors =
|title = Brevetoxin B4 isolated from greenshell mussels Perna canaliculus, the major toxin involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in New Zealand
|journal = [[Tetrahedron Letters]]
|volume = 7
|issue = 2
|pages = 45–48
|publisher = [[Natural Toxins]]
|year = 1999
|url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/65500591/abstract
|issn =
|doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1522-7189(199903/04)7:2<45::AID-NT34>3.0.CO;2-H
|pmid = 10495465
|accessdate = 15 February 2010
}}{{Dead link|date=2019年4月 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
</ref>


**響尾蛇
== 注釋 ==
**[[墨西哥毒蜥]]
{{reflist|2}}


*[[細胞毒素]]會造成細胞中毒,無論是透過一般方式,或是僅對某些特定類型的活細胞發生作用:
==外部連結==

**[[蓖麻毒蛋白]],存在[[蓖麻]]子中
**[[蜂毒]],由蜜蜂產生
**{{le|T-2黴菌毒素|T-2 mycotoxin}},存在某些有毒[[蕈類]]中
**[[中華眼鏡蛇]]蛇毒中的{{le|心臟毒素 III|Cardiotoxin III}}
===生物毒素作為生物武器 ===
許多動物和昆蟲使用毒素達到捕食或是防禦的目的。我們必須知道,即使少量毒素也能導致疾病,造成數以千計的人死亡。由於恐怖分子有機會得到各式的毒素作為武器使用。容許恐怖分子使用毒素做武器使用會產生重大危機。<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Editors|first=U. F.|title=Toxins: Venom within Living Cells or Organisms|url=https://www.unrevealedfiles.com/toxins-venom-within-living-cells-or-organisms/|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Unrevealed Files|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Biotoxins: Bioweapons|url=http://www.biosciences-labs.bham.ac.uk/exhibit/bioweapons.html|access-date=2021-07-17|website=www.biosciences-labs.bham.ac.uk}}</ref>我們應該對[[細菌戰|生物戰]]要有更多的了解,以及知道在這類情況之下如何保護自己。 <ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Płusa|first=Tadeusz|date=September 2015|title=[Toxins as a biological weapon]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26449572/#:~:text=Toxins%20list%20is%20extensive,%20but,include%20tetrodotoxin,%20brevetoxin%20and%20saxitoxin.|journal=Polski Merkuriusz Lekarski|volume=39|issue=231|pages=131–133|issn=1426-9686|pmid=26449572}}</ref>
==環境毒素 ==
{{see also|{{le|環境毒理學|Environmental toxicology}}}}
“環境毒素”這個名詞有時就明確的包括有合成的污染物<ref name="pmid14977703">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grigg J | title = Environmental toxins; their impact on children's health | journal = Archives of Disease in Childhood | volume = 89 | issue = 3 | pages = 244–50 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14977703 | pmc = 1719840 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2002.022202 }}</ref>,例如工業[[污染物]]和其他人工製造的毒性物質。由於這與多數的“毒素”正式定義相矛盾,因此當遇到研究人員提出的是微生物之外的內容時,必須要確定他們所指為何。
[[食物鏈]]中的環境毒素,可能會危害到人類健康的有:

