马来族
马来族 Orang Melayu أورڠ ملايو | |
---|---|
总人口 | |
约3000 万 | |
分布地区 | |
马来西亚: 15,479,600[1] 汶莱: 261,902 | |
起源地 | . |
印尼 | 5,365,399[2] |
泰国 | 1,964,384[3] |
新加坡 | 653,449[4] |
缅甸 | ~27,000[5] |
海外分布 | . |
南非 | ~200,000[6] |
斯里兰卡 | 40,189[7] |
澳大利亚 | 33,183[8] |
英国 | ~33,000[9] |
语言 | |
作为官方语言: 马来语群语言: 其他语言: | |
宗教信仰 | |
伊斯兰教 | |
注释 | |
^ note: Highly naturalised population of mixed origins, but using the 'Malay' identity |
马来族(马来语:Etnik Melayu;英语:Malays),习惯上多称为马来人,旧时又译为巫来由人 ,故当地华语常以巫为族名简称,分布于东南亚。马来族有狭义和广义之分,前者指分布于马来半岛南部及苏门答腊东南部的一个民族,该民族在马来半岛人口最多。而广义上,马来族有时候也用来指马来语(印尼语)族群甚至整个南岛语系族群。[10]
从15世纪马六甲苏丹王朝始,大量马来人由古代佛教、印度教转为皈依伊斯兰教,主要分布于东南亚的马来半岛、圣诞岛、科科斯(基林)群岛、印度尼西亚、新加坡、文莱、菲律宾和大洋洲等。
马来人名称由来
[编辑]这名称可能来自苏门答腊岛上一个约1500年前由印度人所建立的古国——末罗瑜(马来文亦是Melayu )。末罗瑜遗址位于现苏门答腊岛上一条河流 上游的支流巫来由河(Sungai Melayu) 附近。后来末罗瑜被苏门答腊岛上的另一个著名古国三佛齐所并吞。
另一种说法是“Melayu”这名词来自印度的梵文中一读音为Malaya 的词。这梵文词的意思为山或高处。
马来文学作品《马来纪年》将“Melayu”的词源与印尼苏门答腊的巫来由河(Sungai Melayu)联系在一起。这个词被认为是由马来语“melaju”衍生而来的,“melaju”是一个词前缀“me”和词根“laju”的组合,意思是“加速”,用来描述河流加速的强劲水流。[11]
“Melayu”用来指称一个明显包含不同的民族的群体被认为在15世纪时,马六甲王国作为马来群岛的区域力量整合的结果。它是马六甲王国人民对国外人士,特别是爪哇人和泰国人的一种社会偏见。[12] 这一点从16世纪早期由参与麦哲伦环球航行探险家安东尼奥·皮加费塔所列出的马来单词列表就可以看出,它提到了马来方式(chiara Malaiu)在海洋东南亚的应用,指代说马六甲语(al parlare de Malaea)。[13]
马来语原词“Melayu”,在葡萄牙语中被用成“Malaio”,后来成为在荷兰语中“Malayo”,最终再成为英语中的“Malay”。在15世纪之前,“Melayu”及其发音相似的变体一般是指马六甲海峡地区的一个古老地名。[14]
- Malaya Dwipa:在《伐由往世书》第48章中被提及是东海一个充满金银财宝的省份。一些学者将此词等同于苏门答腊岛[15],但一些印度学者认为这个词应该指的是多山的马来半岛而素万那普才是指苏门答腊岛。[16][17][18][19][20]
- Maleu-kolon - 在托勒密作品《地理学指南》中指的黄金半岛位置。[21]
- 末罗瑜:唐代僧人义净在其《大唐西域求法高僧传》和《南海寄归内法传》提及的古国。根据作品内容,末罗瑜坐落的地点从室利佛逝国的首府巨港坐船航行15日可达,从末罗瑜出发到羯荼国也需要15日。所以可以推测末罗瑜位置介于两者之间。[22] 一个著名的理论将末罗瑜和占碑关联起来[23],但依据义净的作品占碑是坐落在羯荼与巨港之间一半路程。在后来的元朝(1271–1368年)与明朝(1368–1644年),也有不少作品提及末罗瑜国,但称呼不一样,比如:木剌由、麻里予儿、巫来由、无来由等。
- Malayur:被刻在印度泰米尔纳德邦的布里哈迪希瓦拉神庙的南墙上。它被描述是一个在马来半岛拥有坚固的山的王国,在11世纪落入了朱罗王朝皇帝罗贞陀罗·朱罗一世(Rajendra Chola I)的手中。
- Bhūmi Mālayu:Bhūmi 是“...之地”之意,该词在年份为1286年的巴当洛克基石(Prasasti Padang Roco)铭文中被提及。[24]该词和德哈马斯拉雅(Dharmasraya)王国关联。
- 麻里予儿:在元朝纪传体史书《元史》中提及的一个面临素可泰王国兰甘亨大帝时期南扩威胁的马来半岛王国。[25]该作品写道“以暹人与麻里予儿旧相仇杀”,为此中国使者在1295年前往暹罗,旨谕暹人“勿伤麻里予儿,以践尔言”。[26]
- Malauir:在马可波罗的记述中提到的一个位于马来半岛的王国[27][28],可能与《元史》中提及的是同一个王国。
