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性 (生物學):修订间差异

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回退我爱中华人民討論)做出的1次編輯:個人評論
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我把Sex的部分章節翻譯為中文,用以取代原有中文版內容過短的遺憾。其中關於描述真菌的繁殖方式(mating type),有請學有專精的前輩予以修正。英文版中尚有至少一半以上還沒翻譯,將另擇時間進行,還有一模板{{Sex (biology) sidebar}},將於今日稍晚中文化後加入本翻譯中。
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'''性'''({{lang-en|Sex}})是一種[[性狀|特徵]],其可決定[[有性生殖]]生物體產生[[雄性]]或是[[雌性]]的[[配子]]。<ref name="Stevenson">{{cite book| vauthors = Stevenson A, Waite M |title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|publisher=[[OUP Oxford]]|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|year=2011|page=1302|access-date=2018-03-23|url={{GBurl|id=4XycAQAAQBAJ|p=1320}}|quote=Sex: Either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and most other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions. The fact of belonging to one of these categories. The group of all members of either sex.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Alex |title=Biology of Sex |date=2018-01-01 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4875-9337-7 |pages=43–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bLhcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |access-date=2023-10-03 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Purves"/>於有性生殖過程中的雄性和雌性配子會融合,而形成[[受精卵]],之後受精卵發育成為一繼承父母雙方特徵的後代。傳統上產生較小、更具移動性配子([[精子]])的生物體被稱為雄性,而產生較大、非移動性配子([[卵細胞]])的生物體被稱為雌性。<ref name="Royle-2012">{{Cite book| vauthors = Royle NJ, Smiseth PT, Kölliker M |url={{GBurl|id=K-EUDAAAQBAJ|q=Sex+differences+in+parental+care|pg=PR5}}|title=The Evolution of Parental Care|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969257-6| veditors = Kokko H, Jennions M |editor-link1 = Hanna Kokko|pages=103|language=en|quote=The answer is that there is an agreement by convention: individuals producing the smaller of the two gamete types{{snd}}sperm or pollen{{snd}}are males, and those producing larger gametes{{snd}}eggs or ovules{{snd}}are females.}}</ref>而可同時產生兩種配子的生物體則為[[雌雄同體]]。<ref name="Purves">{{cite book|url={{GBurl|id=kS-h84pMJw4C|p=736}}|title=Life: The Science of Biology|vauthors=Purves WK, Sadava DE, [[Gordon Orians|Orians GH]], Heller HC|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7167-3873-2|page=736|quote=A single body can function as both male and female. Sexual reproduction requires both male and female haploid gametes. In most species, these gametes are produced by individuals that are either male or female. Species that have male and female members are called dioecious (from the Greek for 'two houses'). In some species, a single individual may possess both female and male reproductive systems. Such species are called monoecious ("one house") or hermaphroditic.|access-date= 2018-03-23}}</ref><ref name="Avise-2011">{{Cite book|url={{GBurl|id=jqiR8C0lEckC|q=Hermaphrodite}}|title=Hermaphroditism: A Primer on the Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Dual Sexuality|vauthors=Avise JC|date=2011|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-52715-6|pages=1–7|language=en|author-link=John Avise|access-date= 2020-09-18}}</ref>
[[File:Sperm-egg.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[動物]][[精子]]、[[卵子]]成功結合的一瞬間。]]
'''性'''是[[生物學]]中兩生物混合交換[[基因]]特徵,産生後代的[[生物過程|過程]]。


於非雌雄同體物種,其中個體的性別是透過幾個生物[[性別決定係統]]中的一種來決定。大多數[[哺乳動物]]物種都具有[[XY性別決定系統]],其中雄性通常攜帶一X和一Y[[染色體]] (XY),雌性通常攜帶兩條X染色體 (XX)。其他的動物染色體性別決定系統包含有鳥類的[[ZW性別決定系統]]和昆蟲的[[X0性別決定系統]]。另有與前述不同的{{le|環境性別決定系統|Environmental sex determination}},如[[爬蟲類]]和[[甲殼動物]]的[[溫度-性別決定系統]]。<ref name="Hake2021">{{Cite web |title=Genetic Mechanisms of Sex Determination {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-mechanisms-of-sex-determination-314/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819121941/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-mechanisms-of-sex-determination-314 |archive-date=2017-08-19|access-date=2021-04-13 |website=www.nature.com |language=en |vauthors=Hake L, O'Connor C}}</ref>
許多生物可以分為兩性,即[[雌性]]與[[雄性]]。[[有性生殖]](Sexual production)靠生殖細胞([[配子]])結合,所形成的後代會[[遺傳]]其父母的特徵。有些生物是[[雌雄同體]],單一生物即可產生雌性及雄性生殖細胞。


