西藏 (1912年—1951年)：修订间差异

西藏
西藏; བོད་（標準藏語）; 威利轉寫：Bod
	1912年—1951年
	國旗國徽
	国歌：西藏國歌; རྒྱལ་གླུ་; File:Anthem of the Tibetans Instrumental.ogg
	西藏在1942年的疆域
	西藏領土與影響範圍西藏主要領土範疇大西藏地區的範圍西藏宣稱的領土範圍
首都	拉薩市; 29°38′45″N 91°08′27″E / 29.64583°N 91.14083°E
官方语言	拉薩藏語; 藏語
宗教	藏傳佛教（官方宗教）
政府	單一制; 神權政治; 君主專制
君主制（達賴喇嘛）
• 1912年–1933年; (首任)	圖登嘉措
• 1937年–1951年 (末任)	丹增嘉措
攝政
• 1934年–1941年 (首任)	熱振·圖旦絳白益西丹巴堅贊
• 1941年–1950年 (末任)	第三世達扎活佛
總理; （嘉倫赤巴（英语：Sikyong#Kalön Tripa））
• 1912年–1920年 (首任)	參欽·卓杭·措添·釋迦
• 1950年–1951年 (末任)	洛桑扎西
历史时期	19世紀末 - 20世紀中葉一戰、戰間期、二戰、冷戰、內戰
• 《中藏協議》	1912年7月
• 達賴喇嘛返藏	1913年1月
• 西藏設辦事處於南京	1928年
• 民國遷台	1949年12月7日
• 昌都戰役	1950年10月
• 《十七條協議》	1951年5月23日
面积
• 总计	1,221,600平方公里
人口
• 1945年	一百萬人左右
货币	海關金單位兌換券（法律上）; 参见：西藏货币史、藏币、斯卡幣（英语：Tibetan skar）、藏桑幣（英语：Tibetan srang）和章噶幣（英语：Tibetan tangka）
时区	UTC+05:30 與 +06:00; （崑崙時區與新藏時區）
行驶方位	右
前身	继承
	西藏屬清時期
西藏地方
西藏流亡政府
今属于	中华人民共和国; ∟西藏自治區

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西藏是1911年辛亥革命、1912年清帝遜位後事實上的獨立政权。當時达赖喇嘛宣布西藏不再隸屬於中國。西藏和外蒙古^{[註 5]}还签署了一项条约，雙方相互承认對方的獨立地位^[6]。西藏雖自稱已獨立，但包括西方國家及中國的国际社会卻不承認其獨立地位^[7]。1951年中華人民共和國控制西藏後，西藏結束其獨立狀態。

歷史

1911年-1913年

1720年大清驅逐準噶爾軍隊後，清朝勢力進入西藏。到了19世紀末，清朝對西藏的管理和權威成為了象徵^[8]。辛亥革命的時候，西藏民兵在第一次驅漢事件中攻擊駐在藏地的清軍，清朝官員與軍隊依协议撤出西藏。1912年初，中華民國政府取代清朝，中華民國政府宣布繼承清朝領土，其中包括了22個外、內地省份和藏蒙^[9]。民國政府要求末位垂簾聽政的太后隆裕陪同只有六歲的宣統帝簽署《清帝退位詔書》，詔書其中就提到了：

“

“... 仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土，為一大中華民國”

”

——《清帝退位詔書》，^[10]^[11]^[12]^{[註 6]}

1912年中華民國政府所使用的《民元約法》明確地列出了組成國家的部分，這些地方也包括了藏地和邊疆地方^[13]。

民國成立後，大總統袁世凱還曾致電達賴喇嘛，圖恢復他的頭銜，但卻被達賴喇嘛拒絕了，他打算在西藏實行世俗的神權統治^[14]。1913年，逃往印度的達賴喇嘛返回拉薩^{[註 7]}^[15]，並宣布過去的中藏關係為“檀越關係（英语：Patron and priest relationship）”，而不是從屬國與宗主國的關係。達賴喇嘛並且聲明西藏是一個獨立的國家^[16]。

1913年1月，洛桑得智和其他三名西藏代表來到了蒙古國首都勿爾噶與蒙古國政府簽署《蒙藏條約》，互相承認對方的獨立^[17]。

西姆拉条约（1914年）

1913-1914年，中、英、藏在西姆拉举行会议。英国建议将藏区划分为外藏区和内藏区（早前中俄就因蒙古問題而達成協議）。外藏，与现代西藏自治区大致相同的区域，将在中国宗主权下自治。在这方面，可避免中国“干涉行政”。内藏由安多和康藏组成，拉萨将保留为宗教事务管理保留区。 ^[18]1908至其后之1个年代，内藏地区有中国的驻军，不过其他地区皆保持其自治。

西姆拉条约谈判破裂时，英国首席谈判代表麦克马洪爵士划出了麦克马洪线划定了西藏和印度的边界，这就显出了英国的野心，因为英国在西藏南部吞并了大约9000平方公里的西藏领土，即达旺区域，对应现代印度阿鲁纳恰尔邦的西北端^[19]。同时英国也承认中国对西藏的统治权，不过中国不得把西藏纳入省级区域之一，所以西藏一直都被保留为西藏地方。直至今日，西藏都未有成为省级区域，只是自治区 ^[20] 。

后来中国声称英国使用麦克马洪线转让了原属于中国（西藏）的大量领土给予英国（印度），这个争议区相当于今印度的阿鲁纳恰尔邦，中国则称其为“藏南地区”。不过，英国在1912年已与当地各部落达成协议，并设立了东北边疆区来管理该区。

《西姆拉公约》由三个代表团共同草签，但由于对外藏和内藏之间的边界划分方式不满，北京立即拒绝了。亨利·麥克馬洪和西藏人随后签署了作为双边协议的文件，并附有一份说明，否认中国享有其中规定的任何权利，除非签署。英国管理的印度政府最初拒绝了麦克马洪的双边协议，因为它与1907年的英俄公约不符。^[21]^[22]

麦克马洪线被英国和后来的独立印度政府视为边界。然而，此后中国的观点一直认为，由于声称对西藏拥有主权的中国没有签署该条约，该条约毫无意义，印度对阿鲁纳恰尔邦部分地区的吞并和控制是非法的。这为1962年发生的中印战争以及今天持续存在的中印边界争端铺平了道路。

1938 年，英国最终公布了作为双边协议的西姆拉公约，并要求位于麦克马洪线以南的达旺寺停止向拉萨纳税。林孝庭声称从图书馆召回了一卷 CU Aitchison 的《条约集》，最初出版时附有说明未在西姆拉达成具有约束力的协议的说明，并替换为新卷，该卷的出版日期为1929年，其中指出西藏和英国，而不是中国，接受该协议具有约束力。根据阿拉斯泰尔·兰姆（英语：Alastair Lamb）的说法，中国政府拒绝签署西姆拉文件，是在逃避对麦克马洪线给予任何承认。^[23]

1933年

自1912年駐紮大臣被驅逐出藏後，中藏只在英國作調解人的情況下才會交流。1933年12月時，十三世達賴喇嘛圓寂。當時中國便派出黃慕松將軍率領弔唁團前往拉薩^[24]。