另外,爪哇语中的“mlayu”来源于“mlaku”或马来语“melaju”,指的是该国人民的高流动性和迁徙性质,然而这说法虽然流行但没有确凿的证据。 有些人,特别是汉语地区的汉语使用者,误将马来人当成马来西亚人的简称,向他们自认是马来西亚人就会被误解是在自认是马来人。其实马来人只是马来西亚的民族之一,马来西亚人不等于马来人。而马来西亚人指的是拥有马来西亚国籍的人士,包括马来人、华人、印度人三大民族及各少数民族。马来西亚人的简称可用大马/马国人。如:大马本土华人可以被称为“马来西亚华人”、“马国华人”或“大马华人” 。
马来人的起源
[编辑]原始马来人
[编辑]原马来人(马来文:Melayu Proto)是第一批到达南洋群岛的马来人,目前使用的语言属于南岛语系,他们在新石器时代晚期迁徙至南洋群岛。书籍 The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early History 指出了马来人起源的三大理论,但是历史学界尚无定论。 值得注意的是,现今存在的原马来人依旧可见,他们包括了莫肯人、Orang Jakun、Orang Kuala、Orang Temuan和Orang Kanaq。[41]
南亚起源说
[编辑]发表于1889年,主要的支持者有R.H Geldern, J.H.C Kern, J.R Foster, J.R Logen, Slametmuljana 和Asmah Haji Omar等。南亚起源说的依据如下:
- 在马来群岛发现的古老斧头,与南亚的某些地区类似,说明有南亚居民移民马来群岛。
- 马来族的风俗与阿萨姆地区类似(阿萨姆是印度与缅甸之间的地区)。
- 马来语与柬埔寨的高棉语(属于南亚语系)相似,而高棉人又被认为来自于南亚,当年他们沿着湄公河南下到柬埔寨。
南亚起源说被广大人群所接受,马来西亚的中学历史课本中都介绍马来人起源于南亚。但已被现代分子人类学(基因研究)否决。[29]
马来群岛起源说
[编辑]发表于1965年,支持者有J.Crawfurd、K.Himly、Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana和Gorys Keraf等。马来群岛起源说的的依据如下:
- K.Himly不同意马来语与高棉语相似。认为二语相似只是表面印象,没有足够理据。
- 爪哇岛发现的爪哇猿人(学名:Homo erectus erectus)、梭罗猿人 (学名:Homo erectus soloensis)和维杰人 (学名:Homo wajakensis)化石表明马来人是马来群岛起源,可能马来人就是来自爪哇岛。
- 马来群岛各族的语言与南亚属于印欧语系的语言有异。
马来群岛起源论在马来西亚只得到极少数人的支持。
台湾起源说
[编辑]发表于1997年。一般认为是在公元前4,000年左右,在东亚大陆南部与中南半岛一带的原住民族,移居台湾,之后由台湾开始向外拓展,形成南岛民族。包括贾德·戴蒙在内的一些学者依据历史语言学的证据,支持台湾起源说,这是因为南岛语言在台湾有最高的多样性:据白乐思的研究,南岛语言的十大语支有九支都在台湾。另外张至善等人分析南岛民族传统作物构树的基因多样性后,认为南岛民族的祖先应是自东亚大陆南部将构树带到台湾,再从台湾传至各太平洋岛屿[30]。
混血马来人
[编辑]混血马来人(马来文:Melayu Deutro)是铁器时代的人,从属于南岛民族。 混血马来人和原马来人相比,拥有更先进的耕作技术和对金属的认识。[31]他们更加蒙古人种化,与原马来人相比具有较小的身躯、较暗的皮肤、卷发的出现频率较高,头型狭长的百分比高得多,并且拥有内眦赘皮的可能性明显较低。[31]相比之下,混血马来人较倾向于定居者而不是游牧者,他们定居并建立了“甘榜”(马来语:kampung,意为马来人村庄)作为社会主要单位。这些甘榜通常位于河岸或沿海地区,在食物和其他必需品中自给自足。在公元前上个世纪末,这些甘榜开始与外界进行一些贸易。[32]混血马来人被认为是当今马来西亚马来人的直接祖先。[33] 一些学者将原马来人及混血马来人又合称南岛人(英文:Austronesian ),二者的文化为新石器时代的文化。南岛人其实是最后移入马来群岛的人群。之前迁入的有澳大利亚人种(英文:Australoid),矮黑人(英文:Negrito)和美拉尼西亚人(英文:Melanesoid)。
遗传史
[编辑]马来人是东南亚岛屿和马来半岛的一个讲南岛语的族群。 2021/2022 年的一项研究得出结论,一个独特的东亚祖先血统(有时称为“东亚和东南亚血统”(ESEA))起源于东南亚大陆,大约在公元前 50,000 年,并在多个波浪中分别向南和向北扩展.这个人口是现代安爬曼矮黑人、东亚和东南亚人、波利尼西亚人和西伯利亚人的祖先,但与欧洲人或澳大利亚原住民不同。