物種的雄性和雌性可能是外觀上相似(性單態性)或是有外觀上的差異([[兩性異形]])。大多數鳥類和哺乳動物是兩性異形物種,個體性別通常透過觀察其[[性別特徵]]來[[性別鑑定|識別]]。[[性選擇]](或稱[[擇偶]])可加速兩性之間的差異進化。
有些生物的生殖細胞形狀相同,無法由生殖細胞的外觀區分種類(即[[同配生殖]])<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Lehtonen|first1=Jussi|last2=Kokko|first2=Hanna|last3=Parker|first3=Geoff A.|date=2016-10-19|title=What do isogamous organisms teach us about sex and the two sexes?|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=371|issue=1706|doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0532|issn=0962-8436|pmc=5031617|pmid=27619696}}</ref>,但多數的生殖細胞會分成兩種。雄生殖細胞,通常較小且活動範圍大,可以帶基因訊息到遠處,而雌生殖細胞,通常體積較大,活動範圍小,但富有營養,用來孕育新生命。

==相關條目==
"雄性"和"雌性"通常不適用於無性分化的物種,其個體是同構的(性單態性),且配子是[[同配生殖]]的(大小和形狀難以區分),例如稱為[[石蓴]]的[[綠藻]]。但有些物種個體之間存在一些功能差異(例如[[真菌]]),<ref name="Mooretal">{{cite book|title=21st Century guidebook to fungi|vauthors=Moore D, Robson JD, Trinci AP|date=2020|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-74568-0|edition=2|pages=211–228}}</ref>其繁殖方式為有性生殖中的{{le|交配類型|mating type}}。<ref name="Kumar-20192">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Anisogamy|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior|publisher=Springer International Publishing|place=Cham|date=2019|pages=1–5|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_340-1|isbn=978-3-319-47829-6 |quote=Anisogamy can be defined as a mode of sexual reproduction in which fusing gametes, formed by participating parents, are dissimilar in size.|vauthors=Kumar R, Meena M, Swapnil P|veditors=Vonk J, Shackelford T|editor-link2=Todd K. Shackelford}}</ref>
*[[性別]]
[[File:Shiitake mushroom.jpg|thumb|[[蕈類]]繁殖是真菌有性生殖(交配型)中的一種。]]
**[[生物性別和社會性別的區別]]

*{{le|交配型|Mating type}}
==性系統==
*[[生殖器]]
*{{le|性別分配|Sex allocation}}
{{main|{{le|性系統|Sex system}}}}

*[[性別指定]]
性系統是一物種中的生物體,其內部雄性和雌性功能的配置。<ref name="Leonard-2013" />
*{{le|雌雄鑑別|Sexing}}
[[File:Hoverflies mating midair.jpg|thumb|right|[[交配]]中的[[食蚜蠅科]]。]]
==參考資料==

{{Reflist}}
===動物===
{{性}}
大約95%的動物物種有其獨立的雄性和雌性個體,稱為{{le|雌雄異體|gonochorism}}。大約有5%的動物物種是雌雄同體。<ref name="Leonard-2013">{{Cite journal|last=Leonard|first=J. L.|date=2013-08-22|title=Williams' Paradox and the Role of Phenotypic Plasticity in Sexual Systems|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|volume=53|issue=4|pages=671–688|doi=10.1093/icb/ict088|pmid=23970358|issn=1540-7063|doi-access=free}}</ref>這種低百分比歸因於將種類眾多的昆蟲包含在內,昆蟲中並無雌雄同體存在。<ref name="Bachtrog-2014">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Bachtrog D, Mank JE, Peichel CL, Kirkpatrick M, Otto SP, Ashman TL, Hahn MW, Kitano J, Mayrose I, Ming R, Perrin N, Ross L, Valenzuela N, Vamosi JC|date=July 2014|title=Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=12|issue=7|pages=e1001899|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899|pmc=4077654|pmid=24983465 |doi-access=free }}</ref>大約99%的[[脊椎動物]]是雌雄異體,所餘1%的雌雄同體中,幾乎全是魚類。<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kuwamura T, Sunobe T, Sakai Y, Kadota T, Sawada K|date=2020-07-01|title=Hermaphroditism in fishes: an annotated list of species, phylogeny, and mating system|journal=Ichthyological Research|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=341–360|doi=10.1007/s10228-020-00754-6|bibcode=2020IchtR..67..341K |issn=1616-3915|doi-access=free|s2cid=218527927}}</ref>
{{性别}}

