酒精中毒:修订间差异

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由於我覺得之前這個[Alcohol intoxication]的中文版過於簡單,所以我把整篇英文版翻譯為中文。翻譯過程中碰到===Effect by alcohol level===裡面有個模板,承蒙編譯的協助,讓我得以把內容翻譯成中文。之後還有Alcoholism/Alcohol Abuse等英文版的文章翻譯會陸續發表。請指教。
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{{medical}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = 酒精中毒
{{Infobox disease
| synonyms = 醉酒、急性酒精中毒、乙醇中毒<ref name=Gar2007/><ref name=Gup2016>{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=P. K. |title=Fundamentals of Toxicology: Essential Concepts and Applications |date=2016 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-805403-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u3mLCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226 |language=en|quote=Alcohol poisoning presents in two forms, acute and chronic. However, these are most often referred to as alcohol intoxication and alcohol addiction respectively.}}</ref>
| Name = 酒精中毒
| Image = Michelangelo drunken Noah.jpg
| image = Michelangelo drunken Noah.jpg
| Caption = [[米朗基]]的《的諾亞
| caption = [[米朗基]]1509年作品“酩酊大醉的[[諾亞]]”
| field = [[毒理學]],[[精神醫學]]
| DiseasesDB =
| symptoms = '''輕度''': 輕度{{le|鎮靜狀態|sedation}}, 肢體協調能力降低<ref name=Mer2018/><br>'''適度''': 言語不清、步態障礙、[[嘔吐]]<ref name=Mer2018/><br>'''嚴重''': {{le|換氣不足|Hypoventilation}}(呼吸抑制),[[昏迷]]<ref name=Mer2018/>
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|10|0|f|10}}, {{ICD10|T|51||t|51}}
| complications = [[癲癇發作]]、[[吸入性肺炎]]、[[創傷|傷害]]、[[低血糖]]<ref name=Mer2018/><ref name=NHS2018/>
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|305.0}}, {{ICD9|980}}
| ICDO =
| onset = 幾分鐘到幾小時<ref name=DSM5/>
| OMIM =
| duration = 幾個小時<ref name=DSM5/>
| MedlinePlus =
| types =
| causes = [[乙醇]] (酒精)<ref name=Jun2014/>
| eMedicineSubj =
| risks = 社會環境、[[衝動 (心理學)|衝動行為]]、[[酗酒]]<ref name=DSM5/><ref name=Mayo2019>{{cite web |title=Alcohol use disorder – Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/alcohol-use-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20369243 |website=Mayo Clinic |access-date=26 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
| eMedicineTopic =
| diagnosis = 通常透過了解事件史和[[健康檢查|身體檢查]]<ref name=Jun2014/>
| MeshID = D000435
| differential = [[肝性腦病]]、{{le|韋尼克腦病|Wernicke encephalopathy}}、[[甲醇中毒]]、[[腦膜炎]]、[[創傷性腦損傷]]<ref name=Jun2014/>
| prevention =
| treatment = [[對症治療]]<ref name=Jun2014/>
| medication =
| prognosis =
| frequency = 甚為通常(尤其在[[西方世界]])<ref name=Von2008/>
| deaths =在美國,每年約2,200人<ref name=Kan2015/>
}}
}}


'''酒精中毒'''({{lang-en|Alcohol intoxication}}),也可寫為alcohol poisoning,<ref name=Gar2007>{{cite book |last1=Garfunkel |first1=Lynn C. |last2=Kaczorowski |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Christy |first3=Cynthia |title=Pediatric Clinical Advisor E-Book: Instant Diagnosis and Treatment |date=2007 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=9780323070584 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwajBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |language=en}}</ref>通常用來描述'''醉酒'''或是'''酩酊(陶醉)'''的狀態,<ref>{{cite web
'''酒精中毒'''(英語:Alcohol intoxication,俗稱:alcohol poisoning<ref>{{Cite book|edition=2nd ed|chapter=|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/324998115|publisher=Mosby Elsevier|date=2007|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-323-07058-4|oclc=324998115|last=Garfunkel, Lynn C.|last2=Kaczorowski, Jeffrey.|last3=Christy, Cynthia.|title=Pediatric clinical advisor : instant diagnosis and treatment|first=|year=|pages=}}</ref>),'''酒醉'''為輕度的酒精中毒。酒精中毒指的是人因近期飲下的[[酒精]]所產生的生理影響與負面行為<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/892983995|location=Edinburgh|isbn=978-0-444-62622-6|oclc=892983995|last=Sullivan, Edith V.,|last2=Pfefferbaum, Adolf,|title=Alcohol and the nervous system|first=|publisher=|year=|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=WHO {{!}} Acute intoxication|url=https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/acute_intox/en/|accessdate=2020-04-24|work=WHO}}</ref>。低劑量的酒精中毒症狀包括輕微的[[鎮靜劑]]作用以及協調不良<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Alcohol Toxicity and Withdrawal - Special Subjects|url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/special-subjects/recreational-drugs-and-intoxicants/alcohol-toxicity-and-withdrawal|accessdate=2020-04-24|work=Merck Manuals Professional Edition|language=en-US|archive-date=2019-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022170825/https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/special-subjects/recreational-drugs-and-intoxicants/alcohol-toxicity-and-withdrawal|dead-url=no}}</ref>,更高一些的劑量則可能會引起語言含混、步行困難與嘔吐<ref name=":0" />,過量的酒精則可能會引發[[呼吸]]困難、[[昏迷]]甚至[[死亡]]<ref name=":0" />。一些可能的併發症則包括[[癲癇發作]]、[[吸入性肺炎]]、物理性的[[創傷]](包括[[自殺]])以及[[低血糖]]<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Alcohol poisoning|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/alcohol-poisoning/|accessdate=2020-04-26|date=2017-10-17|work=nhs.uk|language=en|archive-date=2019-06-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630151817/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/alcohol-poisoning/|dead-url=no}}</ref>。酒精中毒並可能導致與酒精相關犯罪(alcohol-related crime),在這樣犯罪案件中加害人有酒醉或酒精中毒的狀況通常比[[受害者]]多<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Alcohol and Crime|title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosa039.pub2|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|date=2016-08-01|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-1-4051-2433-1|pages=1–2|doi=10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosa039.pub2|language=en|first=Hung-En|last=Sung|editor-first=George|editor-last=Ritzer}}</ref>,[[酒醉駕車]]即為一種酒精相關的犯罪。
| url = https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/inebriation
| title = Meaning of inebriation in English
| work =dictionary.cambridge.org [[Cambridge University Press]]
|archive-url=https://archive.ph/kXeAk
|archive-date= 24 June 2021
| accessdate = 24 June 2021}}</ref>
是因為新近飲[[酒]]而產生負面行為,以及對飲者身體造成的影響。<ref name=Jun2014>{{cite book|last1=Jung|first1=YC|last2=Namkoong|first2=K|title=Alcohol: intoxication and poisoning – diagnosis and treatment.|journal=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|date=2014|volume=125|pages=115–21|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-62619-6.00007-0|pmid=25307571|isbn=9780444626196}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Acute intoxication|url=https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/acute_intox/en/|website=WHO|access-date=24 May 2018}}</ref>除酒精([[乙醇]])的[[毒性]](主要精神活性成分)之外,還有酒精的代謝物 - [[乙醛]]的活性所引起的生理症狀。<ref>Zakhari S. (2006) [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17718403/ Overview: how is alcohol metabolized by the body?.] [[Alcohol Res Health]]. '''29''' PMID 17718403 PMCID: PMC6527027, cite 4 in, {{cite journal |last1=Rusyn|first1=Ivan |last2=Bataller |first2=Ramon |title=Alcohol and toxicity |script-title= |trans-title= |url=https://www.journal-of-hepatology.eu/article/S0168-8278(13)00082-2/fulltext |access-date=24 June 2021 |journal=Journal of Hepatology the Home of Liver Research|type= |series= |year=2013 |language= |edition= |publication-place=www.journal-of-hepatology.eu |publication-date=1 August 2013 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=387–388 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2013.01.035 |pmid=23391479 |archive-url= |archive-date= |url-status=live |via=[[Microsoft Bing]] - [[Google Scholar]] |pmc=3959903}}</ref>影響可能要攝入數小時後才會出現,並會導致俗稱的[[宿醉]]發生。
低劑量{{le|物質中毒|Substance intoxication|中毒}}症狀可能包括輕度{{le|鎮靜狀態|sedation}}和肢體協調笨拙。<ref name=Mer2018/>在較高劑量的時候,可能會出現言語不清、[[共濟失調]]和[[嘔吐]]。<ref name=Mer2018/>極高劑量會導致{{le|換氣不足|Hypoventilation}}、[[昏迷]]、或是[[死亡]]。<ref name=Mer2018>{{cite web|title=Alcohol Toxicity and Withdrawal|url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/special-subjects/recreational-drugs-and-intoxicants/alcohol-toxicity-and-withdrawal|website=Merck Manuals Professional Edition|access-date=24 May 2018}}</ref>相關的併發症可能包括[[癲癇發作]]、[[吸入性肺炎]]、[[創傷|傷害]](包括[[自殺]])、和[[低血糖]]。<ref name=Mer2018/><ref name=NHS2018/>酒精中毒會導致與{{le|酒精相關的犯罪|alcohol-related crime}}發生,而通常是肇事者比受害者的醉酒程度更高。<ref>{{Citation|last=Sung|first=Hung-En|chapter=Alcohol and Crime|date=2016|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology|pages=1–2|publisher=American Cancer Society|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosa039.pub2|isbn=978-1-4051-6551-8}}</ref>
酒精中毒通常在喝兩杯或以上的酒後開始作用。<ref name=DSM5/>風險因素是喜好飲酒的社會風氣,還有具有衝動個性的人。<ref name=DSM5/>對於酒精中毒的診斷通常透過了解事件歷史和身體檢查來達成。<ref name=Jun2014/>有證人協助核實事件經過可能會有幫助。<ref name=Jun2014/>就法律而言,酒精中毒通常被定義為[[血液酒精濃度]](BAC)大於5.4–17.4毫摩爾/升(等於25–80毫克/分升,或是血液酒精含量到達0.025–0.080%)。<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ethanol Level: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2090019-overview?pa=tZlaRqU6qrJZktQC5WWvdZUn3AyA7274pd4Hf2zSCvNL1t86c9tryKJmi8Xcaw5t8SIvl8zjYv73GUyW5rsbWA%3D%3D|website=Medscape|access-date=24 May 2018|date=22 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Canfield|first1=DV|last2=Dubowski|first2=KM|last3=Cowan|first3=M|last4=Harding|first4=PM|title=Alcohol Limits and Public Safety.|journal=Forensic Science Review|date=January 2014|volume=26|issue=1|pages=9–22|pmid=26226968}}</ref>可通過血液或[[體內酒精測定儀|呼氣測試]]作測量。<ref name=DSM5>{{citation|author=American Psychiatric Association|year=2013|title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.)|location=Arlington|publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/497 497–499]|isbn=978-0890425558|url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/497}}</ref>酒精在人體內以每小時約 3.3毫摩爾 /升(15毫克/分升) 的速度分解,<ref name=Jun2014/>依個人的[[基礎代謝率|代謝率]]而定(請參考[[代謝]])。 <ref>{{cite web
| url = https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AA72/AA72.htm
| title = Alcohol Alert
| work =pubs.niaaa.nih.gov
|archive-url=
|archive-date=
| accessdate = 24 June 2021}}</ref>
酒精中毒的管理牽涉到[[對症治療]]。<ref name=Jun2014/>包括把患者置於[[復原臥式]]、保暖、並確保呼吸順暢。<ref name=NHS2018>{{cite web|title=Alcohol poisoning|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/alcohol-poisoning/|website=nhs.uk|access-date=24 May 2018|date=2017-10-17}}</ref>[[洗胃]]和運用[[活性炭]]兩種方式被發現用處不大。<ref name=Jun2014/>建議在治療之前最好再做評估,以確定症狀發生的真正原因。<ref name=Jun2014/>
歷史上有關急性酒精中毒的記錄充斥,酒精一直是世上最普遍使用的[[娛樂性用藥]]之一。<ref>{{cite book|last1=Belenko|first1=Steven|last2=Spohn|first2=Cassia|title=Drugs, Crime, and Justice|date=2014|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=9781483355429|page=PT21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w3pZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Scott C.|title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of Alcohol: Social, Cultural, and Historical Perspectives|date=2014|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=9781483374383|page=PT1382|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R9i5BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1382}}</ref>某些宗教認為酒精中毒是種罪惡。<ref name=DSM5/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kolig|first1=Erich|title=Conservative Islam: A Cultural Anthropology|date=2012|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=9780739174258|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c3iEBiWQOBwC&pg=PA101}}</ref>