早期东亚血统(以安达曼矮黑人为代表),以及后来的南亚语系稻作人群,在南岛语系人群扩张之前就已经扩散到东南亚沿海地区。南岛语使用者本身被认为是在公元前 10,000 至 7,000 年间从中国南部沿海抵达台湾和菲律宾北部,并从那里传播到整个东南亚岛屿。作者得出的结论是,现代说南岛语的民族,如马来人,其祖先主要来自早期东亚人、来自中南半岛的说南亚语的移民以及来自菲律宾的说南岛语的人群混合而形成。[35][36]。
根据2016年最新论文,一例距今四千多年前的马来半岛古人考古样本,其基因不含南岛血统,也与现代马来人差距甚远,性质更接近安达曼矮黑人。[37]
注释
[编辑]- ^ “巫来由”,闽南语白话字:Bû-lâi-iû,耶鲁粤语拼音:Mòuh-lòih-yàuh,客语白话字:Mù-lòi-yù。
- ^ “末罗瑜”最初是唐朝僧人义净《大唐西域求法高僧传》对苏门达腊某地的译名,到了《元史》则称马来半岛为“麻里予”。
- ^ 河流名称马来文Sungai Batang Hari。
- ^ Sungai Melayu无中文译名,Sungai在马来文中即是“河流”之意,Sungai Melayu或可译为“末罗瑜河”。
- ^ 例如喜马拉雅山脉,梵文是Himalaya。Hima是雪、寒冷的意思;Malaya是山、山脉,Himalaya在梵文中乃雪山之意。
- ^ 马来文Indonesian亦是现代印尼人的称呼,而南岛人是马来西亚华人的官方中文译名。以区别二不同之Indonesian而如此译。
- ^ 梭罗猿人的化石于爪哇岛上梭罗河(马来文:Sungai Solo〕附近发现,因而得名。梭罗猿人直立,但没脱离猿人阶段。
- ^ 维杰人的化石于爪哇岛南岸维杰(马来文:Wajak)地方发现。是东南亚发现的最早真人化石。约生存于1万2千年前。
- ^ “巫裔”多用来专指马来西亚的马来人。
参考文献
[编辑]引注
[编辑]- ^ Economic Planning Unit (Malaysia) 2010
- ^ Badan Pusat Statistika Indonesia 2010,第9页
- ^ World Population Review 2015
- ^ CIA World Factbook 2012
- ^ Malay in Myanmar - Joshua Project. [2017-08-11]. (原始内容存档于2022-08-22).
- ^ Malay, Cape in South Africa - Joshua Project. [2017-08-11]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-12).
- ^ Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka - Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012. [2017-08-11]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-28).
- ^ Australia - Ancestry. [2017-08-11]. (原始内容存档于2023-01-03).
- ^ Malay in United Kingdom - Joshua Project. [2017-08-11]. (原始内容存档于2022-09-25).
- ^ 马来人的起源与演变 - 广义的马来人. [2018-06-11]. (原始内容存档于2019-05-02).
- ^ Abdul Rashid Melebek & Amat Juhari Moain 2006,第9–10页
- ^ Barnard 2004,第4页.
- ^ Milner 2010,第22页
- ^ Barnard 2004,第3页
- ^ Deka 2007,第57页
- ^ Pande 2005,第266页
- ^ Gopal 2000,第139页
- ^ Ahir 1995,第612页
- ^ Mukerjee 1984,第212页
- ^ Sarkar 1970,第8页
- ^ Gerini 1974,第101页
- ^ I Ching 2005,第xl-xli页
- ^ Melayu Online 2005
- ^ Muljana 1981,第223页
- ^ Guoxue 2003
- ^ Hall 1981,第190页
- ^ Cordier 2009,第105页
- ^ Wright 2004,第364–365页
- ^ Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of four geographical Malay populations. [2023-09-02]. (原始内容存档于2023-09-02). 已忽略未知参数
|data=
(帮助) - ^ 锺国芳. 民俗植物訴說的「出臺灣說」?台灣是太平洋構樹的原鄉. PanSci 泛科学. 2015-10-10 [2017-01-09]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-30).