{{sex-stub}}
===植物===
[[Category:性| ]]
大多數植物具有兩種性別,<ref name="Kliman-2016">{{cite book |last=Kliman |first=Richard |url={{GBurl|id=_r4OCAAAQBAJ}} |title=Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology |date=2016 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-800426-5 |volume=2 |location= |pages=212–224 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506205920/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Evolutionary_Biology/_r4OCAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&kptab=overview |archive-date=2021-05-06 |url-status=live |access-date=2021-04-14 }}</ref>{{Rp|page=212}}或是雌雄同體([[雄蕊]]和[[雌花器|雌蕊]]都在同一朵花上),或是{{le|單性同株|Monoecy}}。<ref name="Sabath-2016">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Sabath N, Goldberg EE, Glick L, Einhorn M, Ashman TL, Ming R, Otto SP, Vamosi JC, Mayrose I|date=February 2016|title=Dioecy does not consistently accelerate or slow lineage diversification across multiple genera of angiosperms|journal=The New Phytologist|volume=209|issue=3|pages=1290–300|doi=10.1111/nph.13696|pmid=26467174|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Beentje">{{cite book|title=The Kew plant glossary|vauthors=[[Henk Jaap Beentje|Beentje H]]|date=2016|publisher=Kew Publishing|isbn=978-1-84246-604-9|edition=2|location=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}</ref>在雌雄異株的物種中,雄性和雌性生長於不同株上。<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Leite Montalvão|first1=Ana Paula|last2=Kersten|first2=Birgit|last3=Fladung|first3=Matthias|last4=Müller|first4=Niels Andreas|date=2021|title=The Diversity and Dynamics of Sex Determination in Dioecious Plants|journal=Frontiers in Plant Science|language=English|volume=11|page=580488|doi=10.3389/fpls.2020.580488|issn=1664-462X|pmc=7843427|pmid=33519840|doi-access=free}}</ref>約有5%的開花植物是雌雄異株的,由5,000之多的獨立品種演化而來。<ref name="Renner">{{cite journal|last=Renner|first=Susanne S.|date=2014|title=The relative and absolute frequencies of angiosperm sexual systems: dioecy, monoecy, gynodioecy, and an updated online database|journal=American Journal of Botany|volume=101|issue=10|pages=1588–1596|doi=10.3732/ajb.1400196|pmid=25326608|doi-access=free}}</ref>雌雄異株在[[裸子植物]]中很常見,約佔65%,但大多數{{le|針葉樹|conifer}}是單性同株。<ref name="Walas">{{cite journal|vauthors=Walas Ł, Mandryk W, Thomas PA, Tyrała-Wierucka Ż, Iszkuło G|date=2018|title=Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review|url=http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/4961/1/29052018_1-s2.0-S1439179117304498-main.pdf|journal=Basic and Applied Ecology|volume=31|pages=1–9|doi=10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009|bibcode=2018BApEc..31....1W |s2cid=90740232|access-date=2021-06-07|archive-date=2022-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127084144/https://eprints.keele.ac.uk/4961/1/29052018_1-s2.0-S1439179117304498-main.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Category:生物过程]]
[[File:Mature flower diagram.svg|thumb|right|通常開花植物的花朵上同時有雄性及雌性性器官(雌雄同體)。]]
{{multiple image
| total_width = 220
| image1 = Pinus nigra cone.jpg
| image2 = Pine cones, immature male.jpg
| footer = 松樹及其他針葉樹的[[毬花]],圖左含雌性性器官,圖右含雄性性器官。
}}

==性的進化==
{{main|有性生殖的演化}}
{{see also|{{le|配子#進化|gamete#evolution}}}}
{{multiple image
| total_width = 220
| image1 = Anisogamy.svg
| caption1 = 不同形式的異配生殖:<br />A)[[細胞遷移]]異配生殖,B) {{le|卵式生殖|oogamy}} (卵子細胞與精子細胞), C) 非細胞遷移異配生殖 (卵子細胞與精原體)。
| image2 = Isogamy.svg
| caption2 = 不同形式的同配生殖:<br />A) 細胞遷移同配生殖,B) 非細胞遷移同配生殖,C) [[結合]]。
}}