據說在十三世達賴喇嘛圓寂後不久，噶廈們重申了他們在1914年的立場，即：“西藏可以保持為中國的一部分，但前提是外界包括中國不可插手西藏內政”^[25]^[26]。自1912年以來，西藏事實上獨立於中國的控制，也在任何的場合中承認自己名義上的地位。作為名義上的中國領土，西藏可以控制自己的內政，而中國必須放棄對一些重要的藏區，如康藏、安多的控制^[27]。為了支持中對藏控制不中斷的說法，中國辯稱官方文件中中國國民議會和兩院都有藏族議員，且他們的名字都還有所保留^[28]。隨後，西藏政府批准中國在拉薩設立辦事處，辦事員由蒙藏委員會負責，並由該委員會的藏務主任的吳忠信領導。為了響應中國在拉薩設立辦事處，英國獲得了類似的准許，並亦在此設立其的辦事處。

1934年，為了反對西藏政府，邦達饒噶（英语：Pandatsang Rapga）（སྤོམ་མདའ་ཚང་རབ་དགའ་）和邦達索拜領導邦達昌家族老少對抗藏軍，發生“康巴叛亂（英语：1934 Khamba rebellion）”。

1930年-1949年

1935年，丹增嘉措出生於安多地區，丹增嘉措被西藏政府官方確定為是圖登嘉措的轉世。 1949年1月26日，攝政者五世熱振活佛向中國政府請求取消使用金瓶掣籤選則下一位達賴喇嘛的程序^[29]，而該請求也獲得了中國政府的批准^[30]。

中華人民共和國聲稱中國國民黨政府“批准”了現任的第十四世達賴喇嘛。國民政府代表吳忠信將軍主持儀式，此次“1940年2月批准令和儀式的紀錄片保存得仍完好無損^[31]。據西藏歷史學家茨仁夏加的說法，此次儀式除了有中方的國民黨代表，還有其他國家的代表出席^[32]。藏族作家尼玛坚赞写道，根据藏族传统，没有主持活动这样的事情，并写道在通讯文件中很多地方都使用了“主持”这个词。这个词的意思与我们今天所理解的不同。他补充说，吴忠信在此次活动上花费了大量的时间和精力，他主持或组织活动的效果非常明显。 ^[33]

來自拉薩的一些報章支持了這個說法。例如，美聯社在1940年2月22日的報章寫道：

西藏拉薩訊（香港電台報導，星期四）—...西藏的第十四世達賴喇嘛的最終人選將被選中。然而在今天，西藏的攝政者向重慶政府要求放棄傳統的金瓶掣籤制度，而中方代表也批准了這項要求。鑑於此，他向蔣中正委員長和其他中方代表表示感謝。
——^[34]^{[註 9]}

1942年，美国政府告诉国民政府和国民政府军事委员会委员长蒋中正，它从未对中国对西藏的主张提出异议。 ^[35] 1944年，美国战争部制作了一系列关于《我们为何而战》的七部纪录片；在第六个系列《中国之战》中，西藏被错误地称为中国的一个省。（正式名称是西藏地区，它不是一个省,只是省級行政地方）^[36]二战期间的1944年，两位奥地利登山者海因里希·哈勒和彼得·奥夫施奈特来到拉萨，在那里，哈勒成为年轻达赖喇嘛的导师和朋友，让他对西方文化和现代社会有了深入的了解，直到1949年哈勒选择离开。

西藏于1942年设立外交部，并于1946年分别向中国和印度派出祝贺团。访华使团收到一封致国民政府主席蒋中正的信，信中说：“我们将继续维护西藏作为一个由历届达赖喇嘛通过真正的宗教政治统治统治的国家的独立性。”代表团同意以观察员身份出席在南京举行的中国制宪会议。 ^[37]

在蒋中正领导的国民政府命令下，马步芳于1942年修复了玉树机场，以阻止西藏独立。蒋还命令马步芳在1942年让他的穆斯林士兵对入侵西藏保持警惕。 ^[38]^[39]马步芳应允，将数千名大军调往西藏边境。 ^[40]蒋还威胁西藏人，如果他们不遵守，就用轰炸。

1947年西藏派代表团参加在印度新德里召开的亞洲關係會議，在会上表示自己是一个独立国家，印度在1947年至1954年承认其为独立国家。 ^[41]这可能是西藏国旗首次出现在公共集会上。^[42]

1947年在西藏旅行数月的法国医生安德烈·米戈（André Migot）描述了西藏和中国之间复杂的边界安排，以及它们是如何发展的：^[43]

“

為了抵消1906英藏條約對他們的利益造成的損害，中國人開始向西擴展他們的直接控制範圍，並開始在巴塘周圍進行殖民。藏人反應激烈。中國總督在前往昌都的途中被殺，他的軍隊在巴塘附近的一次行動後逃亡；幾名傳教士也被謀殺，當一位名叫趙爾峰的特別專員出現在現場時，中國的命運陷入低谷。

他的野蠻行為為他贏得了“僧侶屠夫”的綽號，他橫掃巴塘，洗劫了喇嘛寺，推進昌都，並在一系列勝利的戰役中將他的軍隊帶到了拉薩的大門，重新- 建立秩序並重申中國對西藏的統治。 1909年，他建議將西康建立一個獨立的省，由36個縣組成，以巴塘為首都。這個項目直到後來才進行，然後以修改的形式進行，因為 1911 年的中國革命結束了趙的職業生涯，不久他被同胞暗殺。

民國初期動盪不安，大部分朝貢首領叛亂，漢藏之間發生了多次激烈的戰鬥，發生了許多悲劇、喜劇和（當然）宗教都參與其中的奇怪事件. 1914年，英國、中國和西藏在會議桌上會面，試圖恢復和平，但由於未能就漢藏邊界的根本問題達成協議，這次會議破裂了。大約從 1918 年開始，出於實際目的，這已被認為是遵循上揚子的路線。在這些年裡，中國人有太多其他的當務之急，無暇顧及重新征服西藏。然而，事情逐漸平靜下來，1927年，思康省成立，但它只有二十七個縣，而不是構思這個想法的人所想像的三十六個縣。在十年的時間裡，中國失去了屠夫佔領的所有領土。

從那以後，四康相對平靜，但這個省歷史的簡短概要讓人很容易理解這種事態注定是多麼岌岌可危。中國的控制只是名義上的；我經常要親身體驗它的無效性。要治理這樣的領土，僅僅駐紮在相隔多日的偏遠村莊，幾個不起眼的官員和少數衣衫襤褸的士兵是不夠的。西藏人完全無視中國政府，只服從他們自己的首領。一個非常簡單的事實說明了斯康中國統治者的真實身份：全省沒有人接受中國貨幣，官員們用錢買不到任何東西，被迫通過易貨交易來維持生計。

一旦你走出達多或康廷的北門，你就告別了中華文明及其便利，開始過一種完全不同的生活。雖然在紙面上，這座城市北部的廣闊領土是中國西康和青海的一部分，但中國和西藏之間的真正邊界貫穿康定，或者可能就在康定之外。中國製圖師更關心聲望而不是準確性，他們在地圖上繪製的經驗線與準確性無關。

”

——^{[註 10]}^[44]