- ^ 31.0 31.1 Murdock 1969,第278页
- ^ Jamil Abu Bakar 2002,第39页
- ^ TED 1999
- ^ Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of four geographical Malay populations. 已忽略未知参数
|data=
(帮助) - ^ Larena, Maximilian; Sanchez-Quinto, Federico; Sjödin, Per; McKenna, James; Ebeo, Carlo; Reyes, Rebecca; Casel, Ophelia; Huang, Jin-Yuan; Hagada, Kim Pullupul. Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2021-03-30, 118 (13): e2026132118 [2022-04-16]. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 8020671 . PMID 33753512. doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118. (原始内容存档于2022-05-05).
- ^ Yang, Melinda A. A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia. Human Population Genetics and Genomics. 2022-01-06, 2 (1) [2022-04-16]. ISSN 2770-5005. doi:10.47248/hpgg2202010001. (原始内容存档于2022-05-16) (英语).
- ^ The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia. [2023-09-02]. (原始内容存档于2023-08-29).
书目
[编辑]- Abd. Rahman Ismail, Seni Silat Melayu: Sejarah, Perkembangan dan Budaya, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2008, ISBN 978-983-62-9934-5
- Abdulla, M. A. Mapping Human Genetic Diversity in Asia. Science. December 2009, 326 (5959): 1541–1545. Bibcode:2009Sci...326.1541.. PMID 20007900. S2CID 34341816. doi:10.1126/science.1177074. 已忽略未知参数
|collaboration=
(帮助) - Abu Talib Ahmad; Tan, Liok Ee, New terrains in Southeast Asian history, Singapore: Ohio University press, 2003, ISBN 978-9971-69-269-8
- Ahir, Diwan Chand, A Panorama of Indian Buddhism: Selections from the Maha Bodhi journal, 1892–1992, Sri Satguru Publications, 1995, ISBN 978-81-7030-462-3
- Ahmad Salehuddin, Serampang dua belas, Tari Tradisional Kesultanan Serdang, 2009 [2012-06-15], (原始内容存档于2012-06-15)
- Alexander, James, Malaysia Brunei & Singapore, New Holland Publishers, 2006, ISBN 978-1-86011-309-3
- Ali, Tongkat. Negeri Rahman, hilangnya sebutir permata [State of Rahman, the loss of a gem]. 2010-02-01 [2011-04-02]. (原始内容存档于2011-08-19) (马来语).
- Amin, Tarek Abd El-Hamid Ahmed. Anglo-German Rivalry in the Malay Peninsula and Siam, 1870–1909 (学位论文). Universiti Malaya. 1995 [2020-08-25]. (原始内容存档于2022-09-25).
- Anderbeck, Karl. Suku Batin – A Proto-Malay People? Evidence from Historical Linguistics. The Sixth International Symposium on Malay/Indonesian Linguistics, 3 – 5 August 2002, Nirwana Resort Hotel, Bintan Island, Riau, Indonesia. 2002 [2018-07-29]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-04).
- Anuar Nik Mahmud, Nik, Sejarah Perjuangan Melayu Pattani, Bangi: Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 1999, ISBN 9789679424430
- Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Yuzon, A History of Malaysia, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1984, ISBN 978-0-333-27672-3
- Angahsunan. Pusaka, Rahsia Dan Dzat Keris. The Patriots. 2017-07-16 [2017-11-20]. (原始内容存档于2017-09-23).
- Azmi Arifin, Traditional Malay Pottery of Kuala Kangsar: Its History and Development, School of Humanities and Sciencesm, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2015
- Baer, A. S. Eden in the East, Stephen Oppenheimer. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998.. Book Reviews. Asian Perspectives. Fall 1999, 38 (2): 256–258 [2020-08-24]. (原始内容存档于2022-09-25).
- Barnard, Timothy P., Contesting Malayness: Malay identity across boundaries, Singapore: Singapore University press, 2004, ISBN 978-9971-69-279-7
- Barrington, Lowell, After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, University of Michigan Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-472-06898-2
- Bolton, Kingsley; Hutton, Christopher, Triad societies: western accounts of the history, sociology and linguistics of Chinese secret societies 5, London: Routledge, 2000, ISBN 978-0-415-24397-1
- Boyd, Kelly, Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing 2, London: Fitzroy Darborn Publishers, 1999, ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6
- Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah, Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world, Elsevier Science, 2009, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7
- Burgat, François, Face to face with political Islam (L'islamisme en face), New York: I.B Tauris & Co. Ltd, 2003, ISBN 978-1-86064-212-8
- Joseph Norbert Frans Marie à Campo. Engines of Empire: Steamshipping and State Formation in Colonial Indonesia. Hilversum: Verloren. 2002. ISBN 978-9-06550738-9.