人們普遍認為[[異配生殖]]是由[[同配生殖]]演化而來,<ref name="Kumaretal">{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Awasthi & Ashok |url={{GBurl|id=r0h1DwAAQBAJ|q=isogamy+generally+accepted|p=363}} |title=Textbook of Algae |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |isbn=978-93-259-9022-7 |page=363 |language=en}}</ref>且異配生殖在不同的[[真核生物]]群體中(如[[原生生物]]、[[藻類]]、[[植物]]和[[動物]])各自獨立進化過幾次。<ref name="Bachtrog-2014" />異配生殖的演化與雄性和雌性的起源是同一件事。<ref name="Lehtonen-2016">{{cite journal |author-link2=Hanna Kokko |author-link3=Geoff Parker |vauthors=Lehtonen J, Kokko H, Parker GA |date=October 2016 |title=What do isogamous organisms teach us about sex and the two sexes? |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=371 |issue=1706 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0532 |pmc=5031617 |pmid=27619696}}</ref>這也是邁向兩性異形的第一步,<ref name="Togashi-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Togashi |first1=Tatsuya |last2=Bartelt |first2=John L. |last3=Yoshimura |first3=Jin |last4=Tainaka |first4=Kei-ichi |last5=Cox |first5=Paul Alan |author-link5=Paul Alan Cox |date=2012-08-21 |title=Evolutionary trajectories explain the diversified evolution of isogamy and anisogamy in marine green algae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=109 |issue=34 |pages=13692–13697 |bibcode=2012PNAS..10913692T |doi=10.1073/pnas.1203495109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3427103 |pmid=22869736 |doi-access=free}}</ref>且影響到各種性別差異的演化。<ref name="Székely-2007">{{Cite book |last1=Székely |first1=Tamás |url={{GBurl|id=IDoTDAAAQBAJ|q=anisogamy+lead+to+sex+differences}} |title=Sex, Size and Gender Roles: Evolutionary Studies of Sexual Size Dimorphism |last2=Fairbairn |first2=Daphne J. |last3=Blanckenhorn |first3=Wolf U. |date=2007|publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-920878-4 |pages=167–169, 176, 185 |language=en |author-link=Tamás Székely (biologist)}}</ref>

然而異配生殖的演化並沒留下任何[[化石]]證據,<ref name="Pitnick-2008">{{Cite book |url={{GBurl|id=kctYNbO1fE0C|q=isogamy+in+multicellular+organisms|p=44}} |title=Sperm Biology: An Evolutionary Perspective |vauthors=Pitnick SS, Hosken DJ, Birkhead TR |date=2008 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-08-091987-4 |pages=43–44 |language=en |author-link3=Tim Birkhead}}</ref>迄2006年尚無遺傳證據證明性別和交配類間的演化連結。<ref name="Sawada-2014">{{Cite book |last1=Sawada |first1=Hitoshi |url=https://directory.doabooks.org/handle/20.500.12854/29412 |title=Sexual Reproduction in Animals and Plants |last2=Inoue |first2=Naokazu |last3=Iwano |first3=Megumi |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-4-431-54589-7 |pages=215–216 |language=en}}</ref>目前還不清楚是異配生殖首先導致雌雄同體的進化,或是雌雄異體的進化。<ref name="Kliman-2016" />{{Rp|page=213}}

但一件來自12億年前,稱為{{le|Bangiomorpha pubescens|Bangiomorpha}}的[[紅藻門]]化石,為雄性和雌性生殖的分化提供最古老的化石記錄,顯示性別在真核生物中很早就已進化。<ref name="Hörandl-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Hörandl |first1=Elvira |last2=Hadacek |first2=Franz |date=2020-08-15 |title=Oxygen, life forms, and the evolution of sexes in multicellular eukaryotes |journal=Heredity |language=en |volume=125 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1038/s41437-020-0317-9 |pmid=32415185 |pmc=7413252 |issn=1365-2540}}</ref>

最初的性形式是[[體外受精]]。而我們所知的[[繁殖]]形式 - [[體內受精]],其演化發生在後,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-10-19 |title=Armored Fish Pioneered Sex As You Know It |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/141019-fossil-fish-evolution-sex-fertilization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302234743/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/141019-fossil-fish-evolution-sex-fertilization |url-status=dead |archive-date=2021-03-02 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref>是脊椎動物在陸地上出現後才成為主流。<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-07-17|title=43.2A: External and Internal Fertilization|url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/43%3A_Animal_Reproduction_and_Development/43.2%3A_Fertilization/43.2A%3A_External_and_Internal_Fertilization|access-date=2020-11-09|website=Biology LibreTexts|language=en|archive-date=2022-05-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524084927/https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/43%3A_Animal_Reproduction_and_Development/43.2%3A_Fertilization/43.2A%3A_External_and_Internal_Fertilization|url-status=live}}</ref>