1947-49 年，拉萨派出了一个由财政部长夏格巴·旺秋德丹率领的贸易代表团前往印度、中国、香港、美国和英国。被访问的国家小心翼翼地不表达支持西藏独立于中国的说法，也没有与代表团讨论政治问题。 ^[21]这些贸易使团官员持新签发的西藏护照经香港进入中国，并在中国驻印度领事馆申请并在中国逗留了三个月。然而，其他国家确实允许代表团使用西藏政府签发的护照旅行。美国非正式地接待了贸易代表团。 1948 年，代表团在伦敦会见了英国首相克莱门特·艾德礼^[45]

中华人民共和国的吞并

国共内战之后的1949年，中共控制了中国全境。噶厦政府不理国共两党的抗议，将所有驻扎在西藏的中国官员驱逐出藏。1949年10月1日，十世班禅发了个电报向北京，表达了对中华各地的解放和中华人民共和国成立的祝贺，并对西藏不可避免的解放感到十分兴奋：

“

北京中央人民政府毛主席、中國人民解放軍朱德司令鈞鑒：鈞座以大智大勇之略，成救國救民之業，義師所至，全國歡騰，班禪世受國恩，備荷優崇。二十餘年來，為了西藏領土主權之完整，呼籲奔走，未嘗稍懈。第以未獲結果，良用疚心。刻下羈留青海，待命返藏。茲幸在鈞座領導之下，西北已獲解放，中央人民政府成立，凡有血氣，同聲鼓舞。今後人民之康樂可期，國家之復興有望。西藏解放，指日可待。班禪謹代表全藏人民，向鈞座致崇高無上之敬意，並矢擁護愛戴之忱。 ”—十世班禪致中華人民共和國中央人民政府電報

”

——^[46]

由中国共产党中央委员会主席毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国政府于10月上台，并宣布中华人民共和国将代替中华民国成为新中国。1950年6月，英国政府在下议院表示，它们一直等待着承认“西藏为中国一部分”（中国对西藏的宗主权）的机会，不过西藏将被视为自治区 ^[47]。同年10月，解放军入藏，击溃守卫在边疆的零星藏军势力。隔年，以阿沛·阿旺晋美为首的西藏当局代表在达赖喇嘛授权下，来到北京与中华人民共和国代表的中央人民政府进行谈判，之后签署十七点协议，确认中国对西藏的宗主权。数月后，该协议在拉萨得到通过，西藏结束其39年的独立状态。

中华人民共和国政府通称这一连串解放西藏的事件为“解放西藏”^[48]。

西藏代表签字
阿旺晋美向毛泽东敬献哈达
1951年10月，解放军在拉萨

政治

军事

1910年代十三世达赖喇嘛完全控制西藏后，他开始在英国的支持下建立西藏军队，提供顾问和武器。这支军队应该足够庞大和现代化，不仅可以保卫西藏，而且还可以征服周边地区，如藏族人民居住的康区西藏军队在十三世达赖喇嘛在位期间不断扩大， ^[49]到 1936 年约有 10,000 名士兵。在当时，这些是装备精良、训练有素的步兵，尽管军队几乎完全缺乏机枪、大炮、飞机和坦克。 ^[49]除了正规军外，西藏还动用了大量装备简陋的乡村民兵。 ^[49] 1920年代和1930年代，考虑到藏军的火力通常被对手击败，西藏军队在对抗中国各军阀方面表现相对较好。 ^[49]总体而言，藏军在军阀时代被证明是“无畏强悍的战士”。 ^[49]

尽管如此，在 1950 年中国入侵期间，西藏军队完全不足以抵抗中国人民解放军。它因此瓦解和在没有太多抵抗的情况下投降。 ^[50]

邮政服务

1912年发行的雪狮邮票
1912年发行的雪狮邮票
1912年发行的雪狮邮票
1912年发行的雪狮邮票
1912年发行的雪狮邮票
1912年发行的雪狮邮票
1920年发行的雪狮邮票
1933年发行的雪狮邮票

西藏于1912年设立了自己的邮政服务。西藏在拉萨印刷了第一张邮票，并于1912年发行。西藏于1950年发行了电报邮票。

外交关系

民国军阀使中国分裂，十三世达赖喇嘛统治，但他的统治标志着与汉族和穆斯林军阀的边界冲突，西藏人失去了大部分时间。当时，西藏政府控制了所有的衛藏（Dbus-gtsang）和西部康区（Khams），大致与今天西藏自治区的边界重合。与长江相隔的东康区，在中国军阀刘文辉的控制之下。安多局势（青海）更复杂，与西宁经1928年后控制区回族军阀马步芳家族被称为穆斯林军阀的马家军，谁一直力图在安多休息施加控制（青海） . 1915年至1927年间，康南连同云南其他地区属于滇系軍閥，然后是总督兼军阀龙云，直到中国内战快结束时，杜玉明在蒋中正的命令下将他撤职。在中国控制的领土内，在国民党平定青海期间，正在对青海的西藏叛乱分子发动战争。

1918年，拉萨重新控制昌都和康区西部。停战协议将边界设在长江。此时的西藏政府控制了长江以西的所有乌藏和康区，与今日西藏自治区的边界大致相同。东康区由不同效忠的当地西藏王子统治。青海由回族和亲国民党军阀马步芳控制。 1932年西藏在青海玉树争夺一座寺院后，于1932年入侵青海，企图夺取青海省南部地区。马步芳率领青海军大败藏军。

在20世纪的20年代和30年代，中国被内战分裂，并陷入抗日战争，但从未放弃拥有西藏的主权，并偶尔尝试断言它。

1932年，十三世达赖喇嘛企图夺取青海和西康领土，在汉藏战争中，马步芳、刘文辉率领的国民革命军四川汉族联军和青海回族军大败藏军。他们警告藏人不要再过金沙江。 ^[51]双方签署了休战协议，结束了战斗。 ^[52]^[53]达赖喇嘛在他的军队被击败后，曾向印度的英国人发出电报寻求帮助，并开始贬低他投降的将军们。 ^[54]

1936年，盛世才将3万名哈萨克人从新疆驱逐到青海后，马步芳将军率领的回族屠杀了他们的穆斯林哈萨克同胞，直到剩下135人。 ^[55]^[56]^[57]

7000多名哈萨克人从北疆经甘肃逃往藏青高原地区，大肆破坏，马步芳将哈萨克人归入青海指定牧场解决了问题，但该地区的回族、藏族和哈萨克族继续发生冲突互相反对。 ^[58]

哈萨克人经甘肃、青海进入西藏时，藏人与哈萨克人进行了进攻和战斗。

在西藏北部，哈萨克人与西藏士兵发生冲突，然后哈萨克人被送往拉达克。 ^[58]

当哈萨克人进入西藏时，西藏军队在拉萨以东400英里的昌都抢劫并杀害了哈萨克人。 ^[59]^[60]

1934年、1935年、1936年至1938年从库米尔·埃利克桑率领克雷哈萨克人迁移到甘肃，估计有1.8万人，先后进入甘肃和青海。 ^[61]