==症狀==
酒精中毒通常在飲[[酒]]兩杯或更多後出現<ref name=":1" />,這不代表只飲用一杯或更少就不會出現。一些具有風險的影響因子還包括了「將大量飲酒視為稀鬆平常的社會環境」以及「衝動的[[人格特質]]」<ref name=":1" />。
[[File:The wine is a mocker 1663-1664 Jan Steen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|荷蘭畫家[[揚·斯特恩]]約在1663年作品“酒讓人變成受嘲弄的對象”。]]


酒精中毒是由於新近飲用酒精而對健康造成的負面影響。<ref name=Jun2014/>當情況嚴重時,它會成為[[醫療緊急情況]]。酒精中毒的某些影響,例如產生[[欣快]]感和降低[[社交抑制]],成為酒精的重要吸引力。<ref>{{Cite book|title=The drunken monkey : why we drink and abuse alcohol|last=Dudley, Robert, 1961–|isbn=978-0-520-95817-3|location=Berkeley|oclc=869457130|date = May 2014}}</ref>
== 定義與成因 ==
從法律上來說,酒精中毒通常是指[[血液酒精濃度]](BAC)大於5.4–17.4 mmol/L (25–80 mg/dL或0.025–0.080%)<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Ethanol Level: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2090019-overview?pa=tZlaRqU6qrJZktQC5WWvdZUn3AyA7274pd4Hf2zSCvNL1t86c9tryKJmi8Xcaw5t8SIvl8zjYv73GUyW5rsbWA==|date=2020-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alcohol Limits and Public Safety|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26226968|last=Canfield|first=D. V.|last2=Dubowski|first2=K. M.|date=2014-01|journal=Forensic Science Review|issue=1|volume=26|pages=9–22|issn=1042-7201|pmid=26226968|last3=Cowan|first3=M.|last4=Harding|first4=P. M.}}</ref>,這可以透過[[驗血]]與[[體內酒精測定儀|呼氣式酒精檢測儀]]來測定<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|edition=5th ed|chapter=|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/830807378|publisher=American Psychiatric Association|date=2013|location=Arlington, VA|isbn=978-0-89042-554-1|oclc=830807378|last=American Psychiatric Association.|last2=|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5.|first=|year=|pages=pp.497–499|access-date=2020-04-26|archive-date=2020-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807083259/https://www.worldcat.org/title/diagnostic-and-statistical-manual-of-mental-disorders-dsm-5/oclc/830807378|dead-url=no}}</ref>。而酒精在人體中大概以每一小時3.3 mmol/L (15 mg/dL) 的速率分解<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|chapter=Alcohol|title=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444626196000070|publisher=Elsevier|date=2014|isbn=978-0-444-62619-6|pages=115–121|volume=125|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-62619-6.00007-0|language=en|first=Young-chul|last=Jung|first2=Kee|last2=Namkoong}}</ref>。


== 徵兆與症狀 ==
临床上有明显的不良行为反应(比如不适当的性行为或攻击行为、心情变化、判断力受损等)在饮酒当时或之后不久产生。在饮酒过当时或之后不久,产生下列病征:


*言语混乱
*运动协调障碍
*步调不稳
*眼球震颤
*注意力或记忆力损害
*僵硬或昏迷


酒精中毒的診斷通常透過行為事件的歷史以及理學檢查進行<ref name=":2" />,證人對事件的證詞可能會有用<ref name=":2" />。


== 處理 ==
酒精中毒的處理方法通常為支持性療法<ref name=":2" />。這通常包括將換成放置為[[復原臥式]]、保持患者的溫暖以及確保患者有足夠的呼吸<ref name=":3" />。一些像是洗胃或是活性碳的方法並沒有任何證據顯示有用<ref name=":2" />。在恢復的過程中可能需要不斷重複的判斷,以避免任何引起其他症狀的潛在因子<ref name=":2" />。