- Chew, Melanie, The Presidential Notes: A biography of President Yusof bin Ishak, Singapore: SNP Publications, 1999, ISBN 978-981-4032-48-3
- Chihara, Daigorō, Hindu-Buddhist architecture in Southeast Asia, BRILL, 1996, ISBN 978-90-04-10512-6
- Cikgu Paklong, Tembikar, Scribd, 2017 [2017-11-22], (原始内容存档于2020-08-03)
- Clyne, Michael G., Pluricentric languages: differing norms in different nations, De Gruyter Mouton, 1992, ISBN 978-3-11-012855-0
- Cœdès, George. The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. 1968 [2020-06-20]. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1. (原始内容存档于2023-01-23).
- Colling, Patricia (编), Dissertation Abstracts International, A-The Humanities and Social Sciences 33, New York: Xerox University Microfilms, #8, 1973, ISSN 0419-4209 (Abstracts of Dissertations Available on Microfilm or as Xerographic Reproductions February 1973)
- Cordier, Henri, Ser Marco Polo; notes and addenda to Sir Henry Yule's edition, containing the results of recent research and discovery, Bibliolife, 2009, ISBN 978-1-110-77685-6
- Crawfurd, John. A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries. London: Bradbury and Evans. 1856.
- Deka, Phani, The great Indian corridor in the east, Mittal Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-81-8324-179-3
- Devan, Subhadra, New interest in an older Lembah Bujang, NST, 2010 [2012-06-21], (原始内容存档于2012-12-01)
- Draeger, Donn F., Weapons and fighting arts of Indonesia, Tuttle Publishing, 1992, ISBN 978-0-8048-1716-5
- Economic Planning Unit (Malaysia), Population by sex, ethnic group and age, Malaysia,2010 (PDF), 2010 [2010-11-27], (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2011-07-22)
- Esposito, John L., The Oxford History of Islam, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9
- Europa Publications Staff, Far East and Australasia (34th edition), Routledge, 2002, ISBN 978-1-85743-133-9
- Farrer, D. S., Shadows of the Prophet: Martial Arts and Sufi Mysticism, Springer, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4020-9355-5
- Ford, R. Clyde, Malay Literature, Popular Science Monthly, 1899, 55
- Ganguly, Šumit, Government Policies and Ethnic Relations in Asia and the Pacific, MIT press, 1997, ISBN 978-0-262-52245-8
- Gerini, Gerolamo Emilio, Researches on Ptolemy's geography of eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay archipelago), New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1974, OCLC 1068575751
- Ghulam Sarwar Yousof, The Malay Shadow Play: An Introduction, The Asian Centre, 1997, ISBN 978-983-9499-02-5
- Gibson-Hill, C. A. Notes on the old Cannon found in Malaya, and known to be of Dutch origin. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. July 1953, 26 (1): 145–174. JSTOR 41502911.
- Gopal, Lallanji, The economic life of northern India: c. A.D. 700–1200, Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 978-81-208-0302-2
- Green, Thomas A., Martial arts of the world: An Encyclopedia., Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Inc, 2001, ISBN 978-1-57607-150-2
- Gulrose Karim, Information Malaysia 1990–91 Yearbook, Muslim identity and Islam: misinterpreted in the contemporary world, Kuala Lumpur: Berita Publishing Sdn. Bhd, 1990, ISBN 978-81-7827-165-1
- Halimi, Ahmad Jelani & Pitchai, Mohd Yusoff Mydin. Setoi (Setul) Mambang Segara Dalam Lintasan Sejarah Negeri-Negeri Melayu Utara. Jurnal Perspektif. 2016, 8 (2): 123–134 [2017-09-17]. ISSN 1985-496X. (原始内容存档于2017-09-16).
- Hall, Daniel George Edward, History of South East Asia, Macmillan, 1981, ISBN 978-0-333-24163-9
- Hall, Thomas D., Comparing Globalizations Historical and World-Systems Approaches, 2017 [2020-10-27], ISBN 9783319682198, (原始内容存档于2023-03-31)
- Harper, Timothy Norman, The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya, London: Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-521-00465-7
- Hassan, Hanisa. A Study on the Development of Baju Kurung Design in the Context of Cultural Changes in Modern Malaysia (PDF). Wacana Seni Journal of Arts Discourse (Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia). 2016, 15: 63–94 [2018-11-22]. doi:10.21315/ws2016.15.3 . (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2018-12-22).
- He, Baogang; Galligan, Brian; Inoguchi, Takashi, Federalism in Asia, London: Edward Elgar Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-1-84720-140-9
- Henket, Hubert-Jan; Heynen, Hilde, Back from utopia: the challenge of the modern movement, Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2002, ISBN 978-90-6450-483-9
- Herwig, Holger H. "Luxury' Fleet": The Imperial German Navy 1888-1918 1st. London; Boston: Allen & Unwin. 1980. ISBN 978-0-04943023-5.