1951年，维吾尔族堯樂博士在逃离新疆前往加尔各答时遭到西藏军队的袭击。

1950年4月29日，反共的美国中央情报局特工道格拉斯·麦基尔南（Douglas Mackiernan遭藏军暗杀。

经济

货币

1912年，西藏开始印行纸币，起初为木刻板单色印刷，后因容易伪造，改用铜板、木刻板套色印刷。^[62]

1915年设立了隶属于藏军总司令噶伦擦绒·达桑占堆的“诺兑色章列空”（主管铸造钱币的机构）。从1911年到1922年，采用人力驱动机器的方式铸造了面值5钱的银币和面值20两银子的金币。留学英国的强俄巴·仁增多吉回到西藏后，在拉薩北郊的夺底建设了水电站，造币厂遂从雪城迁往夺底。1931年新建了扎什机械厂（扎什电机列空稀有无边智力金库房），用电力驱动机器铸造银币，印刷纸币，并制造枪炮零件^[63]。

西藏“色章果木”（藏语金质圆钱之意），面值为二十两，1918-1921年仿照印度托拉金币重量铸造，最终因金价上扬停止铸造。此类金币亦因金价上扬多被印度商人兑去熔毁牟利，因此自15饶迥的火蛇年（1917年起）使用了四年时间就停止流通了^[63]。

社会文化

传统的西藏社会包含了由各种封建阶级所组成的结构，这也是为何中共政府要宣称解放西藏之因^[64]。

研究西藏文化和宗教的唐纳德·S·洛佩兹（英语：Donald S. Lopez Jr.）在当时表示：

“

传统的西藏社会，基本上与世界各地的社会相同，唯独其拥有许多不平等的阶级。西藏各地的权力掌握在当地的贵族、各地黄教的领袖手上...

”

——^[65]

这些政治团体在1959年之前都还一直掌握着各地的权力^[66]。

十三世达赖喇嘛在建国之初曾更改过西藏原有的农奴制度。所以直至50年代，传统的奴隶制可能在大部分的西藏区域已经不复存在，但仍然可以在某些边境地区见到^[67]。例如，春丕河谷地区仍然存在一些传统奴隶制。英国藏学家查爾斯·貝爾曾提出了“温和地方”（即有文明的地方）和“乞丐地方”（ragyabas，即因为地区情况恶劣而保持奴隶制的地方）的地区概念。在十三世达赖喇嘛更改社会制度之前，西藏的社会制度就更为复杂^[68]。

西藏的庄园制度（shiga），类似于英国的庄园制度，但相较复杂，通常是由国家授予或是世袭而来，可以撤销。这一制度包含了“直辖地”和“公农地”两种制度。前者为寺院或贵族机构的私有土地，而后者为村庄公有土地，但是通常为当地官员管理。“直辖地”平均占庄园的50%至75%，而“公农地”则属于庄园制，而其主则是世袭制的，所有农夫均来自徭役。“直辖地”制度以外的制度均被视为农奴制度。庄园制度，其实功能与佃农相当。

农奴制度，其中有“小烟”(düchung），他们出身于徭役，且必须在庄园工作，但可以拥有私有土地和物品，可以在进贡货品予地主前进行自由劳动，且他们可免纳税。他们可以拥有自己的财富，有时还可成为庄园贷款人，且还可以起诉自己的庄主。另一种则为“乡村农奴制”（tralpa），他们被地主束缚在自己的农田和村庄，他们亦是出生于徭役，但必须缴税，比如“公路运输费”（ula）。通常，一个村内的一半以上的人都是农奴（mi-bog）出身。有些庄主用自己的权力压榨自己的农奴，使得这些农奴逃跑到寺院避灾。尽管地主拥有可以捉捕逃跑的农奴回来工作的权力，但事实上没有任何的机构可以恢复逃跑的农奴到原来的工作场所中，且西藏政府也没有强迫任何人奴役。

所有离开庄园满3年的农奴都会被授予平民（chi-mi）身份或转为“直辖农奴”，即为政府工作的农奴。尽管结构上有失平衡，但对于这种系统，农民会更加积极履行他们的工作。这样，他们也不会受地主约束。

參見

註釋

^ 藏傳佛教各派之統一始於1642年，當時五世達賴喇嘛與蒙古固始汗軍事結合，以鞏固自己作為黃教的宗教領袖，亦得以合法統治西藏，此政府稱“二元政府”。 1642年前，西藏的政權掌握在教派僧侶、貴族、達賴喇嘛下的官員、大型教派集團等人手裡。儘管達賴喇嘛登基了，西藏還是一團糟。統一之後，達賴喇嘛統治國家，也是宗教領袖。
在藏傳佛教裡，博克多汗國也是一個佛教神權政權。
详见：神權統治（英语：Theocracy#Tibet）
^ Chankhyim Trekhang Thupten Shakya
^ 中國歷代時區（英语：Historical time zones of China）
^ 1946年之前都是向左
^ 詳見：外蒙古獨立
^ 但事實上，外蒙古和西藏是不屬於中國的管理範。
^ 達賴喇嘛逃亡印度之因，請見：川軍入藏
^ 英語維基百科的原文
^ Lhasa, Tibet (Thursday) - (By Radio to Hong Kong) - [..] The Chinese government had worked for months to put the succession of Ling-ergh La-mu-tan-chu beyond the fortunes of the goldern urn from which the 14th Dalai Lama would normally be picked. Yet today, with true Oriental urbanity, the Regent of Tibet petitioned the Chungking government to authorized the abandonment of the traditional lot-drawing. This given, he wirelessed warm thanks to Chiang Kai-shek and other Chinese governmental leaders.^{[註 8]}
^ 英文維基百科原文：To offset the damage done to their interests by the 1906 treaty between England and Tibet, the Chinese set about extending westwards the sphere of their direct control and began to colonize the country round Batang. The Tibetans reacted vigorously. The Chinese governor was killed on his way to Chamdo and his army put to flight after an action near Batang; several missionaries were also murdered, and Chinese fortunes were at a low ebb when a special commissioner called Zhao Erfeng appeared on the scene. Acting with a savagery which earned him the sobriquet of "The Butcher of Monks," he swept down on Batang, sacked the lamasery, pushed on to Chamdo, and in a series of victorious campaigns which brought his army to the gates of Lhasa, re-established order and reasserted Chinese domination over Tibet. In 1909 he recommended that Sikang should be constituted a separate province comprising thirty-six subprefectures with Batang as the capital. This project was not carried out until later, and then in modified form, for the Chinese Revolution of 1911 brought Chao's career to an end and he was shortly afterwards assassinated by his compatriots. The troubled early years of the Chinese Republic saw the rebellion of most of the tributary chieftains, a number of pitched battles between Chinese and Tibetans, and many strange happenings in which tragedy, comedy, and (of course) religion all had a part to play. In 1914 Great Britain, China, and Tibet met at the conference table to try to restore peace, but this conclave broke up after failing to reach agreement on the fundamental question of the Sino-Tibetan frontier. This, since about 1918, has been recognized for practical purposes as following the course of the Upper Yangtze. In these years the Chinese had too many other preoccupations to bother about reconquering Tibet. However, things gradually quieted down, and in 1927 the province of Sikang was brought into being, but it consisted of only twenty-seven subprefectures instead of the thirty-six visualized by the man who conceived the idea. China had lost, in the course of a decade, all the territory which the Butcher had overrun. Since then Sikang has been relatively peaceful, but this short synopsis of the province's history makes it easy to understand how precarious this state of affairs is bound to be. Chinese control was little more than nominal; I was often to have first-hand experience of its ineffectiveness. To govern a territory of this kind it is not enough to station, in isolated villages separated from each other by many days' journey, a few unimpressive officials and a handful of ragged soldiers. The Tibetans completely disregarded the Chinese administration and obeyed only their own chiefs. One very simple fact illustrates the true status of Sikang's Chinese rulers: nobody in the province would accept Chinese currency, and the officials, unable to buy anything with their money, were forced to subsist by a process of barter. Once you are outside the North Gate [of Dardo or Kangting, you say good-by to Chinese civilization and its amenities and you begin to lead a different kind of life altogether. Although on paper the wide territories to the north of the city form part of the Chinese provinces of Sikang and Tsinghai, the real frontier between China and Tibet runs through Kangting, or perhaps just outside it. The empirical line which Chinese cartographers, more concerned with prestige than with accuracy, draw on their maps bears no relation to accuracy.