==参见==
*[[酒精反应]]
*[[甲醇中毒]]
*[[酒醉駕車]]
*[[茶醉]]
*[[醉拳]]



== 參考文獻 ==

<references />

{{ICD-10-F}}

[[分类:酗酒]]






===不同酒精攝取量的影響===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 不同血液酒精濃度對人體的影響<ref>A hybridizing of effects as described at ''[http://www.alcohol.vt.edu/Students/alcoholEffects/index.htm Alcohol's Effects] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505032342/http://www.alcohol.vt.edu/Students/alcoholEffects/index.htm |date=May 5, 2007 }}'' from [[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University|Virginia Tech]] and [http://flightphysical.com/pilot/alcohol.htm Federal Aviation Regulation (CFR) 91.17: ''Alcohol and Flying''] (hosted on ''FlightPhysical.com'')</ref>
|-
! scope="col" | 血液酒精濃度(BAC) (%含量)
![[國際單位制]] (毫摩爾/升)
!毫克/分升
! scope="col" | 行為
! scope="col" | 損害
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 0.001–0.029
|0.22–6.3
|1–29
|
* 看來正常
|
* 特殊測試方能察覺出微妙的影響
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 0.030–0.059
|6.5–12.8
|30-59
|
* [[社交抑制]]降低
* [[快樂]]
* 輕度[[欣快]]
* {{le|鬆弛(心理)|Relaxation (psychology)|鬆弛}}
* {{le|囉嗦|verbosity}}增強
|
* [[專注力]]降低
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 0.060–0.099
|13.0–21.5
|60-99
|
* [[酒精反應|酒精性臉紅反應]]
* {{le|情緒淡然|Reduced affect display}}
* {{le|解除抑制|disinhibition}}
* [[欣快]]
* [[外向性與內向性]]中的外向性
* {{le|疼痛耐受性|pain tolerance}}增強
* {{le|深度感知|Depth perception}}
* {{le|炫目|Glare (vision)}}恢復能力
* {{le|周邊視覺|Peripheral vision}}
* [[理智]]
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 0.100–0.199
|21.7–43.3
|100-199
|
* 疼覺缺失
* [[共濟失調]]
* 喧鬧
* 過度{{le|情緒表達|emotional expression}}
* 可能會[[噁心]]和[[嘔吐]]
* {{le|天旋地轉|Spins}}
|
* {{le|動作技能|Gross motor skill}}
* {{le|動作計劃|Motor planning}}
* [[反射 (生理學)|反射]]
* 言語不清
* 動作蹣跚
* 暫時性[[勃起功能障礙]]
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 0.200–0.299
|43.4–64.9
|200–299
|
* [[憤怒]]或是[[悲傷]]
* [[順行性遺忘症]]
* [[感覺接收器|感官]]受損
* [[性慾低下症|性慾低下]] (ISD)
* {{le|情緒波動|Mood swing}}
* 噁心
* [[理解]]力部分喪失
* {{le|木僵|stupor}}的可能性
*嘔吐
|
* [[失憶症]]
* {{le|失去知覺|unconsciousness}}
* 嚴重 {{le|肢體障礙|physical disability}}
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 0.300–0.399
|65.1–86.6
|300–399
|
* {{le|中樞神經抑制|Central nervous system depression}}
* 間歇性失去知覺
* 喪失理解能力
* 低度死亡風險
* [[吸入性肺炎]]
*{{le|木僵|stupor}}
|
* 喪失[[平衡覺|平衡感]]
* {{le|換氣不足|Hypoventilation}}(呼吸抑制)
* [[心跳過緩]]
* [[尿失禁]]
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 0.400–0.500
|86.80–108.5
|400–500
|
* [[昏迷]]
* 有死亡風險
* 嚴重{{le|中樞神經抑制|Central nervous system depression}}
|
* [[呼吸衰竭]]
* 心率問題
* {{le|位置性酒精性眼球震顫|Positional alcohol nystagmus}}
|-
| style="text-align: center" | >0.50
|>108.5
|>500
|
* 高死亡風險
|
|}

==病理生理學==
[[File:(Five stages of inebriation, ca.1863-1868) - photographer Charles Percy Pickering (9610229733) (2).jpg|thumb|澳大利亞籍攝影家作品,醉酒五階段中的達到第三階段的飲者(約在1863年到1868年間拍攝)。]]