- Hunter, William Wilson; Roberts, Paul Ernest, A History of British India: To the Overthrow of the English in the Spice Archipelago, Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 978-1-145-70716-0
- Husain, M. G., Muslim identity and Islam: misinterpreted in the contemporary world, New Delhi: Manak Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-81-7827-165-1
- Hussin Mutalib, Islam in Southeast Asia, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2008, ISBN 978-981-230-758-3
- I Ching, Takakusu, Junjiro , 编, A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671–695), Asian Educational Services, 2005, ISBN 978-81-206-1622-6
- IBP, Brunei Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah Handbook, Washington DC: International Business Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-1-4330-0444-5
- Irma Musliana, Kenapa Bilah Keris Bengkok? Sejarah Keris Melayu Yang Kita Tidak Pernah Dengar., 2016 [2017-11-20], (原始内容存档于2017-12-01)
- Jaaffar, Johan; Hussain, Safian; Ahmad, Mohd Thani, History of Modern Malay Literature 2, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka & Ministry of Education (Malaysia), 1992, ISBN 978-983-62-2745-4
- James, Michael, Black Belt, Black Belt. Buyer's Guide (Rainbow Publications), 1994, ISSN 0277-3066
- Jamil Abu Bakar, A design guide of public parks in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit UTM, 2002, ISBN 978-983-52-0274-2
- Jermsawatdi, Promsak, Thai art with Indian influences, Abhinav Publications, 1989, ISBN 978-81-7017-090-7
- Johns, Anthony Hearle; Lahoud, Nelly, Islam in world politics, New York: Routledge, 2005, ISBN 978-0-415-32411-3
- Joseph, Suad; Najmabadi, Afsaneh, Economics, Education, Mobility And Space (Encyclopedia of women & Islamic cultures), Brill Academic Publishers, 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-12820-0
- Kusuma, Williem Wira. Keris 7 Liku Peninggalan Zaman Sriwijaya. Tribun images. 2011-06-15 [2017-11-20]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-01).
- Leyden, John, Malay Annals: Translated from the Malay Language, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1821
- Littrup, Lisbeth, Identity in Asian literature, Richmond: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 1996, ISBN 978-0-7007-0367-8
- Lockard, Craig A., Southeast Asia in world history, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-19-533811-9
- Lumholtz, Carl Sofus, Through Central Borneo, Kessinger publishing, 2004, ISBN 978-1-4191-8996-8
- Majlis Kebudayaan Negeri Kedah, Intisari kebudayaan Melayu Kedah: Kumpulan rencana mengenai kebudayaan Negeri Kedah, Majlis Kebudayaan Negeri Kedah, 1986
- Marshall Cavendish, World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2007, ISBN 978-0-7614-7631-3
- Marzuki bin Haji Mohd Seruddin, Program Kerjasama Brunei-Malaysia tingkatkan seni Budaya, Pelita Brunei, 2009 [2012-06-15], (原始内容存档于2012-08-05)
- Matusky, Patricia Ann, Malaysian shadow play and music: continuity of an oral tradition, Oxford University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-967-65-3048-6
- Maznah Mohammad, The Malay handloom weavers: a study of the rise and decline of traditional manufacture, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1996, ISBN 978-981-3016-99-6
- McNair, Sylvia, Malaysia (Enchantment of the World. Second Series), Children's Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-516-21009-4
- Melayu Online, Melayu Online.com's Theoretical Framework, 2005 [2012-02-04], (原始内容存档于2012-10-21)
- Melebek, Abdul Rashid; Moain, Amat Juhari, Sejarah Bahasa Melayu ("History of the Malay Language"), Utusan Publications & Distributors, 2006, ISBN 978-967-61-1809-7
- Milner, Anthony, The Malays (The Peoples of South-East Asia and the Pacific), Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4443-3903-1
- Ministry of Culture, Singapore, Singapore: facts and pictures, Singapore Facts and Figures, 1973, ISSN 0217-7773
- Mohamad Tajuddin Haji Mohamad Rasdi, The architectural heritage of the Malay world: the traditional houses, Skudai, Johor Darul Ta'zim: Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 2005, ISBN 978-983-52-0357-2
- Mohamed Anwar Omar Din, Asal Usul Orang Melayu: Menulis Semula Sejarahnya (The Malay Origin: Rewrite Its History), Jurnal Melayu, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2011 [2012-06-04], (原始内容存档于2019-12-09)
- Mohd Fauzi Yaacob, Malaysia: Transformasi dan perubahan sosial, Kuala Lumpur: Arah Pendidikan Sdn Bhd, 2009, ISBN 978-967-323-132-4
- Mohd. Zamberi A. Malek., Patani dalam tamadun Melayu, Pendeta Discovery Universiti Malaya, 1994, ISBN 9789836241214
- Mok, Opalyn. Archaeologists search for a king in Sungai Batu. Malay Mail. 2017-06-09 [2017-11-28]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-01).