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^ Tibet during the Republic of China (1912–1949) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Archived 22 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine
^ “攝政仁波切熱振活佛向吳忠信報告確認十三世達賴喇嘛轉世靈童的過程及申請豁免金瓶掣籤制度（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）”，活佛轉世，中國藏學研究中心，1940年
^ “行政院關於批准丹增嘉措繼任為第十四世達賴喇嘛及向國民政府請求撥款經費的報告（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）”，活佛轉世，中國藏學研究中心，1940年
^ 中華民國時期的西藏（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆），22/11/2009，保存於網站時光機
^ Shakya (1999), pp. 6–7.
^ 王家伟; 尼玛坚赞. 中国西藏的历史地位 [Wang Jiawei; Nima Gyaltsen (1997). The historical position of Tibet in China. China Communication Publishing House]. 五洲传播出版社. 1997: 133– [2022-07-02]. ISBN 978-7-80113-303-8. （原始内容存档于2020-02-28）.
^ 民主黨和紀事報（羅徹斯特，紐約），从Newspaper（英语：Ancestry.com#Newspapers.com）獲取。
^ Testimony by Kent M. Wiedemann, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs before Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Senate Foreign Relations Committee (online version 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期13 January 2012.), 1995
^ Frank Capra, Why We Fight: The Battle of China, Eric Spiegelman, [7 July 2020]
^ Smith, Daniel, "Self-Determination in Tibet: The Politics of Remedies" 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期28 May 2011..
^ Lin, Hsiao-ting. War or Stratagem? Reassessing China's Military Advance towards Tibet, 1942–1943. [28 June 2010]. （原始内容存档于3 March 2016）.
^ chiang ma bufang qinghai troops sino tibetan border site:journals.cambridge.org – Google Search. [18 March 2020]. （原始内容存档于13 March 2021）. 外部链接存在于|title= (帮助)
^ Barrett, David P.; Shyu, Lawrence N. China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society. Peter Lang. 2001: 98 [28 June 2010]. ISBN 0-8204-4556-8. （原始内容存档于24 June 2021）.
^ India Should Revisit its Tibet Policy. Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis. [5 January 2009]. （原始内容存档于21 April 2008）.
^ CTA's Response to Chinese Government Allegations: Part Four. Website of Central Tibetan Administration. [5 January 2009]. （原始内容存档于16 November 2008）.
^ Migot, André (1955).
^ Tibetan Marches }}互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期16 May 2021.. André Migot. Translated from the French by Peter Fleming, p. 101. (1955). E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc. New York.
^ Farrington, Anthony. Britain, China, and Tibet, 1904–1950. International Institute for Asian Studies. （原始内容存档于29 November 2018）.
^ 西藏现代史 [History of Tibet]. 香港大學出版社 [Hong Kong University Publisher]. July 2014. ISBN 9789888139699. "北京中央人民政府毛主席、中国人民解放军朱德司令钧鉴：钧座以大智大勇之略，成救国救民之业，义师所至，全国欢腾，班禅世受国恩，备荷优崇。二十余年来，为了西藏领土主权之完整，呼吁奔走，未尝稍懈。第以未获结果，良用疚心。刻下羁留青海，待命返藏。兹幸在钧座领导之下，西北已获解放，中央人民政府成立，凡有血气，同声鼓舞。今后人民之康乐可期，国家之复兴有望。西藏解放，指日可待。班禅谨代表全藏人民，向钧座致崇高无上之敬意，并矢拥护爱戴之忱。”—十世班禅致中华人民共和国中央人民政府电报 [To President Mao of the Central People's Government of Beijing and Commander Zhu De of the Chinese People's Liberation Army: The scorpion is based on the wisdom of the great wisdom and the courage to save the country and the people. The whole country is full of joy, and the Panchen Lama is blessed by the country. For more than 20 years, I have been dealing with integrity of Tibet territorial sovereignty, without rest. Since result has not been obtained, I felt guilty. I will stay in Qinghai and wait for possible return. Fortunately, under your leadership, the northwest has been liberated, and the Central People’s Government has been established, we're all excited. In the future, the people’s well-being can be expected, and the country’s revival is expected. The liberation of Tibet is just around the corner. On behalf of the entire Tibetan people, please accept my supreme respect and support. " ---- The 10th Panchen Lama to the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China]
^ TIBET (AUTONOMY) (Hansard, 21 June 1950). [21 April 2009]. （原始内容存档于27 October 2020）.
^ Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. china.org.cn. [12 April 2015]. （原始内容存档于16 June 2017）.
^ ^49.0 ^49.1 ^49.2 ^49.3 ^49.4 Jowett (2017).
^ van Schaik (2013).
^ Liu, Xiaoyuan. Frontier passages: ethnopolitics and the rise of Chinese communism, 1921–1945. Stanford University Press. 2004: 89 [28 June 2010]. ISBN 0-8047-4960-4. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.
^ Oriental Society of Australia. The Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia, Volumes 31–34. Oriental Society of Australia. 2000: 35, 37 [28 June 2010]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.
^ Michael Gervers, Wayne Schlepp, Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies. Historical themes and current change in Central and Inner Asia: papers presented at the Central and Inner Asian Seminar, University of Toronto, April 25–26, 1997, Volume 1997. Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies. 1998: 73, 74, 76 [5 December 2020]. ISBN 1-895296-34-X. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.
^ K. Dhondup. The water-bird and other years: a history of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama and after. Rangwang Publishers. 1986: 60 [5 December 2020]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.
^ American Academy of Political and Social Science. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 277. American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1951: 152 [28 June 2010]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.
^ American Academy of Political and Social Science. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volumes 276–278. American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1951: 152 [28 June 2010]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.
^ American Academy of Political and Social Science. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 277. American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1951: 152 [29 September 2012]. （原始内容存档于8 May 2021）. A group of Kazakhs, originally numbering over 20000 people when expelled from Sinkiang by Sheng Shih-ts'ai in 1936, was reduced, after repeated massacres by their Chinese coreligionists under Ma Pu-fang, to a scattered 135 people.
^ ^58.0 ^58.1 Lin (2011).
^ Blackwood's Magazine. William Blackwood. 1948: 407 [6 October 2015]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.
^ Devlet, Nadir. STUDIES IN THE POLITICS, HISTORY AND CULTURE OF TURKIC PEOPLES. [3 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于21 July 2021）（英语）.
^ Benson, Linda. The Kazaks of China: Essays on an Ethnic Minority. Ubsaliensis S. Academiae. 1988: 195 [6 October 2015]. ISBN 978-91-554-2255-4. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.
^ 王海燕. 历史上的西藏钱币(五)线纸币. 西藏收藏. ^{[永久失效連結]}
^ ^63.0 ^63.1 《藏区政治史》中译本p154
^ John Powers, History As Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles Versus The People's Republic Of China, Oxford University Press, 2004 pp.19–20.
^ Donald S. Lopez Jr., Prisoners of Shangri-La: University of Chicago Press, (1998) 1999pp.6–10, p9.
^ Pradyumna P. Karan, The Changing Face of Tibet: The Impact of Chinese Communist Ideology on the Landscape, University Press of Kentucky, 1976, p.64.
^ Warren W. Smith, Jr.China's Tibet?: Autonomy Or Assimilation, Rowman & Littlefield, 2009 p.14
^ Alex McKay, (ed.) The History of Tibet, Vol. 1, Routledge 2003 p.14-