==性別比例==
本節摘自[[性別比]]。

性別比是整個群體中雄性與雌性所佔的比例。[[費雪原理]]解釋說,在有性繁殖的物種中出於進化原因,性別比例通常約為1:1。<ref name="Fisher">{{cite book |last=Fisher |first=R. A. |date=1930 |title=The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection |url=https://archive.org/details/geneticaltheoryo031631mbp/page/n163/mode/1up |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |pages=141–143 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref><ref name="Hamilton">{{cite journal |last=Hamilton |first=W. D. |author-link=W. D. Hamilton |date=1967 |title=Extraordinary Sex Ratios: A Sex-ratio Theory for Sex Linkage and Inbreeding Has New Implications in Cytogenetics and Entomology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1721222 |url-access=registration |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=156 |issue=3774 |pages=477–488 |doi=10.1126/science.156.3774.477 |pmid=6021675 |bibcode=1967Sci...156..477H |jstor=1721222}}</ref>然而有許多物種會週期性或永久性偏離此種均勻比例。例子包括[[單性生殖]]物種、週期性交配的生物體(如[[蚜蟲]])及一些[[真社會性]]的[[黃蜂]]、[[花蜂類]]、[[螞蟻]]和[[白蟻]]。<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kobayashi| first1 = Kazuya | last2 = Hasegawa | first2 = Eisuke | last3 = Yamamoto | first3 = Yuuka | last4 = Kazutaka | first4 = Kawatsu | last5 = Vargo | first5 = Edward L. | last6 = Yoshimura | first6 = Jin | last7 = Matsuura | first7 = Kenji | year = 2013 | title = Sex ratio biases in termites provide evidence for kin selection | journal = Nat Commun | volume = 4| pages = 2048 | doi = 10.1038/ncomms3048 | pmid = 23807025 | bibcode = 2013NatCo...4.2048K| doi-access = free | hdl = 2123/11211 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

人類學家和人口統計學家對[[人類性別比]]特別感興趣。在人類社會中,出生時的性別比可能會因母親生產時的年齡<ref name="cdc">{{cite web|title=Trend Analysis of the sex Ratio at Birth in the United States|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr53/nvsr53_20.pdf|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics}}</ref>以及{{le|性別選擇性墮胎|Sex-selective abortion}}和[[殺嬰]]等因素而造成相當大的偏差。接觸[[農藥]]和其他環境[[污染物]]也可能是重要的影響因素。<ref>Davis, Devra Lee; Gottlieb, Michelle and Stampnitzky, Julie; "Reduced Ratio of Male to Female Births in Several Industrial Countries" in ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]''; April 1, 1998, volume 279(13); pp. 1018-1023</ref>截至2014年,全球出生性別比估計為107男孩相對於100女孩(1,000名男孩:934名女孩)。<ref>{{cite web |title=CIA Fact Book | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2018.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003045/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2018.html | url-status=dead | archive-date= 2007-06-13 | publisher=The Central Intelligence Agency of the United States}}</ref>

== 參見 ==
{{div col|colwidth=22}}
* {{le|性分配|Sex allocation}}
* [[性別指定]]
* [[生理性別和社會性別的區別]]
* [[性別鑑定]]
{{div col end}}

== 參考文獻 ==
{{reflist|2}}

== 延伸閱讀 ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|vauthors=Arnqvist G, Rowe L|year=2005|title=Sexual conflict|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12217-5}}
* {{cite book|vauthors=[[Bruce Alberts|Alberts B]], [[Alexander D. Johnson|Johnson A]], [[Julian Lewis (biologist)|Lewis J]], [[Martin Raff|Raff M]], Roberts K, [[Peter Walter|Walter P]]|title=Molecular Biology of the Cell|edition=4th|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York}}
* {{cite book|vauthors=Ellis H|year=1933|title=Psychology of Sex|url=https://archive.org/details/b2044249x|location=London|publisher=W. Heinemann Medical Books}} ''N.B''.: One of many books by this pioneering authority on aspects of human sexuality.
* {{cite book|title=Developmental Biology|edition=6th|vauthors=[[Scott F. Gilbert|Gilbert SF]]|publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc.|year=2000|isbn=978-0-87893-243-6|url=https://archive.org/details/developmentalbio00gilb}}
* {{cite book|vauthors=[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard-Smith J]]|title=The Evolution of Sex|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofsex0000mayn|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1978|isbn=978-0-521-29302-0}}
{{refend}}

== 外部連結 ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2022-12-29|En-Sex-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|Sex}}
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* [http://www.gfmer.ch/Books/Reproductive_health/Human_sexual_differentiation.html Human Sexual Differentiation] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20100209011913/http://www.gfmer.ch/Books/Reproductive_health/Human_sexual_differentiation.html Archived (2010)]) – Geneva Foundation for Medical Education and Research (GFMER)
* [https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/sexual-reproduction-and-the-evolution-of-sex-824/ Sexual Reproduction and the Evolution of Sex] ([https://archive.today/20231008141323/https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/sexual-reproduction-and-the-evolution-of-sex-824/ Archived (2023)]) − [[Nature (journal)|Nature journal]] (2008)
{{模板:性}}
{{模板:性別}}
{{portal bar|Biology|Evolutionary biology|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