*[[麻痺性貝毒]]中毒(PSP) <ref name=iviv>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vale C, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Romarís XM, Arévalo F, Botana AM, Botana LM | title = In vitro and in vivo evaluation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin potency and the influence of the pH of extraction | journal = Analytical Chemistry | volume = 80 | issue = 5 | pages = 1770–6 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18232710 | doi = 10.1021/ac7022266 }}</ref><ref name=dlpsp>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Oikawa H, Fujita T, Saito K, Satomi M, Yano Y| title = Difference in the level of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin accumulation between the crabs Telmessus acutidens and Charybdis japonica collected in Onahama, Fukushima Prefecture | journal = Fisheries Science | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 395–403 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1111/j.1444-2906.2007.01347.x| s2cid = 22926782 }}</ref><ref name=psptp>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abouabdellah R, Taleb H, Bennouna A, Erler K, Chafik A, Moukrim A | title = Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin profile of mussels Perna perna from southern Atlantic coasts of Morocco | journal = Toxicon | volume = 51 | issue = 5 | pages = 780–6 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18237757 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.12.004 }}</ref>
*{{le|失憶性貝類中毒|Amnesic shellfish poisoning}}(ASP)<ref name=aspt>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Liang XF, Zhang WB, Mai KS, Huang Y, Shen D | title = Amnesic shellfish poisoning toxin stimulates the transcription of CYP1A possibly through AHR and ARNT in the liver of red sea bream Pagrus major | journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 58 | issue = 11 | pages = 1643–8 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19665739 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.07.004 }}</ref><ref name=ocfl>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Vaquero E, Leão JM, Gogo-Martínez A, Rodríguez Vázquez JA | title = Optimization of conditions for the liquid chromatographic-electrospray lonization-mass spectrometric analysis of amnesic shellfish poisoning toxins | journal = [[Chromatographia]] | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = S231–35 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1007/BF02490333| s2cid = 97937094 }}</ref>
*{{le|腹瀉性貝毒中毒|Diarrheal shellfish poisoning}} (DSP)<ref name=dmto>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mouratidou T, Kaniou-Grigoriadou I, Samara C, Kouimtzis T | title = Detection of the marine toxin okadaic acid in mussels during a diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) episode in Thermaikos Gulf, Greece, using biological, chemical and immunological methods | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 366 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 894–904 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16815531 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.03.002 | bibcode = 2006ScTEn.366..894M }}</ref><ref name=ehed>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doucet E, Ross NN, Quilliam MA | title = Enzymatic hydrolysis of esterified diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins and pectenotoxins | journal = Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry | volume = 389 | issue = 1 | pages = 335–42 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17661021 | doi = 10.1007/s00216-007-1489-3 | s2cid = 21971745 }}</ref>