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[1] 藏傳佛教各派之統一始於1642年，當時五世達賴喇嘛與蒙古固始汗軍事結合，以鞏固自己作為黃教的宗教領袖，亦得以合法統治西藏，此政府稱“二元政府”。 1642年前，西藏的政權掌握在教派僧侶、貴族、達賴喇嘛下的官員、大型教派集團等人手裡。儘管達賴喇嘛登基了，西藏還是一團糟。統一之後，達賴喇嘛統治國家，也是宗教領袖。
在藏傳佛教裡，博克多汗國也是一個佛教神權政權。
详见：神權統治（英语：Theocracy#Tibet）

[4] Chankhyim Trekhang Thupten Shakya

[8] 中國歷代時區（英语：Historical time zones of China）

[9] 1946年之前都是向左

[10] 詳見：外蒙古獨立

[18] 但事實上，外蒙古和西藏是不屬於中國的管理範。

[21] 達賴喇嘛逃亡印度之因，請見：川軍入藏

[42] 英語維基百科的原文

[43] Lhasa, Tibet (Thursday) - (By Radio to Hong Kong) - [..] The Chinese government had worked for months to put the succession of Ling-ergh La-mu-tan-chu beyond the fortunes of the goldern urn from which the 14th Dalai Lama would normally be picked. Yet today, with true Oriental urbanity, the Regent of Tibet petitioned the Chungking government to authorized the abandonment of the traditional lot-drawing. This given, he wirelessed warm thanks to Chiang Kai-shek and other Chinese governmental leaders.^{[註 8]}

[53] 英文維基百科原文：To offset the damage done to their interests by the 1906 treaty between England and Tibet, the Chinese set about extending westwards the sphere of their direct control and began to colonize the country round Batang. The Tibetans reacted vigorously. The Chinese governor was killed on his way to Chamdo and his army put to flight after an action near Batang; several missionaries were also murdered, and Chinese fortunes were at a low ebb when a special commissioner called Zhao Erfeng appeared on the scene. Acting with a savagery which earned him the sobriquet of "The Butcher of Monks," he swept down on Batang, sacked the lamasery, pushed on to Chamdo, and in a series of victorious campaigns which brought his army to the gates of Lhasa, re-established order and reasserted Chinese domination over Tibet. In 1909 he recommended that Sikang should be constituted a separate province comprising thirty-six subprefectures with Batang as the capital. This project was not carried out until later, and then in modified form, for the Chinese Revolution of 1911 brought Chao's career to an end and he was shortly afterwards assassinated by his compatriots. The troubled early years of the Chinese Republic saw the rebellion of most of the tributary chieftains, a number of pitched battles between Chinese and Tibetans, and many strange happenings in which tragedy, comedy, and (of course) religion all had a part to play. In 1914 Great Britain, China, and Tibet met at the conference table to try to restore peace, but this conclave broke up after failing to reach agreement on the fundamental question of the Sino-Tibetan frontier. This, since about 1918, has been recognized for practical purposes as following the course of the Upper Yangtze. In these years the Chinese had too many other preoccupations to bother about reconquering Tibet. However, things gradually quieted down, and in 1927 the province of Sikang was brought into being, but it consisted of only twenty-seven subprefectures instead of the thirty-six visualized by the man who conceived the idea. China had lost, in the course of a decade, all the territory which the Butcher had overrun. Since then Sikang has been relatively peaceful, but this short synopsis of the province's history makes it easy to understand how precarious this state of affairs is bound to be. Chinese control was little more than nominal; I was often to have first-hand experience of its ineffectiveness. To govern a territory of this kind it is not enough to station, in isolated villages separated from each other by many days' journey, a few unimpressive officials and a handful of ragged soldiers. The Tibetans completely disregarded the Chinese administration and obeyed only their own chiefs. One very simple fact illustrates the true status of Sikang's Chinese rulers: nobody in the province would accept Chinese currency, and the officials, unable to buy anything with their money, were forced to subsist by a process of barter. Once you are outside the North Gate [of Dardo or Kangting, you say good-by to Chinese civilization and its amenities and you begin to lead a different kind of life altogether. Although on paper the wide territories to the north of the city form part of the Chinese provinces of Sikang and Tsinghai, the real frontier between China and Tibet runs through Kangting, or perhaps just outside it. The empirical line which Chinese cartographers, more concerned with prestige than with accuracy, draw on their maps bears no relation to accuracy.

[2] James Minahan, Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S-Z 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期17 May 2016., Greenwood, 2002, page 1892

[3] Nakamura, Haije. Absolute Adherence to the Lamaist Social Order. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples: India, China, Tibet, Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 1964: 327.

[5] 中藏協議. [25 November 2017]. （原始内容存档于2017年6月23日）.

[6] 貢卓忠義（Gongjo Zhongyi）與駐南京西藏辦事處. [25 November 2017]. （原始内容存档于8 March 2016）.

[7] Goldstein, 1989, pg.611

[11] Zhu (2020), p. 305: "Taking advantage of the chaos in China, Mongolia and Tibet both declared their independence towards the end of 1911, expelled the Chinese ambans (residents) and garrisons, and established independent governments. Both Mongolia and Tibet justified their independence on the grounds that the territories’ attachment to China was a personal one between the Manchu emperors and the territory, and that the territories were not part of China proper."

[12] Melvyn C. Goldstein (with Cynthia M. Beall), Nomads of Western Tibet — The Survival of a Way of Life 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期7 November 2017., University of California Press, 1990, 191 p., p. 50 (Historical background).

[QingStart-13] Lin (2011), p. 7–8: "From [1792] on, the Qing dynasty became increasingly preoccupied with problems in the interior, and court officials in Peking found it less and less easy to intervene in Tibetan affairs.... by the second half of the nineteenth century, the Qing ambans, who represented the Qing emperor and Qing authority, could do little more than exercise ritualistic and symbolic influence."