正常肝臟以每小時約可代謝8公克純乙醇。8公克(10毫升,或0.34美國[[液體盎司]])被當作一份{{le|英國酒精標準單位|Unit of alcohol}}。罹患有[[肝炎]]、[[肝硬化]]、[[膽囊]]疾病、和癌症等疾病的“異常”肝臟,代謝酒精的速度會降低。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/853.aspx|title=How long does alcohol stay in your blood? |publisher=NHS Choices|date=2018-06-26 }}</ref>
乙醇透過[[醇脫氫酶]](ADH)代謝為乙醛,許多人體組織,包括[[胃粘膜]],均存有這種酶。乙醛透過[[乙醛脫氫酶]](ALDH)(主要存在肝[[線粒體]]中)代謝為[[乙酸]]。肌肉細胞使用[[乙酰輔酶A合成酶]]把乙酸轉換成[[乙酰輔酶A]],然後乙酰輔酶被用於[[三羧酸循環|檸檬酸循環]]。(檸檬酸循環是三大營養素-[[醣類]]、[[脂類]]及[[胺基酸]]的[[異化作用]]通路,又是[[同化作用]]的樞紐,此外,檸檬酸循環的中間產物可以提供細胞作為合成醣類、脂類、胺基酸等物質的前驅物。)<ref>Smith, C., Marks, Allan D., Lieberman, Michael, 2005, ''Marks' Basic Medical Biochemistry: A Clinical Approach'', 2nd ed., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, USA, p. 458</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url =https://highscope.ch.ntu.edu.tw/wordpress/?p=53139
| title = 檸檬酸循環
| publisher = 科學 Online
| date = 5 May 2014
| accessdate =14 August 2021
}}</ref>
隨著飲酒量增加,人們會變得嗜睡或麻木。在喝下非常高的數量後,呼吸系統受到抑制,飲者將停止呼吸。昏迷的患者可能會吸入嘔吐物(進入肺部,導致窒息,如果倖免於難,可能會成為吸入性肺炎)。中樞神經系統抑制和運動協調受損,加上判斷力變差,會增加意外傷害的可能性。據估計,大約三分之一與酒精有關的死亡是由事故所造成,另外14%的死亡是由故意傷害而造成。<ref>The World Health Organization (2007) Alcohol and Injury in Emergency Departments</ref>
除對中樞神經系統抑制導致呼吸衰竭和事故之外,酒精還會導致嚴重的代謝紊亂。[[低血糖]]是由於乙醇抑制[[糖異生]](非碳水化合物轉變為葡萄糖的過程),特別是發生在在兒童身上,會引起[[乳酸性酸中毒]]、[[酮症酸中毒]]、和[[急性腎損傷]]。呼吸衰竭加重代謝性酸中毒。患者也可能出現[[失溫症]]。
===機制===
{{see also|乙醇 (藥物)}}
請參考[[乙醇 (藥物)]]英文版#Pharmacology部分
人們在過去認為酒精是一種影響大腦中許多[[神經遞質]]系統的非特異性藥物。<ref name=Vengeliene>{{cite journal |last1=Vengeliene |title=Neuropharmacology of alcohol addiction|journal=[[British Journal of Pharmacology]] |year=2008 |volume=154 |pages=299–315|doi=10.1038/bjp.2008.30 |pmid=18311194 |pmc=2442440 |first1=V |last2=Bilbao|first2=A |last3=Molander|first3=A|last4=Spanagel|first4=R|issue=2}}</ref>然而,分子藥理學研究顯示,酒精只會針對幾個系統作用。在某些系統中,影響屬於促進性,而在其他系統中則是抑制性的。
具有促進功能的神經遞質系統包括:[[GABAA受體]],<ref name=Mihic>{{cite journal|title=Sites of alcohol and volatile anaesthetic action on GABA(A) and glycine receptors|journal=Nature|year=1997|volume=389|issue=6649|pages=385–389|doi=10.1038/38738|pmid=9311780|bibcode=1997Natur.389..385M|first1=S. John |last1=Mihic |last2=Ye |first2=Qing |last3=Wick|first3=Marilee J.|last4=Koltchine|first4=Vladimir V.|last5=Krasowski|first5=Matthew D.|last6=Finn|first6=Suzanne E. |last7=Mascia |first7=Maria Paola |last8=Valenzuela|first8=C. Fernando|last9=Hanson|first9=Kirsten K.|s2cid=4393717|display-authors=8}}</ref>{{le|5-HT3受體|5-HT3 receptor}}{{le|激動劑|Agonist}}<ref name=Lovinger>{{cite journal|last1=Lovinger, D. M.|title=5-HT3 receptors and the neural action of alcohols: An increasingly exciting topic|journal=Neurochemistry International |year=1999|volume=35|issue=2|pages=125–130|doi=10.1016/S0197-0186(99)00054-6|first1=David M|pmid=10405996|s2cid=1391767}}</ref>(負責γ-氨基丁酸(GABAA受體{{le|變構調節劑|Allosteric modulator}})、{{le|甘氨酸能劑|glycinergic}}、和{{le|膽鹼能藥|cholinergic}}作用)、[[菸鹼型乙醯膽鹼受體]]。<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Narahashi |title=Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: A new target site of ethanol|journal=Neurochemistry International|year=1999|volume=35|issue=2|pages=131–141|doi=10.1016/S0197-0186(99)00055-8|first1=Toshio|last2=Aistrup|first2=Gary L|last3=Marszalec|first3=William|last4=Nagata|first4=Keiichi|pmid=10405997|s2cid=40991187}}</ref>
受到抑制的有:{{le|N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸|N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid}}(NMDA)、<ref name=Lovinger />{{le|L型鈣通道α1亞基|Cav1.1}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang |title=Ethanol directly modulates gating of a dihydropyridine-sensitive Ca2+ channel in neurohypophysial terminals|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|year=1994|volume=14 |issue=9|pages=5453–5460|pmid=7521910|first1=X |last2=Wang|first2=G|last3=Lemos|first3=JR|last4=Treistman|first4=SN|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-09-05453.1994|pmc=6577079}}</ref>和{{le|G蛋白門控離子通道|G protein-gated ion channel}}。<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kobayashi |title=Ethanol opens G-protein activated inwardly rectifying K+ channels|journal=Nature Neuroscience|year=1999|volume=2|pages=1091–1097|doi=10.1038/16019|issue=12|first1=Toru |last2=Ikeda|first2=Kazutaka|last3=Kojima|first3=Hiroshi|last4=Niki|first4=Hiroaki|last5=Yano|first5=Ryoji|last6=Yoshioka|first6=Tohru |last7=Kumanishi|first7=Toshiro|pmid=10570486|s2cid=28730710}}</ref>
酒精也被{{le|磷脂酶D2|PLD2}}轉化為{{le|脂質代謝|Lipid metabolism}}物{{le|磷脂酰乙醇|phosphatidylethanol}},而且顯示這種代謝物直接結合並調節[[離子通道]]。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=HW |last2=Petersen |first2=EN |last3=Cabanos |first3=C |last4=Murphy |first4=KR |last5=Pavel |first5=MA |last6=Hansen |first6=AS |last7=Ja |first7=WW |last8=Hansen |first8=SB |title=A Molecular Target for an Alcohol Chain-Length Cutoff. |journal=Journal of Molecular Biology |date=18 January 2019 |volume=431 |issue=2 |pages=196–209 |doi=10.1016/j.jmb.2018.11.028 |pmid=30529033|pmc=6360937 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=CV |last2=Rohacs |first2=T |last3=Hansen |first3=SB |title=Tools for Understanding Nanoscale Lipid Regulation of Ion Channels. |journal=Trends in Biochemical Sciences |date=September 2019 |volume=44 |issue=9 |pages=795–806 |doi=10.1016/j.tibs.2019.04.001 |pmid=31060927|pmc=6729126 }}</ref>這些直接影響的結果是一波進一步的間接影響,涉及各種其他神經遞質和[[神經肽]]系統,最終導致酒精中毒行為或症狀影響的形成。<ref name=Vengeliene />
按照流傳的說法如“只喝葡萄酒,或是穀物酒,不要混著喝”,還有“先喝啤酒,再喝葡萄酒,感覺愉快。先喝葡萄酒,再喝啤酒,感覺奇怪”,但有關依照順序喝不同酒類的說法,醉酒的結果依然相同。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Köchling |first1=Jöran |last2=Geis |first2=Berit |last3=Wirth |first3=Stefan |last4=Hensel |first4=Kai O |title=Grape or grain but never the twain? A randomized controlled multiarm matched-triplet crossover trial of beer and wine |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |date=February 2019 |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=345–352 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/nqy309 |pmid=30753321|pmc=6410559 }}</ref>
===GABAA受體===
{{see also|GABAA受體#配體}}
[[File:Ethanol and GABA Receptor.png|thumb|乙醇與GABA<sub>A</sub>受體結合。]]
許多激活GABAA受體物質的作用,與飲酒激活的結果相同。例如發生[[抗焦慮藥|抗焦慮]]、{{le|抗痙攣劑|Anticonvulsant|抗痙攣}}、[[鎮靜劑|鎮靜]]、和[[安眠藥|安眠]]的作用,以及認知障礙和行動不協調的結果。<ref name="first GABA">{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Sandeep|last2=Porcu|first2=Patrizia|last3=Werner|first3=David|last4=Matthews|first4=Douglas|last5=Diaz-Granados|first5=Jamie|last6=Helfand|first6=Rebecca|last7=Morrow|first7=Leslie|title=The role of GABA<sub>A</sub> receptors in the acute and chronic effects of ethanol: a decade of progress|journal=Psychopharmacology|date=2009|volume=205|issue=4|pages=529–64|doi=10.1007/s00213-009-1562-z|pmid=19455309|pmc=2814770}}</ref>激活GABAA受體與飲酒產生的影響之間的相關性,導致針對乙醇及其對GABAA受體影響的研究。也發現乙醇對GABAA受體確實表現出積極{{le|別構調節|allosteric binding}}的特質。然而,它的作用僅限於含有[[G蛋白]]δ-亞基,而不是含有γ-亞基的{{le|五聚體|pentamer}}。<ref name="second GABA">{{cite journal|last1=Santhakumar|first1=Vijayalakshmi|last2=Wallner|first2=Martin|last3=Otis|first3=Thomas|title=Ethanol acts directly on extrasynaptic subtypes of GABA<sub>A</sub> receptors to increase tonic inhibition|journal=Alcohol|date=2007|volume=41|issue=3|pages=211–221|doi=10.1016/j.alcohol.2007.04.011|pmid=17591544|pmc=2040048}}</ref>含有δ-亞基的GABAA受體已被證明位於[[突觸]]外部,參與強直抑制,而其γ-亞基對應物僅參與階段性抑制。<ref name="first GABA" />δ-亞基已被證明能夠形成變構調節位點,使得含有δ-亞基的GABAA受體對乙醇濃度更敏感,甚至在中等社交乙醇飲酒水準(30毫莫耳每升)時也會作用。<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wallner|first1=Martin|last2=Hanchar|first2=Jacob|last3=Olsen|first3=Richard|title=Ethanol enhances alpha 4 beta 3 delta and alpha 6 beta 3 delta gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors at low concentrations known to affect humans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=2003|volume=100|issue=25|pages=15218–15223|doi=10.1073/pnas.2435171100|pmid=14625373|pmc=299963|bibcode=2003PNAS..10015218W|doi-access=free}}</ref>
雖然提出研究報告的Sandeep Kumar等作者已證明含有δ-亞基的GABAA受體對乙醇調節敏感,但不同的亞基組合,受體敏感度會有變化。<ref name="third GABA">{{cite journal|last1=Baur|first1=Roland|last2=Kaur|first2=Kuldeep|last3=Sigel|first3=Erwin|title=Structure of α6β3δ GABA<sub>A</sub> receptors and their lack of ethanol sensitivity|journal=Journal of Neurochemistry|date=2009|volume=111|issue=5|pages=1172–1181|doi=10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06387.x|pmid=19765192|s2cid=10577529|doi-access=free}}</ref>而含有δ和β3亞基的GABAA受體會增加對乙醇的敏感性。<ref name="second GABA" />含有α3-β6-δ亞基的GABAA受體則對乙醇不敏感。<ref name="third GABA" />研究結果還顯示亞基組合並非導致乙醇敏感性的唯一因素。GABAA受體分佈在突觸內的位置也會影響對乙醇的敏感性。<ref name="first GABA" />