*{{le|神經毒性貝毒中毒|Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning}} (NSP) <ref name=nspb>{{cite journal | vauthors = Poli MA, Musser SM, Dickey RW, Eilers PP, Hall S | title = Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and brevetoxin metabolites: a case study from Florida | journal = Toxicon | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 981–93 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10728835 | doi = 10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00191-9 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1259725 }}</ref><ref name=bnba>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Morohashi A, Satake M, Murata K, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Yasumoto T| title = Brevetoxin B3, a new brevetoxin nalog isolated from the greenshell mussel perna canaliculus involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in new zealand | journal = [[Tetrahedron Letters]] | volume = 36 | issue = 49 | pages = 8995–98 | year = 1995 | doi = 10.1016/0040-4039(95)01969-O}}</ref><ref name=bigm>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morohashi A, Satake M, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T | title = Brevetoxin B4 isolated from greenshell mussels Perna canaliculus, the major toxin involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in New Zealand | journal = Natural Toxins | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 45–8 | date = 1999 | pmid = 10495465 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1522-7189(199903/04)7:2<45::AID-NT34>3.0.CO;2-H }}</ref>
==搜尋毒素資訊==
一般來說,當科學家確定某些物質在達到一定數量時會對人類、動物、和/或環境有害時,他們會確定達到觸發影響的數量,並訂立出安全水準。{{le|歐盟食品安全署|European Food Safety Authority}}根據1,600種科學意見對4,000多種物質進行風險評估,並把針對人類健康、動物健康、和生態危害評估的摘要放在資料庫:'''OpenFoodTox'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/data/chemical-hazards-data|title=Chemical hazards data - OpenFoodTox|website=European Food Safety Authority|language=en|access-date=2019-10-27}}</ref>之中提供公眾搜尋。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dorne JL, Richardson J, Kass G, Georgiadis N, Monguidi M, Pasinato L, Cappe S, Verhagen H, Robinson T | title = OpenFoodTox: EFSA's open source toxicological database on chemical hazards in food and feed. | journal = EFSA Journal | date = January 2017 | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = e15011 | doi = 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.e15011 | pmid = 32625280 | pmc = 7009813 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid31325634">{{cite journal | vauthors = Reilly L, Serafimova R, Partosch F, Gundert-Remy U, Cortiñas Abrahantes J, Dorne JM, Kass GE | title = Testing the thresholds of toxicological concern values using a new database for food-related substances | journal = Toxicology Letters | volume = 314 | pages = 117–123 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31325634 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.07.019 | doi-access = free }}</ref>使用這個OpenFoodTox資料庫,可用來評估新推出食物中可能存在的毒性。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearce JM, Khaksari M, Denkenberger D | title = Preliminary Automated Determination of Edibility of Alternative Foods: Non-Targeted Screening for Toxins in Red Maple Leaf Concentrate | journal = Plants | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 110 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 31027336 | pmc = 6571818 | doi = 10.3390/plants8050110 }}</ref>
目前已有許多搜索環境健康地圖的工具。像{{le|TOXMAP|TOXMAP}}是[[美國國家醫學圖書館]](NLM)轄下的專業信息服務部門<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sis.nlm.nih.gov|title=Reliable information on K-12 science education, chemistry, toxicology, environmental health, HIV/AIDS, disaster/emergency preparedness and response, and outreach to minority and other specific populations.}}</ref>所掌管的[[地理信息系統]](GIS),這個系統透過美國地圖來幫助用戶直觀瀏覽由[[美國國家環境保護局]](EPA){{le|有毒物質釋放資料|Toxics Release Inventory}}和{{le|超級基金計劃|Superfund}}(對於放置有毒物質地點的監控以及清理的機構)的數據。TOXMAP的經費來自美國聯邦政府,而化學和環境健康的資訊來自NLM的毒理學數據網絡(TOXNET)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov|title=TOXNET}}</ref>、搜索引擎{{le|PubMed|PubMed}}、以及其他權威性的來源。
==名稱遭濫用問題==
在[[庸醫]]和[[替代醫學]]的文字和用語中,任何聲稱會危害健康的物質均被冠上“毒素”的名稱。這可能包括微量的的[[農藥]],也可能是人體內腸道發酵所產生的有害物(被建議採用{{le|清洗結腸|Colon cleansing}}方式排除),還有食品成分,如[[白糖]]、[[味精]](MSG)、和[[阿斯巴甜]]。<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/detox_overview.html | title = "Detoxification" Schemes and Scams | publisher = [[Quackwatch]]}}</ref>
使用{{le|紅外線桑拿|infrared saunas}}、飲食管理、{{R|Diet}}[[脊骨神經醫學|脊椎按摩療法]]{{R|Chiro}}當作{{le|排毒|Detoxification (alternative medicine)}}(簡寫為detox)的手段,通常被指為是種營銷的技巧(稱為排毒招數,toxin gambit)),用來嚇唬公眾,讓他們尋求號稱具有療效的方法。{{R|Novella1}}這樣做對消費者在經濟上和身體上並沒益處。[[哈佛醫學院]]神經學教授{{le|史蒂文·諾維拉|Steven Novella}}在他名為“市面上的排毒是毫無價值的詐術,且有潛在風險”的文章中說,只要人們有健康的[[腎]]臟和[[肝臟]],就足以應付排毒的事。{{R|Novella}}