[ROC-14] Tanner, Harold. China: A History. 2009: 419 [5 December 2020]. ISBN 978-0872209152. （原始内容存档于11 June 2021）.

[Edict1-15] Esherick, Joseph; Kayali, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006). Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. p. 245. ISBN 9780742578159. Archived from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 5 December 2020.

[Edict2-16] Zhai, Zhiyong (2017). 憲法何以中國 p. 190. ISBN 9789629373214. Archived from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2021.

[Edict3-17] Gao, Quanxi (2016). 政治憲法與未來憲制 p. 273. ISBN 9789629372910 Archived from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2021

[Integral-19] Zhao, Suisheng. A Nation-state by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism. 2004: 68 [5 December 2020]. ISBN 9780804750011. （原始内容存档于11 June 2021）.

[Goldstein-20] Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1997), The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama, University of California Press （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p .31,ISBN 978-0-520-21951-9, archived from the original on 26 January 2021, retrieved 7 January 2021

[FOOTNOTEGoldstein199731-22] Goldstein (1997)，第31頁.

[Dalai1913-23] Tibet Justice Center – Legal Materials on Tibet – Tibet – Proclamation Issued by His Holiness the Dalai Lama XIII (1913) [106]. [16 March 2009]. （原始内容存档于4 February 2019）.

[24] Udo B. Barkmann, Geschichte der Mongolei, Bonn 1999, p380ff

[simla1914-25] Tibet Justice Center – Legal Materials on Tibet – Treaties and Conventions Relating to Tibet – Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla (1914) [400]. [16 March 2009]. （原始内容存档于9 September 2020）.

[26] Article 2 of the Simla Convention 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期15 February 2011.

[27] Appendix of the Simla Convention 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期15 February 2011.

[FOOTNOTEGoldstein1989-28] 21.0 ^21.1 Goldstein (1989).

[treaty1907-29] Tibet Justice Center – Legal Materials on Tibet – Treaties and Conventions Relating to Tibet – Convention Between Great Britain and Russia (1907)[391]. [16 March 2009]. （原始内容存档于5 February 2019）.

[FOOTNOTELamb1966b529-30] Lamb (1966b)，第529頁.

[31] "Republic of China (1912–1949) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）". China's Tibet: Facts & Figures 2002. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2006.

[32] Chambers's Encyclopaedia, Volume XIII, Pergamaon Press, 1967, p. 638

[33] Reports by F.W. Williamson, British political officer in Sikkim, India Office Record, L/PS/12/4175, dated 20 January 1935

[FOOTNOTEGoldstein1989241-34] Goldstein (1989)，第241頁.

[ectn-35] Tibet during the Republic of China (1912–1949) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Archived 22 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine

[36] “攝政仁波切熱振活佛向吳忠信報告確認十三世達賴喇嘛轉世靈童的過程及申請豁免金瓶掣籤制度（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）”，活佛轉世，中國藏學研究中心，1940年

[37] “行政院關於批准丹增嘉措繼任為第十四世達賴喇嘛及向國民政府請求撥款經費的報告（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）”，活佛轉世，中國藏學研究中心，1940年

[38] 中華民國時期的西藏（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆），22/11/2009，保存於網站時光機

[39] Shakya (1999), pp. 6–7.

[王家伟尼玛坚赞1997_preside-40] 王家伟; 尼玛坚赞. 中国西藏的历史地位 [Wang Jiawei; Nima Gyaltsen (1997). The historical position of Tibet in China. China Communication Publishing House]. 五洲传播出版社. 1997: 133– [2022-07-02]. ISBN 978-7-80113-303-8. （原始内容存档于2020-02-28）.

[41] 民主黨和紀事報（羅徹斯特，紐約），从Newspaper（英语：Ancestry.com#Newspapers.com）獲取。

[44] Testimony by Kent M. Wiedemann, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs before Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Senate Foreign Relations Committee (online version 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期13 January 2012.), 1995

[45] Frank Capra, Why We Fight: The Battle of China, Eric Spiegelman, [7 July 2020]

[Smith-46] Smith, Daniel, "Self-Determination in Tibet: The Politics of Remedies" 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期28 May 2011..

[47] Lin, Hsiao-ting. War or Stratagem? Reassessing China's Military Advance towards Tibet, 1942–1943. [28 June 2010]. （原始内容存档于3 March 2016）.

[48] ufang qinghai troops sino tibetan border site:journals.cambridge.org – Google Search. [18 March 2020]. （原始内容存档于13 March 2021）. 外部链接存在于|title= (帮助)

[49] Barrett, David P.; Shyu, Lawrence N. China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society. Peter Lang. 2001: 98 [28 June 2010]. ISBN 0-8204-4556-8. （原始内容存档于24 June 2021）.

[50] India Should Revisit its Tibet Policy. Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis. [5 January 2009]. （原始内容存档于21 April 2008）.

[51] CTA's Response to Chinese Government Allegations: Part Four. Website of Central Tibetan Administration. [5 January 2009]. （原始内容存档于16 November 2008）.

[52] Migot, André (1955).

[54] Tibetan Marches }}互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期16 May 2021.. André Migot. Translated from the French by Peter Fleming, p. 101. (1955). E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc. New York.

[Farrington-55] Farrington, Anthony. Britain, China, and Tibet, 1904–1950. International Institute for Asian Studies. （原始内容存档于29 November 2018）.

[telegraph-56] 西藏现代史 [History of Tibet]. 香港大學出版社 [Hong Kong University Publisher]. July 2014. ISBN 9789888139699. "北京中央人民政府毛主席、中国人民解放军朱德司令钧鉴：钧座以大智大勇之略，成救国救民之业，义师所至，全国欢腾，班禅世受国恩，备荷优崇。二十余年来，为了西藏领土主权之完整，呼吁奔走，未尝稍懈。第以未获结果，良用疚心。刻下羁留青海，待命返藏。兹幸在钧座领导之下，西北已获解放，中央人民政府成立，凡有血气，同声鼓舞。今后人民之康乐可期，国家之复兴有望。西藏解放，指日可待。班禅谨代表全藏人民，向钧座致崇高无上之敬意，并矢拥护爱戴之忱。”—十世班禅致中华人民共和国中央人民政府电报 [To President Mao of the Central People's Government of Beijing and Commander Zhu De of the Chinese People's Liberation Army: The scorpion is based on the wisdom of the great wisdom and the courage to save the country and the people. The whole country is full of joy, and the Panchen Lama is blessed by the country. For more than 20 years, I have been dealing with integrity of Tibet territorial sovereignty, without rest. Since result has not been obtained, I felt guilty. I will stay in Qinghai and wait for possible return. Fortunately, under your leadership, the northwest has been liberated, and the Central People’s Government has been established, we're all excited. In the future, the people’s well-being can be expected, and the country’s revival is expected. The liberation of Tibet is just around the corner. On behalf of the entire Tibetan people, please accept my supreme respect and support. " ---- The 10th Panchen Lama to the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China]

[57] TIBET (AUTONOMY) (Hansard, 21 June 1950). [21 April 2009]. （原始内容存档于27 October 2020）.