- Moore, Wendy, West Malaysia and Singapore, Singapore: Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd, 1998, ISBN 978-962-593-179-1
- Mukerjee, Radhakamal, The culture and art of India, Coronet Books Inc, 1984, ISBN 978-81-215-0114-9
- Muljana, Slamet, Kuntala, Sriwijaya Dan Suwarnabhumi, Jakarta: Yayasan Idayu, 1981, OCLC 565235680 (印度尼西亚语)
- Muljana, Slamet, Stapel, Frederik Willem , 编, Sriwijaya, Yogyakarta: LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006, ISBN 978-979-8451-62-1 (印度尼西亚语)
- Munoz, Paul Michel, Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula, Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2006, ISBN 978-981-4155-67-0
- Murdock, George Peter, Studies in the science of society, Singapore: Books for Libraries Press, 1969, ISBN 978-0-8369-1157-2
- Na'im, Akhsan; Syaputra, Hendry, Sumarwanto; Iriantono, Tono , 编, Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama, dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia – Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010 [Indonesian Citizens' Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Everyday Language – Results of the 2010 Population Census] (PDF), Jakarta, Indonesia: Badan Pusat Statistik [Central Bureau of Statistics], 2010 [2017-07-19], ISBN 978-979-064-417-5, (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2017-07-12) (印度尼西亚语)
- Niza, Syefiri Moniz Mohd. Keris masih simbol paling penting. Utusan online. 2016-06-10 [2017-11-20]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-01).
- Noor, Farish Ahmad; Khoo, Eddin, Spirit of wood: the art of Malay woodcarving : works by master carvers from Kelantan, Terengganu, and Pattani, Singapore: Periplus Editions, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7946-0103-4
- O'Reilly, Dougald J. W., Early civilizations of Southeast Asia, Rowman Altamira Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-7591-0278-1
- Ooi, Keat Gin, Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, ABC-CLIO, 2004 [2020-10-27], ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2, (原始内容存档于2023-01-16)
- Oppenheimer, Stephen. The 'Austronesian' Story and Farming-language Dispersals: Caveats on the Timing and Independence in Proxy Lines of Evidence from the Indo-European Model. Bacas, Elizabeth A.; Glover, Ian C.; Pigott, Vincent C. (编). Uncovering Southeast Asia's Past. Singapore: NUS Press. 2006: 65–73. ISBN 978-9971-69-351-0.
- Othman, Mohd. Aris Hj., The dynamics of Malay identity, Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 1983, ISBN 978-967-942-009-8
- Pande, Govind Chandra. India's Interaction with Southeast Asia: History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 1, Part 3. Munshiram Manoharlal. 2006. ISBN 978-81-87586-24-1.
- Pearson, Michael, Trade, Circulation, and Flow in the Indian Ocean World, Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies, Palgrave Macmillan, 2015 [2020-10-27], ISBN 9781137566249, (原始内容存档于2023-03-31)
- Ramli, Rashahar. Bab Dua: Selatan Thailand, Changwat Narathiwat dan Kawasan Kajian [Chapter Two: South Thailand, Changwat Narathiwat and Study Area] (PDF). Masyarakat Melayu dan penanaman padi di Selatan Thailand : kajian kes di sebuah mubaan dalam Wilayah / Narathiwat [The Malay community and rice cultivation in southern Thailand: a case study in a regency in the Regions / Narathiwat] (学位论文). 1999 [2020-08-25]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-04) –通过Universiti Utara Malaysia Library (马来语).
- Razak, Aidila. Geneticist clarifies role of Proto-Malays in human origin. Malaysia Kini. 2012-01-24 [2020-08-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-07-27).
- Richmond, Simon, Malaysia, Singapore & Brunei, Lonely Planet publications, 2007, ISBN 978-1-74059-708-1
- Ricklefs, M.C. A Modern History of Indonesia, 2nd edition. MacMillan. 1991. ISBN 0-333-57690-X.
- Ryan, Neil Joseph, A History of Malaysia and Singapore, London: Oxford University Press, 1976, ISBN 978-0-19-580302-0
- Said, Ismail. Visual Composition of Malay Woodcarvings in Vernacular House of Peninsular Malaysia (PDF). Jurnal Teknologi (University Teknologi Malaysia). 2002, 37 (B): 43–52 [2011-01-15]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2011-07-22).