[[分類:性| ]]
[[分類:生物過程]]

2024年3月13日 (三) 06:53的版本

(英語:Sex)是一種特徵,其可決定有性生殖生物體產生雄性或是雌性配子[1][2][3]於有性生殖過程中的雄性和雌性配子會融合,而形成受精卵,之後受精卵發育成為一繼承父母雙方特徵的後代。傳統上產生較小、更具移動性配子(精子)的生物體被稱為雄性,而產生較大、非移動性配子(卵細胞)的生物體被稱為雌性。[4]而可同時產生兩種配子的生物體則為雌雄同體[3][5]

於非雌雄同體物種,其中個體的性別是透過幾個生物性別決定係統中的一種來決定。大多數哺乳動物物種都具有XY性別決定系統,其中雄性通常攜帶一X和一Y染色體 (XY),雌性通常攜帶兩條X染色體 (XX)。其他的動物染色體性別決定系統包含有鳥類的ZW性別決定系統和昆蟲的X0性別決定系統。另有與前述不同的環境性別決定系統英语Environmental sex determination,如爬蟲類甲殼動物溫度-性別決定系統[6]

物種的雄性和雌性可能是外觀上相似(性單態性)或是有外觀上的差異(兩性異形)。大多數鳥類和哺乳動物是兩性異形物種,個體性別通常透過觀察其性別特徵識別性選擇(或稱擇偶)可加速兩性之間的差異進化。

"雄性"和"雌性"通常不適用於無性分化的物種,其個體是同構的(性單態性),且配子是同配生殖的(大小和形狀難以區分),例如稱為石蓴綠藻。但有些物種個體之間存在一些功能差異(例如真菌),[7]其繁殖方式為有性生殖中的交配類型英语mating type[8]

蕈類繁殖是真菌有性生殖(交配型)中的一種。

性系統

性系統是一物種中的生物體,其內部雄性和雌性功能的配置。[9]

交配中的食蚜蠅科

動物

大約95%的動物物種有其獨立的雄性和雌性個體,稱為雌雄異體。大約有5%的動物物種是雌雄同體。[9]這種低百分比歸因於將種類眾多的昆蟲包含在內,昆蟲中並無雌雄同體存在。[10]大約99%的脊椎動物是雌雄異體,所餘1%的雌雄同體中,幾乎全是魚類。[11]

植物

大多數植物具有兩種性別,[12](p. 212)或是雌雄同體(雄蕊雌蕊都在同一朵花上),或是單性同株英语Monoecy[13][14]在雌雄異株的物種中,雄性和雌性生長於不同株上。[15]約有5%的開花植物是雌雄異株的,由5,000之多的獨立品種演化而來。[16]雌雄異株在裸子植物中很常見,約佔65%,但大多數針葉樹是單性同株。[17]

通常開花植物的花朵上同時有雄性及雌性性器官(雌雄同體)。
松樹及其他針葉樹的毬花,圖左含雌性性器官,圖右含雄性性器官。

性的進化

不同形式的異配生殖:
A)細胞遷移異配生殖,B) 卵式生殖英语oogamy (卵子細胞與精子細胞), C) 非細胞遷移異配生殖 (卵子細胞與精原體)。
不同形式的同配生殖:
A) 細胞遷移同配生殖,B) 非細胞遷移同配生殖,C) 結合

人們普遍認為異配生殖是由同配生殖演化而來,[18]且異配生殖在不同的真核生物群體中(如原生生物藻類植物動物)各自獨立進化過幾次。[10]異配生殖的演化與雄性和雌性的起源是同一件事。[19]這也是邁向兩性異形的第一步,[20]且影響到各種性別差異的演化。[21]

然而異配生殖的演化並沒留下任何化石證據,[22]迄2006年尚無遺傳證據證明性別和交配類間的演化連結。[23]目前還不清楚是異配生殖首先導致雌雄同體的進化,或是雌雄異體的進化。[12](p. 213)

但一件來自12億年前,稱為Bangiomorpha pubescens紅藻門化石,為雄性和雌性生殖的分化提供最古老的化石記錄,顯示性別在真核生物中很早就已進化。[24]

最初的性形式是體外受精。而我們所知的繁殖形式 - 體內受精,其演化發生在後,[25]是脊椎動物在陸地上出現後才成為主流。[26]

性別比例

本節摘自性別比

性別比是整個群體中雄性與雌性所佔的比例。費雪原理解釋說,在有性繁殖的物種中出於進化原因,性別比例通常約為1:1。[27][28]然而有許多物種會週期性或永久性偏離此種均勻比例。例子包括單性生殖物種、週期性交配的生物體(如蚜蟲)及一些真社會性黃蜂花蜂類螞蟻白蟻[29]