[58] Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. china.org.cn. [12 April 2015]. （原始内容存档于16 June 2017）.

[FOOTNOTEJowett2017-59] 49.0 ^49.1 ^49.2 ^49.3 ^49.4 Jowett (2017).

[FOOTNOTEvan_Schaik2013-60] van Schaik (2013).

[61] Liu, Xiaoyuan. Frontier passages: ethnopolitics and the rise of Chinese communism, 1921–1945. Stanford University Press. 2004: 89 [28 June 2010]. ISBN 0-8047-4960-4. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.

[62] Oriental Society of Australia. The Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia, Volumes 31–34. Oriental Society of Australia. 2000: 35, 37 [28 June 2010]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.

[63] Michael Gervers, Wayne Schlepp, Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies. Historical themes and current change in Central and Inner Asia: papers presented at the Central and Inner Asian Seminar, University of Toronto, April 25–26, 1997, Volume 1997. Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies. 1998: 73, 74, 76 [5 December 2020]. ISBN 1-895296-34-X. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.

[64] K. Dhondup. The water-bird and other years: a history of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama and after. Rangwang Publishers. 1986: 60 [5 December 2020]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.

[65] American Academy of Political and Social Science. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 277. American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1951: 152 [28 June 2010]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.

[66] American Academy of Political and Social Science. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volumes 276–278. American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1951: 152 [28 June 2010]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.

[67] American Academy of Political and Social Science. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 277. American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1951: 152 [29 September 2012]. （原始内容存档于8 May 2021）. A group of Kazakhs, originally numbering over 20000 people when expelled from Sinkiang by Sheng Shih-ts'ai in 1936, was reduced, after repeated massacres by their Chinese coreligionists under Ma Pu-fang, to a scattered 135 people.

[FOOTNOTELin2011-68] 58.0 ^58.1 Lin (2011).

[69] Blackwood's Magazine. William Blackwood. 1948: 407 [6 October 2015]. （原始内容存档于15 July 2021）.

[70] Devlet, Nadir. STUDIES IN THE POLITICS, HISTORY AND CULTURE OF TURKIC PEOPLES. [3 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于21 July 2021）（英语）.

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[wang5-72] 王海燕. 历史上的西藏钱币(五)线纸币. 西藏收藏. ^{[永久失效連結]}

[藏区政治史p154-73] 63.0 ^63.1 《藏区政治史》中译本p154

[74] John Powers, History As Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles Versus The People's Republic Of China, Oxford University Press, 2004 pp.19–20.

[75] Donald S. Lopez Jr., Prisoners of Shangri-La: University of Chicago Press, (1998) 1999pp.6–10, p9.

[76] Pradyumna P. Karan, The Changing Face of Tibet: The Impact of Chinese Communist Ideology on the Landscape, University Press of Kentucky, 1976, p.64.

[77] Warren W. Smith, Jr.China's Tibet?: Autonomy Or Assimilation, Rowman & Littlefield, 2009 p.14

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@@ 第121行： / 第121行： @@
 在[[蒋中正]]领导的[[国民政府]]命令下，[[马步芳]]于1942年修复了[[玉树机场]]，以阻止西藏独立。蒋还命令马步芳在1942年让他的[[东突厥斯坦共和国|穆斯林士兵]]对入侵西藏保持警惕。 <ref>{{Cite web |first=Hsiao-ting |author=Lin |title=War or Stratagem? Reassessing China's Military Advance towards Tibet, 1942–1943 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=449716 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225329/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=449716 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=chiang ma bufang qinghai troops sino tibetan border site:journals.cambridge.org – Google Search |url=https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=chiang%20ma%20bufang%20qinghai%20troops%20sino%20tibetan%20border%20site:journals.cambridge.org&aql=&gs_rfai= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313110808/https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=chiang%20ma%20bufang%20qinghai%20troops%20sino%20tibetan%20border%20site:journals.cambridge.org&aql=&gs_rfai= |archive-date=13 March 2021 |access-date=18 March 2020}}</ref>马步芳应允，将数千名大军调往西藏边境。 <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4_BxAAAAMAAJ&q=ma+bufang+|title=China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society|first=David P.|last=Barrett|first2=Lawrence N.|last2=Shyu|year=2001|publisher=Peter Lang|page=98|isbn=0-8204-4556-8|accessdate=28 June 2010|archivedate=24 June 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624211228/https://books.google.com/books?id=4_BxAAAAMAAJ&q=ma+bufang+}}</ref>蒋还威胁西藏人，如果他们不遵守，就用轰炸。
-年西藏派代表团参加在印度新德里召开的[[亞洲關係會議|亚洲关系会议]]，在会上表示自己是一个独立国家，印度在1947年至1954年承认其为独立国家。 <ref>{{Cite web |title=India Should Revisit its Tibet Policy |url=http://www.idsa.in/publications/stratcomments/AbantiBhattacharya040408.htm |work=Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421215248/http://www.idsa.in/publications/stratcomments/AbantiBhattacharya040408.htm |archive-date=21 April 2008 |access-date=5 January 2009}}</ref>这可能是西藏国旗首次出现在公共集会上。 <ref>{{Cite web |title=CTA's Response to Chinese Government Allegations: Part Four |url=http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=61&articletype=press |work=Website of Central Tibetan Administration |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116132343/http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=61&articletype=press |archive-date=16 November 2008 |access-date=5 January 2009}}</ref>
+年西藏派代表团参加在印度新德里召开的[[亞洲關係會議]]，在会上表示自己是一个独立国家，印度在1947年至1954年承认其为独立国家。 <ref>{{Cite web |title=India Should Revisit its Tibet Policy |url=http://www.idsa.in/publications/stratcomments/AbantiBhattacharya040408.htm |work=Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421215248/http://www.idsa.in/publications/stratcomments/AbantiBhattacharya040408.htm |archive-date=21 April 2008 |access-date=5 January 2009}}</ref>这可能是西藏国旗首次出现在公共集会上。<ref>{{Cite web |title=CTA's Response to Chinese Government Allegations: Part Four |url=http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=61&articletype=press |work=Website of Central Tibetan Administration |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116132343/http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=61&articletype=press |archive-date=16 November 2008 |access-date=5 January 2009}}</ref>
 年在西藏旅行数月的法国医生安德烈·米戈（{{lang|fr|André Migot}}） 描述了西藏和中国之间复杂的边界安排，以及它们是如何发展的：<ref>Migot, André (1955). </ref>
@@ 第235行： / 第235行： @@
 * [[中華人民共和國治藏歷史|西藏历史（1950年至今）]]
 * [[雪山獅子旗|西藏国旗]]
-* [[四個拉格比公學男孩|四个橄榄球男孩]]
+* [[四個拉格比公學男孩]]
 * [[甘丹颇章]]
 * [[西藏货币史]]
 * [[噶廈|噶厦]]
-* [[蒙藏委員會|蒙藏委员会]]
+* [[蒙藏委員會]]
 * [[清朝治藏歷史|清朝统治下的西藏]]
 ==註釋==
 {{small|{{NoteFoot}}}}
-== 参考内容 ==
+== 引用 ==
 {{Reflist|2}}
+=== 參考文獻 ===
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+{{refend}}
 {{Portal|历史|中国}}