- Sanib Said. Sejarah Awal Kepulauan Melayu:Lima Buah Negeri Warisan Sarawak yang Hilang. CREAM - Current Research in Malaysia (University Malaysia Sarawak). October 2012, 1 (1): 35–44.
- Said, Ismail. Criteria for Selecting Timber Species in Malay Woodcarving. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering (University Teknologi Malaysia). May 2005, 4 (1): 17–23. S2CID 108510191. doi:10.3130/jaabe.4.17 .
- Sarkar, Himansu Bhusan, Some contributions of India to the ancient civilisation of Indonesia and Malaysia, Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 1970, ISBN 978-0-19-580302-0
- Sheikh Shamsuddin, The Malay art of self-defense: Silat Seni Gayung, Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 2005, ISBN 978-1-55643-562-1
- Sneddon, James N., The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society, University of New South Wales Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-86840-598-8
- Soares, Pedro; et al. Climate Change and Postglacial Human Dispersals in Southeast Asia. Molecular Biology and Evolution. June 2008, 25 (6): 1209–18. PMID 18359946. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn068 .
- Srinivasa, Kodaganallur Ramaswami, Asian variations in Ramayana, Singapore: Sahitya Academy, 2003, ISBN 978-81-260-1809-3
- Stearns, Peter N., The Encyclopedia of World History 1, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001, ISBN 978-0-395-65237-4
- Suryadinata, Leo, Nationalism & Globalization: East & West, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2000, ISBN 978-981-230-078-2
- Sweeney, Amin, A full hearing:orality and literacy in the Malay world, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-520-05910-8
- Syed Husin Ali, The Malays, their problems and future, Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press Sdn Bhd, 2008, ISBN 978-983-9541-62-5
- Tan, Liok Ee, The Rhetoric of Bangsa and Minzu, Monash Asia Institute, 1988, ISBN 978-0-86746-909-7
- TED, Taman Negara Rain Forest Park and Tourism, 1999, (原始内容存档于2010-06-09)
- Teeuw, Andries, The history of the Malay language. A preliminary survey, Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies, 1959 [2012-10-17], (原始内容存档于2016-03-05)
- Terrell, John Edward. Think Globally, Act Locally. Current Anthropology. August–October 1999, 40 (4): 559–560. S2CID 224792124. doi:10.1086/200054.
- Tirtosudarmo, Riwanto. The Orang Melayu and Orang Jawa in the 'Lands Below the Winds' (PDF) (Working paper). CRISE: Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity. March 2005 [25 August 2020]. CRISE Working Paper 14. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于26 November 2020).
- Umaiyah Haji Omar. Language and writing system of Bangkok Melayu (PDF). International Conference on Minority Languages and Writing Systems held on 23–26 November 2007 in Beijing, China. 2007 [2012-06-15]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-24).
- Umaiyah Haji Omar, The Assimilation of the Bangkok-Melayu Communities, Asian Scholarship Foundation, 2003 [2012-06-15], (原始内容存档于2012-09-18)
- Van Beek, Steve; Invernizzi, Luca, The arts of Thailand, New York: Tuttle Publishing, 1999, ISBN 978-962-593-262-0
- Van der Putten, Jan; Cody, Mary Kilcline, Lost Times and Untold Tales from the Malay World, Singapore: National University of Singapore press, 2009, ISBN 978-9971-69-454-8
- Winarno, Bondan. Gulai Ketam, Asam-Asam Pedas. Detik Food. 2010-06-21. (原始内容存档于2010-06-23).
- Winstedt, Richard Olaf, Shaman Saiva and Sufi (2008 edition), London: BiblioLife, 1925, ISBN 978-1-4346-8633-6
- Wolters, Oliver William, History, culture, and region in Southeast Asian perspectives, Singapore: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program Publications, 1999, ISBN 978-0-87727-725-5
- Wong, Hoy Kee, Comparative studies in Southeast Asian education, Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1973, ISBN 978-0-686-60339-9
- Wright, John, The New York Times Almanac 2001, New York: The New York Times Company, 2007, ISBN 978-1-57958-348-4
- Wright, Thomas, The travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian: the translation of Marsden revised, with a selection of his notes, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2004, ISBN 978-1-4191-8573-1
- Yunos, Rozan; Begawan, Bandar Seri. In search of Brunei Malays outside Brunei. Brunei Times. 2011-10-24. (原始内容存档于2016-05-14).
- Zakaria, Faizal Izzani. Keris jiwa Melayu dan Nusantara. Utusan online. 2016-09-03 [2017-11-20]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-01).
- Zaki Ragman, Gateway to Malay culture, Singapore: Asiapac Books Pte Ltd, 2003, ISBN 978-981-229-326-8
- Ziegler, Oswald Leopol, The world and south east Asia, Oswald Ziegler Enterprises, 1972, ISBN 978-0-909586-03-4