==診斷==
{{see also|血液酒精濃度}}
[[國際疾病與相關健康問題統計分類]](ICD第10版)把酒精中毒描述為一種[[精神疾患]]和[[異常行為]]。<ref>Drs; {{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf |title= The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines |first1=Norman|last1= Sartorius|author-link=Norman Sartorius|last2= Henderson|first2=A.S.|last3= Strotzka|first3=H.|last4= Lipowski|first4=Z. |last5= Yu-cun|first5=Shen|last6=You-xin|first6=Xu |last7=Strömgren|first7=E. |last8= Glatzel|first8=J. |last9= Kühne|first9=G.-E.|last10= Misès|first10=R.|last11=Soldatos|first11=C.R. |last12= Pull|first12=C.B.|last13= Giel|first13=R.|last14= Jegede|first14=R.|last15=Malt|first15=U. |last16= Nadzharov|first16=R.A.|last17= Smulevitch|first17=A.B.|last18= Hagberg|first18=B.|last19= Perris|first19=C.|last20= Scharfetter|first20=C. |last21= Clare|first21=A. |last22= Cooper|first22=J.E. |last23= Corbett|first23=J.A. |last24=Griffith Edwards |first24=J. |last25= Gelder|first25=M.|last26= Goldberg|first26=D.|last27= Gossop|first27=M.|last28= Graham|first28=P.|last29=Kendell|first29=R.E. |last30= Marks|first30=I.|last31= Russell|first31=G.|last32= Rutter|first32=M.|last33= Shepherd|first33=M.|last34= West |first34=D.J.|last35= Wing |first35=J. |last36= Wing|first36=L.|last37= Neki|first37=J.S. |last38= Benson|first38=F.|last39= Cantwell|first39=D. |last40=Guze|first40=S. |last41= Helzer|first41=J.|last42= Holzman|first42=P.|last43= Kleinman|first43=A.|last44=Kupfer|first44=D.J.|last45= Mezzich|first45=J. |last46= Spitzer|first46=R. |last47=Lokar |first47=J. |website=www.who.int [[World Health Organization]] |publisher=[[Microsoft Word]] |agency=bluebook.doc |page=65 |access-date=23 June 2021 |url-status=live|via=[[Microsoft Bing]]}}</ref>確定性的診斷要靠[[毒理學]]篩檢來檢測血液中的酒精含量。[[美國]]和其他國家的[[執法人員]]經常使用[[體內酒精測定儀|呼氣式酒精檢測儀]]和{{le|現場清醒度測試|Field sobriety testing}}作為較方便和快捷的替代方法。<ref>{{cite web |title=Random breath testing – Data by country |url=http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.54620 |website=apps.who.int |access-date=25 June 2018}}</ref>市面另有多種呼氣式檢測儀可供消費者使用。這些儀器可能具有不同的可靠性,並且可能會與執法目的的測試有不同的結果,對於此類設備提供的結果要審慎解讀。
另有多種非正式的酒精中毒測試,但通常均非可靠,不推薦作為勸阻過度飲酒或是當作如機動車輛駕駛、重型設備和機床操作的安全指標使用。
除利用血液酒精測試以確定某人是否因飲酒而導致酒精中毒,也要使用其他方法,把其他情況,例如低血糖、[[中風]]、使用其他麻醉物、心理健康問題等排除。最好在受試者清醒時觀察他們的行為以建立基線。可使用幾種通用的標準來確定診斷。對於緊急治療環境中的醫生來說,急性酒精中毒與其他急性神經系統疾病相似,或者患者經常與娛樂性用藥混合使用,會把診斷和治療的複雜度增加。
==管理==
急性酒精中毒是種醫療緊急情況,有因呼吸抑制,或是因把嘔吐物吸入導致吸入性肺炎,而發生死亡的風險。緊急治療力求在等待酒精代謝的過程中,讓患者的呼吸道維持通暢,呼吸順利。這可透過排除嘔吐物來完成,如果患者失去知覺或[[咽反射]]受損,則要進行氣管插管。<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Devi G. |author2=Castro V. J. |author3=Huitink J. |author4=Buitelaar D. |author5=Kosten T. |author6=O'Connor P. | year = 2003 | title = Management of Drug and Alcohol Withdrawal | journal = NEJM | volume = 349 | issue = 4| pages = 405–407 | pmid = 12878752 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM200307243490420}}</ref>
其他措施也包括
*處理低血糖問題,因為乙醇引起的低血糖對[[胰高血糖素]]無反應,利用靜脈注射糖溶液解決。
*施用[[硫胺|維生素B1}}以預防可能導致癲癇發作的{{le|韋尼克-科爾薩科夫症候群|Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome}}(這種做法通常用於治療長期酗酒者,但也會在急性情況使用,以確保取得最高效果)。
*如果酒精血液濃度非常高(高於130毫摩爾/升,或是600毫克/分升),則進行[[血液透析]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adinoff |first1=B. |last2=Bone |first2=G. H. |last3=Linnoila |first3=M. |title=Acute ethanol poisoning and the ethanol withdrawal syndrome |journal=Medical Toxicology |pages=172–196 |doi=10.1007/BF03259881 |date=May 1988|volume=3 |issue=3 |pmid=3041244 |s2cid=35315540 }}</ref>
*根據需要,利用鼻插管或非循環呼吸面罩提供氧氣治療。
*雖然藥物{{le|美他多辛|metadoxine}}可能會加速酒精分解,但用於治療酒精中毒需待進一步研究。截至2017年<ref name=Jun2014/><ref name=Goh2017/>這種藥物在歐洲幾國,以及[[印度]]和[[巴西]]已獲批准使用。<ref name=Goh2017>{{cite journal|last1=Goh|first1=ET|last2=Morgan|first2=MY|title=Review article: pharmacotherapy for alcohol dependence – the why, the what and the wherefore.|journal=Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics|date=April 2017|volume=45|issue=7|pages=865–882|doi=10.1111/apt.13965|pmid=28220511|s2cid=5431337|url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1542523/3/Morgan_MYM%20accepted%20for%20deposit%20Pharmacotherapy%20for%20Alcohol%20Dependence%20Jan%202017%20for%20APT.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>
可能需用到其他藥物來治療噁心、[[顫抖|震顫]]、和焦慮。
==臨床發現==
===入院治療===
在一項1999年到2004年所做的研究,美國年齡在18到24歲的群組因為創傷而接受治療的人<ref name=Von2008>{{cite journal|last1=Vonghia|first1=L|last2=Leggio|first2=L|last3=Ferrulli|first3=A|last4=Bertini|first4=M|last5=Gasbarrini|first5=G|last6=Addolorato|first6=G|last7=Alcoholism Treatment Study|first7=Group.|title=Acute alcohol intoxication.|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|date=December 2008|volume=19|issue=8|pages=561–7|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.06.033|pmid=19046719}}</ref><ref>Lynn M Almli, Adriana Lori, Jacquelyn L Meyers, Jaemin Shin, Negar Fani, Adam X Maihofer, Caroline M Nievergelt , Alicia K Smith, Kristina B Mercer, Kimberly Kerley, Jennifer M Leveille, Hao Feng, Duna Abu-Amara, Janine D Flory, Rachel Yehuda, Charles R Marmar, Dewleen G Baker, Bekh Bradley, Karestan C Koenen, Karen N Conneely, Kerry J Ressler (September 2018) [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29082582/ Problematic alcohol use associates with sodium channel and clathrin linker 1 (SCLT1) in trauma-exposed populations] [[Addict Biol]];'''23'''(5) PMID 29082582 PMCID: PMC6584945 doi: 10.1111/adb.12569 Retrieved 24 June 2021</ref>中被發現普遍有酒精中毒的現象<ref>Aaron M White, Ralph W Hingson, I-Jen Pan, Hsiao-Ye Yi (September 2011) [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21906505/ Hospitalizations for alcohol and drug overdoses in young adults ages 18-24 in the United States, 1999-2008: results from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample] [[J Stud Alcohol Drugs]].'''72'''(5) PMID 21906505 PMCID: PMC3357438 doi: 10.15288/jsad.2011.72.774 Retrieved 24 June 2021</ref>。美國在2010至2012年間,年齡在15歲或以上的樣本組中,平均每年有2,221人直接因為急性酒精中毒而死亡。<ref name=Kan2015>{{cite journal|last1=Kanny|first1=D|last2=Brewer|first2=RD|last3=Mesnick|first3=JB|last4=Paulozzi|first4=LJ|last5=Naimi|first5=TS|last6=Lu|first6=H|title=Vital signs: alcohol poisoning deaths – United States, 2010–2012.|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|date=9 January 2015|volume=63|issue=53|pages=1238–42|pmid=25577989|pmc=4646044}}</ref>而每年有超過30,000人的死亡是間接由相同路徑所造成。<ref name=DSM5/>
===預後===
{{see also|預後}}
正常的肝臟會在一段時間內把血液中的酒精分解,取決於最初攝取的數量和患者的身體狀況。只要酒精不達到讓肝衰竭的程度,功能不全的肝臟仍能花較長的時間把酒精分解完畢。<ref>{{cite journal | year = 2003 | title = Management of alcoholic hepatitis | journal = Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin | volume = 41 | issue = 2| pages = 49–52 | doi = 10.1136/dtb.2003.41749 | pmc = 3099359 | pmid=21960817 | author=Morgan TR}}</ref>
連續重度飲酒數天或數週的人,在急性酒精中毒消退後可能會出現[[酒精戒斷症候群]]
症狀。<ref>{{cite journal |author1=DeBellis R. |author2=Smith B. S. |author3=Choi S. |author4=Malloy M. | year = 2005 | title = Management of Delirium Tremens | journal = J Intensive Care Med | volume = 20 | issue = 3| pages = 164–173 | doi=10.1177/0885066605275353|pmid=15888905 |s2cid=31848749 }}</ref>
一個人持續攝入危險數量的酒精會導致{{le|酒精性失憶|Blackout (drug-related amnesia)}}和特異性酒精中毒(或稱病理性酒精中毒)症狀發生。<ref>Gelder, M., Mayou, R. and Geddes, J. 2005. ''Psychiatry''. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford. pp. 186.</ref>
長期持續過量飲酒會導致肝損傷,並產生有害的健康結果。
==社會與文化==
{{see also|{{le|因酒精原因死亡名人清單|List of deaths through alcohol}}}}
[[File:An intoxicated man drinking beer; advertising Blauwe Week Wellcome L0048989.jpg|thumb|一張1936年的反飲酒海報。]]
酒精中毒是導致某些{{le|重大傷害|catastrophic injury}}案例發生的[[危險因子]],尤其是從事無人監督的[[休閒活動]]時候。[[加拿大]][[安大略省]]根據1986、1989、1992、1995年的流行病學數據所做的研究顯示,記錄中的2,154起重大傷害中有79.2%是可預防的,而其中346起(17%)和飲酒有關聯<ref name="Tator">{{cite book|title=Catastrophic Injuries in Sports and Recreation: Causes and Prevention: A Canadian Study|editor-last=Tator|editor-first=Charles H.|edition=2|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|year=2008|isbn=9780802089670}}</ref>。那些與酒精相關的重大傷害中。最常見是[[雪上摩托車]](124)、[[捕魚]](41)、[[潛水]](40)、{{le|划船|boating}}(31) 和[[輕艇]]活動(7)、游泳(31)、駕駛[[全地形車]](24 )、和[[騎車|騎自行車]](23)。<ref name="Tator" />這些事件通常發生在無人監管的年輕男性身上,他們往往缺乏經驗,許多會導致[[遇溺|溺斃]]的結果。<ref name="Tator" />飲酒也與不安全的性行為有關聯。
===法律問題===
[[File:Drunk driving simulator, Montreal by CAA of Quebec.jpg|thumb|right|在加拿大[[蒙特婁]]的酒後駕駛模擬器。]]