人類學家和人口統計學家對人類性別比特別感興趣。在人類社會中,出生時的性別比可能會因母親生產時的年齡[30]以及性別選擇性墮胎英语Sex-selective abortion殺嬰等因素而造成相當大的偏差。接觸農藥和其他環境污染物也可能是重要的影響因素。[31]截至2014年,全球出生性別比估計為107男孩相對於100女孩(1,000名男孩:934名女孩)。[32]

參見

參考文獻

  1. ^ Stevenson A, Waite M. Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set. OUP Oxford. 2011: 1302 [2018-03-23]. ISBN 978-0-19-960110-3. Sex: Either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and most other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions. The fact of belonging to one of these categories. The group of all members of either sex. 
  2. ^ Mills, Alex. Biology of Sex. University of Toronto Press. 2018-01-01: 43–45 [2023-10-03]. ISBN 978-1-4875-9337-7 (英语). 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Purves WK, Sadava DE, Orians GH, Heller HC. Life: The Science of Biology. Macmillan. 2000: 736 [2018-03-23]. ISBN 978-0-7167-3873-2. A single body can function as both male and female. Sexual reproduction requires both male and female haploid gametes. In most species, these gametes are produced by individuals that are either male or female. Species that have male and female members are called dioecious (from the Greek for 'two houses'). In some species, a single individual may possess both female and male reproductive systems. Such species are called monoecious ("one house") or hermaphroditic.  温哥华格式错误 (帮助)
  4. ^ Royle NJ, Smiseth PT, Kölliker M. Kokko H, Jennions M , 编. The Evolution of Parental Care. Oxford University Press. 2012: 103. ISBN 978-0-19-969257-6 (英语). The answer is that there is an agreement by convention: individuals producing the smaller of the two gamete types – sperm or pollen – are males, and those producing larger gametes – eggs or ovules – are females. 
  5. ^ Avise JC. Hermaphroditism: A Primer on the Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Dual Sexuality. Columbia University Press. 2011: 1–7 [2020-09-18]. ISBN 978-0-231-52715-6 (英语). 
  6. ^ Hake L, O'Connor C. Genetic Mechanisms of Sex Determination | Learn Science at Scitable. www.nature.com. [2021-04-13]. (原始内容存档于2017-08-19) (英语). 
  7. ^ Moore D, Robson JD, Trinci AP. 21st Century guidebook to fungi 2. Cambridge University Press. 2020: 211–228. ISBN 978-1-108-74568-0. 
  8. ^ Kumar R, Meena M, Swapnil P. Anisogamy. Vonk J, Shackelford T (编). Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 1–5. 2019. ISBN 978-3-319-47829-6. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_340-1. Anisogamy can be defined as a mode of sexual reproduction in which fusing gametes, formed by participating parents, are dissimilar in size. 
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 Leonard, J. L. Williams' Paradox and the Role of Phenotypic Plasticity in Sexual Systems. Integrative and Comparative Biology. 2013-08-22, 53 (4): 671–688. ISSN 1540-7063. PMID 23970358. doi:10.1093/icb/ict088可免费查阅. 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Bachtrog D, Mank JE, Peichel CL, Kirkpatrick M, Otto SP, Ashman TL, et al. Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?. PLOS Biology. July 2014, 12 (7): e1001899. PMC 4077654可免费查阅. PMID 24983465. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899可免费查阅. 
  11. ^ Kuwamura T, Sunobe T, Sakai Y, Kadota T, Sawada K. Hermaphroditism in fishes: an annotated list of species, phylogeny, and mating system. Ichthyological Research. 2020-07-01, 67 (3): 341–360. Bibcode:2020IchtR..67..341K. ISSN 1616-3915. S2CID 218527927. doi:10.1007/s10228-020-00754-6可免费查阅 (英语). 
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Kliman, Richard. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology 2. Academic Press. 2016: 212–224 [2021-04-14]. ISBN 978-0-12-800426-5. (原始内容存档于2021-05-06). 
  13. ^ Sabath N, Goldberg EE, Glick L, Einhorn M, Ashman TL, Ming R, et al. Dioecy does not consistently accelerate or slow lineage diversification across multiple genera of angiosperms. The New Phytologist. February 2016, 209 (3): 1290–300. PMID 26467174. doi:10.1111/nph.13696可免费查阅. 
  14. ^ Beentje H. The Kew plant glossary 2. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Kew Publishing. 2016. ISBN 978-1-84246-604-9.  温哥华格式错误 (帮助)