==參見==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
*{{le|蛛形動物毒性資料中心|ArachnoServer}}
*{{le|雙鞭毛蟲毒素|Brevetoxin}}
*{{le|海葵毒素|Cangitoxin}}
*{{le|排毒|Detoxification (alternative medicine)}}
*{{le|興奮性中毒|Excitotoxicity}}
*{{le|昆蟲毒素|Insect toxin}}
*{{le|高度毒性氣體清單|List of highly toxic gases}}
*{{le|有毒植物清單|List of poisonous plants}}
*[[次級代謝產物]]
*{{le|毒白蛋白|Toxalbumin}}
*{{le|毒理基團|Toxicophore}}
*{{le|毒素-抗毒素系统|Toxin-antitoxin system}}
{{div col end}}

== 參考文獻 ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="Novella1">{{Cite web|last=Novella|first=Stephen|date=17 February 2021|title=Infrared Saunas for "Detoxification"|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/infrared-saunas-for-detoxification/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217130441/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/infrared-saunas-for-detoxification/|archive-date=17 February 2021|access-date=17 February 2021|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>

<ref name="Diet">{{Cite web|last=Gavura|first=Scott|date=22 February 2018|title=Are we all contaminated with chemical toxins?|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/are-we-all-contaminated-with-chemical-toxins/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318045752/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/are-we-all-contaminated-with-chemical-toxins/|archive-date=18 March 2018|access-date=17 February 2021|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>

<ref name="Chiro">{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Clay|date=22 September 2017|title=Maximized Living: "5 Essentials" of Chiropractic Marketing Propaganda|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/maximized-living-5-essentials-of-chiropractic-marketing-propaganda/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009181937/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/maximized-living-5-essentials-of-chiropractic-marketing-propaganda/|archive-date=9 October 2017|access-date=17 February 2021|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>

<ref name="Novella">{{Cite web|last=Novella|first=Stephen|date=4 January 2017|title=Detox Scams are Worthless and Potentially Dangerous|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/detox-scams-are-worthless-and-potentially-dangerous/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105001128/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/detox-scams-are-worthless-and-potentially-dangerous/|archive-date=5 January 2017|access-date=17 February 2021|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>

}}

== 外部連結 ==
* [http://www.t3db.org/ T3DB: Toxin-target database]
* [http://www.t3db.org/ T3DB: Toxin-target database]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080820090609/http://protchem.hunnu.edu.cn/toxin ATDB: Animal toxin database]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080820090609/http://protchem.hunnu.edu.cn/toxin ATDB: Animal toxin database]
第95行: 第127行:
* [http://www.ecotoxmodels.org/ Website on Models & Ecotoxicology]
* [http://www.ecotoxmodels.org/ Website on Models & Ecotoxicology]


{{Toxicology}}
{{模板:毒素}}
{{毒}}
{{模板:理學}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:毒素| ]]
[[分類:毒素]]
[[Category:毒理學]]
[[分類:生物術語]]
[[分類:毒理學]]
[[分類:植物病因與病症]]
[[分類:植物病因與病症]]

2021年11月18日 (四) 09:01的版本

毒素(英語:toxin)是活細胞或生物體內所產生的有害物質;[1][2]並不包括人工合成的殺生物劑。toxin這個字最早由有機化學路德維希·布里格德语Ludwig Brieger (生卒年各為1849年和1919年) 所採用,[3]toxin這個字源自toxic(有毒的,引起中毒之意)。[4]

毒素可能是小分子、或是蛋白質,當身體組織接觸或吸收這些物質後,他們與生物的大分子(如細胞受體 )發生相互作用,而引起疾病。不同毒素的毒性差異很大,從通常很小(例如來自蜂類的螫針) 到幾乎會立即致命的(例如肉毒桿菌毒素)都有。毒素主要是次級代謝產物,屬於有機化合物,與生物體的生長、發育、或繁殖並無關係,而常與防禦的機能有關。

名稱用法

毒素通常以其產生的方式而與其他化學製劑有分別 - “毒素”這個名詞並未具體表達出傳遞的方式(與也會對於生物體造成干擾的毒液,和更廣義的毒物這兩種物質相比較),毒素只表達是種由生物所產生的毒物。

根據紅十字國際委員會對《禁止生物武器公約》的審查報告中提出,“毒素是有機體產生的有毒產物;與生物製劑不同,它們是無生命物體,無法自我繁殖”,“自公約簽署以來,參與簽署的團體們對於生物製劑或是毒素的定義並無爭議”。[5]