關於醉酒的法律問題在各地並不相同。在美國,[[酒後駕駛]]機動車輛是犯罪行為([[威斯康辛州]]除外,初犯者僅會被處以罰款)。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/statutes/statutes/346|title=Wisconsin Legislature: Chapter 346|work=wisconsin.gov}}</ref>酒後駕駛飛機,或在美國的某些州,酒後在[[遊樂園]]從事遊樂也屬刑事犯罪。<ref>[http://law.onecle.com/texas/penal/49.065.00.html Texas Penal Code § 49.065] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926124717/http://law.onecle.com/texas/penal/49.065.00.html |date=2011-09-26 }}</ref>英國和大多數其他國家也有類似的法律。

在一些國家,提供酒精給已經醉酒的人也是一種違法行為,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.camden.gov.uk/ccm/content/press/2007/february/booze-license-suspended-after-selling-alcohol-to-drunk-customers.en|title=Camden Council: Booze license suspended after selling alcohol to drunk customers|work=camden.gov.uk|access-date=2009-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111052754/http://www.camden.gov.uk/ccm/content/press/2007/february/booze-license-suspended-after-selling-alcohol-to-drunk-customers.en|archive-date=2009-01-11|url-status=dead}}</ref>並且通常只有通過{{le|酒類服務訓練|alcohol server training}}的人員才能出售酒精。
符合駕駛車輛的血液酒精濃度(BAC),在[[羅馬尼亞]]和[[阿拉伯聯合大公國]]為0.00%;在[[澳大利亞]]、[[南非]]、[[德國]]、[[蘇格蘭]]、和[[紐西蘭]]為0.05%(未成年人為0.00%);在[[英格蘭]]和[[威爾士]]、美國、和加拿大為0.08%。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icap.org/PolicyIssues/DrinkingandDriving/BACTable/tabid/199/Default.aspx |title=Drinking and Driving |work=icap.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080702135901/http://www.icap.org/PolicyIssues/DrinkingandDriving/BACTable/tabid/199/Default.aspx |archive-date=2008-07-02 }}</ref>
[[美國聯邦航空管理局]]禁止[[空勤人員]]在飲用酒精飲料後八小時內,仍可能受到酒精的影響下,或是BAC仍高於0.04%時登機服務。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.risingup.com/fars/info/part1-1-FAR.shtml|title=Federal Aviation Regulation Sec. 1.1 – General definitions.|work=risingup.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/28757d8ae4d7d671862571960066be86!OpenDocument&Click=|title=FAR Part 91 Sec. 91.17 effective as of 07/21/2006|work=faa.gov}}</ref>
在美國、英國、和澳大利亞,{{le|公共場所醉酒|public intoxication}}被當作是種犯罪行為。<ref>{{cite news|date=1872-08-10 |title=Licensing Act 1872 |periodical=Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament |volume=1872 |url=http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1052305 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120805165526/http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1052305 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2010-05-08 }}</ref>
有些國家設有專門的設施(有人稱為“{{le|醉鬼拘留所|drunk tanks}}”),用於暫時拘留那些醉酒者。
===宗教對飲酒的觀點===
[[File:Guo Xu album dated 1503 (3).jpg|thumb|明朝畫家[[郭詡]]作品 - 鍾馗醉歸。[[上海博物館]]收藏。]]