  15. ^ Leite Montalvão, Ana Paula; Kersten, Birgit; Fladung, Matthias; Müller, Niels Andreas. The Diversity and Dynamics of Sex Determination in Dioecious Plants. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2021, 11: 580488. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 7843427可免费查阅. PMID 33519840. doi:10.3389/fpls.2020.580488可免费查阅 (English). 
  16. ^ Renner, Susanne S. The relative and absolute frequencies of angiosperm sexual systems: dioecy, monoecy, gynodioecy, and an updated online database. American Journal of Botany. 2014, 101 (10): 1588–1596. PMID 25326608. doi:10.3732/ajb.1400196可免费查阅. 
  17. ^ Walas Ł, Mandryk W, Thomas PA, Tyrała-Wierucka Ż, Iszkuło G. Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review (PDF). Basic and Applied Ecology. 2018, 31: 1–9 [2021-06-07]. Bibcode:2018BApEc..31....1W. S2CID 90740232. doi:10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2022-01-27). 
  18. ^ Kumar, Awasthi & Ashok. Textbook of Algae. Vikas Publishing House. : 363. ISBN 978-93-259-9022-7 (英语). 
  19. ^ Lehtonen J, Kokko H, Parker GA. What do isogamous organisms teach us about sex and the two sexes?. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. October 2016, 371 (1706). PMC 5031617可免费查阅. PMID 27619696. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0532. 
  20. ^ Togashi, Tatsuya; Bartelt, John L.; Yoshimura, Jin; Tainaka, Kei-ichi; Cox, Paul Alan. Evolutionary trajectories explain the diversified evolution of isogamy and anisogamy in marine green algae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2012-08-21, 109 (34): 13692–13697. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10913692T. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3427103可免费查阅. PMID 22869736. doi:10.1073/pnas.1203495109可免费查阅. 
  21. ^ Székely, Tamás; Fairbairn, Daphne J.; Blanckenhorn, Wolf U. Sex, Size and Gender Roles: Evolutionary Studies of Sexual Size Dimorphism. OUP Oxford. 2007: 167–169, 176, 185. ISBN 978-0-19-920878-4 (英语). 
  22. ^ Pitnick SS, Hosken DJ, Birkhead TR. Sperm Biology: An Evolutionary Perspective. Academic Press. 2008: 43–44. ISBN 978-0-08-091987-4 (英语). 
  23. ^ Sawada, Hitoshi; Inoue, Naokazu; Iwano, Megumi. Sexual Reproduction in Animals and Plants. Springer. 2014: 215–216. ISBN 978-4-431-54589-7 (英语). 
  24. ^ Hörandl, Elvira; Hadacek, Franz. Oxygen, life forms, and the evolution of sexes in multicellular eukaryotes. Heredity. 2020-08-15, 125 (1): 1–14. ISSN 1365-2540. PMC 7413252可免费查阅. PMID 32415185. doi:10.1038/s41437-020-0317-9 (英语). 
  25. ^ Armored Fish Pioneered Sex As You Know It. Animals. 2014-10-19 [2023-07-10]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-02) (英语). 
  26. ^ 43.2A: External and Internal Fertilization. Biology LibreTexts. 2018-07-17 [2020-11-09]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-24) (英语). 
  27. ^ Fisher, R. A. The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1930: 141–143 –通过Internet Archive. 
  28. ^ Hamilton, W. D. Extraordinary Sex Ratios: A Sex-ratio Theory for Sex Linkage and Inbreeding Has New Implications in Cytogenetics and Entomology需要免费注册. Science. 1967, 156 (3774): 477–488. Bibcode:1967Sci...156..477H. JSTOR 1721222. PMID 6021675. doi:10.1126/science.156.3774.477. 
  29. ^ Kobayashi, Kazuya; Hasegawa, Eisuke; Yamamoto, Yuuka; Kazutaka, Kawatsu; Vargo, Edward L.; Yoshimura, Jin; Matsuura, Kenji. Sex ratio biases in termites provide evidence for kin selection. Nat Commun. 2013, 4: 2048. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.2048K. PMID 23807025. doi:10.1038/ncomms3048可免费查阅. hdl:2123/11211可免费查阅. 
  30. ^ Trend Analysis of the sex Ratio at Birth in the United States (PDF). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. 
  31. ^ Davis, Devra Lee; Gottlieb, Michelle and Stampnitzky, Julie; "Reduced Ratio of Male to Female Births in Several Industrial Countries" in Journal of the American Medical Association; April 1, 1998, volume 279(13); pp. 1018-1023
  32. ^ CIA Fact Book. The Central Intelligence Agency of the United States. (原始内容存档于2007-06-13). 

延伸閱讀

外部連結