根據美國法典第18章英语Title 18 of the United States Code,“……”毒素“這個名詞是指植物動物微生物(包括但不限於細菌病毒真菌立克次體、或是原生動物)的有毒物質或是產物,或者是感染性物質,或是重組DNA或合成分子,無論其來源和產生的方式......“[6]

對於毒素,有種相當非正式的名詞,牽涉到它們能造成最深影響的生理部位:

從更廣大的範圍來看,毒素可分為外毒素(由生物體排泄而來),或是內毒素(主要是細菌裂解時所釋放的毒素)。

生物毒素

“生物毒素”有時用來明確指出係源自生物。[7][8]生物毒素可作進一步分類,例如分為真菌毒素微生物毒素英语microbial toxins植物毒素英语Phytotoxin、或動物生物毒素。

微生物所產生的毒素是重要的毒力決定因素,用來衡量微生物的致病性和/或避開宿主免疫反應的程度. [9]

不同生物毒素的作用和機制差異甚大,有的高度複雜(芋螺的毒液含有數十種小蛋白質,每個都會對特定的神經通道或受體發生作用),也有是相對小的蛋白質。

自然界存在的生物毒素有兩種主要功能:

一些更為知名的生物毒素類型有:

  • 神經毒素主要是對動物的神經系統產生影響。這類毒素通常會破壞離子通道的電導。會產生神經毒素的生物體有:
  • 肌肉毒素英语Myotoxin是種存在蛇和蜥蜴毒液中的基本型肽,它們通過非酶受體的機制而造成肌肉組織損傷。擁有這類毒素的生物體有:
  • 細胞毒素會造成細胞中毒,無論是透過一般方式,或是僅對某些特定類型的活細胞發生作用:

生物毒素作為生物武器

許多動物和昆蟲使用毒素達到捕食或是防禦的目的。我們必須知道,即使少量毒素也能導致疾病,造成數以千計的人死亡。由於恐怖分子有機會得到各式的毒素作為武器使用。容許恐怖分子使用毒素做武器使用會產生重大危機。[12][13]我們應該對生物戰要有更多的了解,以及知道在這類情況之下如何保護自己。 [12][14]

環境毒素

“環境毒素”這個名詞有時就明確的包括有合成的污染物[15],例如工業污染物和其他人工製造的毒性物質。由於這與多數的“毒素”正式定義相矛盾,因此當遇到研究人員提出的是微生物之外的內容時,必須要確定他們所指為何。

食物鏈中的環境毒素,可能會危害到人類健康的有:

搜尋毒素資訊

一般來說,當科學家確定某些物質在達到一定數量時會對人類、動物、和/或環境有害時,他們會確定達到觸發影響的數量,並訂立出安全水準。歐盟食品安全署英语European Food Safety Authority根據1,600種科學意見對4,000多種物質進行風險評估,並把針對人類健康、動物健康、和生態危害評估的摘要放在資料庫:OpenFoodTox[26]之中提供公眾搜尋。[27][28]使用這個OpenFoodTox資料庫,可用來評估新推出食物中可能存在的毒性。[29]

目前已有許多搜索環境健康地圖的工具。像TOXMAP英语TOXMAP美國國家醫學圖書館(NLM)轄下的專業信息服務部門[30]所掌管的地理信息系統(GIS),這個系統透過美國地圖來幫助用戶直觀瀏覽由美國國家環境保護局(EPA)有毒物質釋放資料英语Toxics Release Inventory超級基金計劃英语Superfund(對於放置有毒物質地點的監控以及清理的機構)的數據。TOXMAP的經費來自美國聯邦政府,而化學和環境健康的資訊來自NLM的毒理學數據網絡(TOXNET)[31]、搜索引擎PubMed、以及其他權威性的來源。