一些宗教團體允許飲酒。有些允許,但禁止喝到醉的程度,而有些則完全禁止。許多[[基督教]]教派,如[[天主教會]]、[[正教會]]、和[[信義宗|路德宗]],都把葡萄酒作為[[聖餐禮]]的一部分,允許飲酒,但認為醉酒屬於有罪。
在[[舊約聖經]]的[[箴言]]中有幾章談及醉酒的壞影響,並警告人們遠離會讓人醉酒的飲料。[[利未記]]記載[[摩西]]的兄長[[亞倫]]的兩位長子{{le|拿答和亞比戶|Nadab and Abihu}},可能在聖殿服務時因醉酒緣故而被殺。利末記繼續討論[[西方修行制度|修道主義]],這種修行禁酒。[[士師記]]中有關[[參孫]]的故事敘述有位[[但支派]]的僧侶,受到禁止剪頭髮和喝酒的約束。<ref name="biblical">Biblical examples referencing intoxication: {{cite web|url=http://net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Pro&chapter=23&verse=21 |title=Proverbs 23:21 |publisher=Net.bible.org |access-date=2009-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620185830/http://net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Pro&chapter=23&verse=21 |archive-date=2009-06-20 }}, {{cite web|url=http://net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Isa&chapter=28&verse=1 |title=Isaiah 28:1 |publisher=Net.bible.org |access-date=2009-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620191315/http://net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Isa&chapter=28&verse=1 |archive-date=2009-06-20 }}, {{cite web|url=http://net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Hab&chapter=2&verse=15 |title=Habakkuk 2:15 |publisher=Net.bible.org |access-date=2009-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620190442/http://net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Hab&chapter=2&verse=15 |archive-date=2009-06-20 }}</ref>[[新約聖經]]中的[[羅馬書]]第13章第13和14節<ref>{{cite web|title=Romans 13:13–14|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%2013:13-14&version=NIV}}</ref>[[哥林多前書]]第6章第9-11節、[[加拉太書]]第5章第19-21節、<ref>{{cite web|title=Galatians 5:19–21|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians+5%3A19-21&version=NIV}}</ref>和[[以弗所書]]第5章第18節<ref>{{cite web|title=Ephesians 5:18|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ephesians+5%3A18&version=NIV}}</ref>都載有反對醉酒的段落。箴言第31章第4節警告君王和統治者不要飲用葡萄酒和烈酒,箴言第31章第6-7節倡導給臨終者喝烈酒,給生活苦澀的人喝葡萄酒,讓他們把貧窮和苦難遺忘。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Proverbs+31%3A+4-7&version=NASB|title=Proverbs 31: 4–7 NASB—It is not for kings, O Lemuel, It is |work=Bible Gateway}}</ref>
某些基督[[新教]]教派因為聖經載有譴責醉酒的段落而禁止飲酒<ref name="biblical" /><ref>{{cite web |title=On Alcohol Use in America |work=SBC Resolutions |publisher=[[Southern Baptist Convention]] |access-date=7 June 2013 |url=http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=1156 |date=June 2006 |archive-date=5 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105012154/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=1156 |url-status=dead }}</ref>但其他教派則允許適度飲酒。<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: Alcohol |work=LCMS Views – Contemporary Issues |publisher=[[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]] |url=http://www.lcms.org/Document.fdoc?src=lcm&id=576|page=3|access-date=7 June 2013}}</ref>在一些基督教團體中,飲用少量的葡萄酒是聖餐禮儀式的一部分。
[[耶穌基督後期聖徒教會]]j教派則禁止飲酒,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/89?lang=eng |title=Doctrine and Covenants 89}}</ref>遵守{{le|禁酒|teetotalism}}是這個教派成員的顯著特徵。[[耶和華見證人]]教派允許成員適度飲酒。
[[古蘭經]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/004.qmt.html#004.043 |title=Qur'an: 4:43 |publisher=Usc.edu |access-date=2010-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204153931/http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/004.qmt.html#004.043 |archive-date=2010-12-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/002.qmt.html#002.219 |title=Qur'an: 2:19 |publisher=Usc.edu |access-date=2010-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204153812/http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/002.qmt.html#002.219 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/005.qmt.html#005.090|title=Cmje|work=usc.edu|access-date=2010-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204173049/http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/005.qmt.html#005.090|archive-date=2010-12-04|url-status=dead}}</ref>禁止飲用以葡萄為原料的酒精飲料,[[聖訓]]把醉酒認為可憎。[[麥茲海布]]([[伊斯蘭教法學]]中一個支派)的解讀是嚴禁飲用所有類型的酒精,並稱這種行為為[[哈拉姆]] (「禁止的」、「違反教律的」)。
一般來說,佛教僧侶和普通信徒都不鼓勵飲酒。許多佛教信徒都遵守[[五戒]]的行為準則,其中第五戒是承諾不飲酒<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gwynne |first1=Paul |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |date=2017 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-118-97227-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o08nDwAAQBAJ |chapter=The Buddhist Pancasila}}</ref>(除非作醫療用途)。<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gombrich |first1=Richard F. |author-link1=Richard Gombrich |title=Buddhist Precept and Practice: Traditional Buddhism in the Rural Highlands of Ceylon |date=1995 |publisher=[[Kegan Paul, Trench and Company]] |isbn=978-0-7103-0444-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3Z-dHpBsBsC |page=298}}</ref>在[[大乘佛教]][[梵網經 (大乘佛教)|梵網經]]的[[願 (佛教)|願]]中,同樣不鼓勵分送酒類,也不鼓勵攝取。<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Sterckx |editor-first1=R. |encyclopedia=Of Tripod and Palate: Food, Politics, and Religion in Traditional China |first=James A. |last=Benn |title=Buddhism, Alcohol, and Tea in Medieval China |date=2005 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |isbn=978-1-4039-7927-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWPHAAAAQBAJ |page=226}}</ref>
印度教中的{{le|高迪亞毗溼奴派|Gaudiya Vaishnavism}}支派,四項監管規矩之一就是禁止攝取麻醉物品(包括酒精)。
[[猶太教]]根據聖經,採反對飲酒的立場,<ref name="biblical" />教士和修士都不許飲酒。<ref>The Talmudic decree set a schedule according to which the priests would take turns staying sober. The practice of becoming a 'biblical' monk, is discussed in a full tractate of the [[Mishna]] and Talmud. The Talmud tells of a family 'the sons of Reichab' who never drank wine, although it is not clear if this is considered good or bad.</ref>猶太聖經把[[安息日]]和其他猶太節日聖化,被理解為需要準備三頓禮儀餐,其中包括飲用葡萄酒,稱之為{{le|Kiddush|Kiddush}}(字面意思是“成聖”,是對葡萄酒或葡萄汁的一種祝福)。<ref>The Kiddush is recited today only in the opening meal on Friday night and the main meal during the day. See [https://musaf-shabbat.com/2016/08/21/%D7%AA%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%AA-%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A9-%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99-%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%99-%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92/ On the mystery of the missing Kiddush during the third Sabbath meal] Ruth Foichtwanger Segel, Shabbat Magazine, August 21, 2016 (Hebrew, [[Makor Rishon]] website)</ref><ref>The [[Pharisees]], avoiding the [[Zadokites]]' temple-based rituals, had installed many ceremonies which in a way change or contradict the literal meaning of the biblical protocol. These include the ceremony of lighting candles which stay lit during the Sabbath day, eating hot food from a fire lit previously, starting the Sabbath rituals on the night before, and the drinking of wine with the [[Sabbath]] meal. See [http://www.verednoam.com/articles/NoamQimronSabbathLaws.pdf Qimron Sabbath Laws] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308005232/http://www.verednoam.com/articles/NoamQimronSabbathLaws.pdf |date=2021-03-08 }} Vered Noam, Department of Hebrew Culture Studies, [[Tel Aviv University]] ([http://www.brill.com/dead-sea-discoveries Dead Sea Discoveries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131190805/http://www.brill.com/dead-sea-discoveries |date=2017-01-31 }}, Brill Institute)</ref>猶太婚禮以新娘和新郎在誦讀七項祝福(請參考{{le|Sheva Brachot|Sheva Brachot}})後共享一杯葡萄酒結束,根據“[[阿什肯納茲猶太人]]”的傳統,在禁食一天之後也會飲用葡萄酒。但根據猶太教慣例,人們被要求適度飲酒以保持清醒,並且喝酒時機只在祈禱結束後方可。<ref>Menachem Posner: [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/581082/jewish/What-is-Judaisms-take-on-alcohol-consumption.htm What is Judaism's take on alcohol consumption?] on Chabad.org</ref>
在[[逾越節]][[逾越節晚餐|晚餐]]時,參與者必須背誦[[哈加達]](Haggadah)的同時,喝4杯禮儀酒。這種做法被認為是一些基督教團體聖餐飲酒儀式的源頭。<ref>[http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/jesus-historical-jesus/was-jesus-last-supper-a-seder/ Was Jesus' last supper a Seder?] Jonathan Klawans, January 7, 2014 (Biblical Archaeology organization's website)</ref>根據[[普珥節]]的規定,人們被要求喝醉以示慶祝,在許多猶太社區會根據教令,利用白天睡覺來替代醉酒的行為。<ref>The [[Babylonian Talmud]] says in Megillah 7b that "[[Rava (amora)|Rava]] said: A person is obligated to become intoxicated on [[Purim]] until he is unaware of the difference between 'Cursed be [[Haman (Bible)|Haman]]' and 'Blessed be [[Mordechai]].'" This is taken to mean that on the Jewish festival of Purim one is commanded to drink alcohol to the point of intoxication. See [[Yanki Tauber]]: [http://www.chabad.org/global/popup/default_cdo/aid/2814/jewish/The-Purim-Drunk.htm Are Jews actually supposed to get drunk on Purim?] Chabad.org (referring to the Talmudic tractate Megillah (7b)).</ref>
1920年代的[[猶太教改革派]]運動中,一位[[拉比]]提議在儀式上使用葡萄汁代替葡萄酒。雖在起初遭到駁斥,但這種做法後來被[[猶太教正統派]]廣泛接受。<ref>[http://www.torahlab.org/doitright/using_grape_juice_for_kiddush/ Using grape juice for Kiddush] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116114745/http://www.torahlab.org/doitright/using_grape_juice_for_kiddush/ |date=2021-01-16 }} (Torahlab website)</ref>
在巴勒斯坦西岸[[希伯倫]]的[[麥比拉洞]](猶太教中僅次於[[聖殿山]],排名第二的聖地。[[穆斯林]]信徒稱之為“易卜拉欣清真寺”),猶太人在婚禮、安息日、和猶太節日在此地的飲酒儀式,會與同樣居住在此地的穆斯林之間產生緊張關係.<ref>[https://www.pri.org/stories/2015-11-10/hebron-jews-and-palestinians-share-holy-site-begrudgingly Hebron: Jews and Palestinians share holy site begrudgingly], Daniel Estrin, November 10, 2015 ([[Public Radio International]] website)</ref>
==其他動物的醉酒行為==
1974年{{le|金球獎最佳紀錄片|Golden Globe Award for Best Documentary Film}}得獎作品《{{le|美麗的動物|Animals are Beautiful People}}》中,展示許多不同的動物,包括猴子、大象、野豬、長頸鹿、和鴕鳥,吃了[[馬魯拉]]樹過熟的果實,導致它們表現如同人類喝醉酒一般的搖晃和站立不穩的模樣。<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-nSBPuRbsg Drunken animals scene] (YouTube)</ref>鳥類可能會因吃下發酵的漿果而發生醉酒情事,有些鳥類會因此撞上堅硬物體而死亡。<ref>{{cite news |last1=Katz |first1=Brigit |title=Birds Are Acting Erratically in Minnesota. Blame It on the Alcohol |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/birds-are-acting-erratically-minnesota-blame-it-alcohol-180970468/ |access-date=5 October 2018 |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |date=4 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kinde |first1=Hailu |display-authors=et al |title=Strong circumstantial evidence for ethanol toxicosis in Cedar Waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum) |journal=Journal of Ornithology |date=July 2012 |volume=153 |issue=3 |pages=995–998 |doi=10.1007/s10336-012-0858-7 |s2cid=15546534 }}</ref>
發生在公元前167年到160年的[[馬加比起義]],還有發生在公元前第三世紀的第二次[[布匿戰爭]],都曾使用過大象作戰,根據記載,在攻擊發動之前會提供酒類讓大象飲用,受酒精影響的大象在象伕催促下衝鋒向前。<ref>[http://historythings.com/hannibals-superweapon-the-war-elephant/ Hannibal's superweapon: The war elephant] (HistoryThings.com website)</ref>
在[[愛爾蘭]],通常會提供少量啤酒給賽馬飲用。[[反芻]]動物的胃中本來就會自然發酵,一般而言,提供少量的酒精飲料給予這類動物飲用不會對它們造成傷害,也不會導致它們醉酒。
酒精飲料對於狗類極為有害,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/vets-corner/is-alcohol-dangerous-for-dogs/|title = How Harmful is Alcohol to Dogs? What to do if Your Dog Drinks Alcohol}}</ref>通常是因為飲料中添加人造甜味劑[[木糖醇]]的緣故。狗類除了在食物,或是飲料中吸收乙醇之外,也可透過皮膚吸收達到產生危險程度的乙醇。甚至是發酵的麵團對狗而言也很危險。<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wagwalking.com/condition/alcohol-poisoning|title = Alcohol Poisoning in Dogs - Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, Recovery, Management, Cost}}</ref>