名稱遭濫用問題

庸醫替代醫學的文字和用語中,任何聲稱會危害健康的物質均被冠上“毒素”的名稱。這可能包括微量的的農藥,也可能是人體內腸道發酵所產生的有害物(被建議採用清洗結腸英语Colon cleansing方式排除),還有食品成分,如白糖味精(MSG)、和阿斯巴甜[32]

使用紅外線桑拿英语infrared saunas、飲食管理、[33]脊椎按摩療法[34]當作排毒英语Detoxification (alternative medicine)(簡寫為detox)的手段,通常被指為是種營銷的技巧(稱為排毒招數,toxin gambit)),用來嚇唬公眾,讓他們尋求號稱具有療效的方法。[35]這樣做對消費者在經濟上和身體上並沒益處。哈佛醫學院神經學教授史蒂文·諾維拉英语Steven Novella在他名為“市面上的排毒是毫無價值的詐術,且有潛在風險”的文章中說,只要人們有健康的臟和肝臟,就足以應付排毒的事。[36]

參見

參考文獻

  1. ^ 道兰氏医学词典中的toxin
  2. ^ toxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. [13 December 2008]. 
  3. ^ Brade, Helmut. Endotoxin in Health and Disease. CRC Press. 1999. ISBN 978-0824719449. 
  4. ^ Harper, Douglas. toxin. Online Etymology Dictionary. 
  5. ^ The Biological Weapons Convention – An overview. [13 December 2008]. 
  6. ^ U.S. Code. [13 December 2008]. (原始内容存档于21 July 2011). 
  7. ^ biotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. [13 December 2008]. 
  8. ^ 道兰氏医学词典中的biotoxin
  9. ^ Proft T (编). Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends. Caister Academic Press. 2009. ISBN 978-1-904455-44-8. 
  10. ^ https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/necrotoxin
  11. ^ Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary 32nd. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier. 2012: 1236. ISBN 978-1-4160-6257-8. 
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Editors, U. F. Toxins: Venom within Living Cells or Organisms. Unrevealed Files. [2021-07-17] (美国英语). 
  13. ^ Biotoxins: Bioweapons. www.biosciences-labs.bham.ac.uk. [2021-07-17]. 
  14. ^ Płusa, Tadeusz. [Toxins as a biological weapon]. Polski Merkuriusz Lekarski. September 2015, 39 (231): 131–133. ISSN 1426-9686. PMID 26449572. 
  15. ^ Grigg J. Environmental toxins; their impact on children's health. Archives of Disease in Childhood. March 2004, 89 (3): 244–50. PMC 1719840可免费查阅. PMID 14977703. doi:10.1136/adc.2002.022202. 
  16. ^ Vale C, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Romarís XM, Arévalo F, Botana AM, Botana LM. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin potency and the influence of the pH of extraction. Analytical Chemistry. March 2008, 80 (5): 1770–6. PMID 18232710. doi:10.1021/ac7022266. 
  17. ^ Oikawa H, Fujita T, Saito K, Satomi M, Yano Y. Difference in the level of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin accumulation between the crabs Telmessus acutidens and Charybdis japonica collected in Onahama, Fukushima Prefecture. Fisheries Science. 2008, 73 (2): 395–403. S2CID 22926782. doi:10.1111/j.1444-2906.2007.01347.x. 
  18. ^ Abouabdellah R, Taleb H, Bennouna A, Erler K, Chafik A, Moukrim A. Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin profile of mussels Perna perna from southern Atlantic coasts of Morocco. Toxicon. April 2008, 51 (5): 780–6. PMID 18237757. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.12.004. 
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  20. ^ Wang L, Vaquero E, Leão JM, Gogo-Martínez A, Rodríguez Vázquez JA. Optimization of conditions for the liquid chromatographic-electrospray lonization-mass spectrometric analysis of amnesic shellfish poisoning toxins. Chromatographia. 2001, 53 (1): S231–35. S2CID 97937094. doi:10.1007/BF02490333. 
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外部連結