==參見==
{{Portal|Beer|Drink|Medicine}}










{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*{{le|痛飲之夜|A Night of Serious Drinking}},1938年出版[[託寓]]式小說,原文為法文
*{{le|酒精與性|Alcohol and sex}}
*{{le|灌腸式攝取酒精|Alcohol enema}}
*{{酒精反應|酒精性臉紅反應}}
*[[酒後駕駛]]
*{{le|酒醉吐真言|In vino veritas}}
*[[喝酒的短期影響]]
*[[喝酒的長期影響]]
*{{le|非酒精飲料|Non-alcoholic drink}}
{{div col end}}

==參考文獻==
{{Reflist|2}}

==書目==
{{refbegin}}
* Bales, Robert F. "Attitudes toward Drinking in the Irish Culture". In: Pittman, David J. and Snyder, Charles R. (Eds.) ''Society, Culture and Drinking Patterns''. New York: Wiley, 1962, pp.&nbsp;157–187.
* Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr., ''God Gave Wine: What the Bible Says about Alcohol''. Lincoln, Calif.: Oakdown, 2001.
* Rorabaugh, W.J. "The Alcoholic Republic," Chapter 2 & 5, [[Oxford University Press]].
* Sigmund, Paul. ''St. Thomas Aquinas On Politics and Ethics''. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1988, p.&nbsp;77.
* Walton, Stuart. ''Out of It. A Cultural History of Intoxication''. [[Penguin Books]], 2002. {{ISBN|0-14-027977-6}}.
{{refend}}

==外部連結==
{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB =
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|10|0|f|10}}, {{ICD10|T|51||t|51}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|305.0}}, {{ICD9|980}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| MedlinePlus = 002644
| eMedicineSubj =
| eMedicineTopic =
| MeshID = D000435
}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Drunkenness}}
* [https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/understanding-dangers-of-alcohol-overdose Alcohol overdose]: [[NIAAA]]
* [http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/alcohol-poisoning/Pages/Introduction.aspx Alcohol poisoning]: NHS Choices

{{模板:酒與健康}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Alcohol Intoxication}}
[[分類:酒類與健康]]
[[分類:飲酒文化]]
[[分類:酒類對健康的影響]]
[[分類:心理與行為疾病]]

2021年9月7日 (二) 02:49的版本

酒精中毒
同义词醉酒、急性酒精中毒、乙醇中毒[1][2]
米開朗基羅1509年作品“酩酊大醉的諾亞
症状輕度: 輕度鎮靜狀態英语sedation, 肢體協調能力降低[3]
適度: 言語不清、步態障礙、嘔吐[3]
嚴重: 換氣不足(呼吸抑制),昏迷[3]
併發症癲癇發作吸入性肺炎傷害低血糖[3][4]
常見始發於幾分鐘到幾小時[5]
病程幾個小時[5]
肇因乙醇 (酒精)[6]
风险因子社會環境、衝動行為酗酒[5][7]
診斷方法通常透過了解事件史和身體檢查[6]
相似疾病或共病肝性腦病韋尼克腦病英语Wernicke encephalopathy甲醇中毒腦膜炎創傷性腦損傷[6]
治療對症治療[6]
盛行率甚為通常(尤其在西方世界)[8]
死亡數在美國,每年約2,200人[9]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科毒理學精神醫學
ICD-116C40.3
ICD-10F10.0、​T51
MedlinePlus002644
eMedicine812411
[编辑此条目的维基数据]

酒精中毒(英語:Alcohol intoxication),也可寫為alcohol poisoning,[1]通常用來描述醉酒或是酩酊(陶醉)的狀態,[10] 是因為新近飲而產生負面行為,以及對飲者身體造成的影響。[6][11]除酒精(乙醇)的毒性(主要精神活性成分)之外,還有酒精的代謝物 - 乙醛的活性所引起的生理症狀。[12]影響可能要攝入數小時後才會出現,並會導致俗稱的宿醉發生。

低劑量中毒英语Substance intoxication症狀可能包括輕度鎮靜狀態英语sedation和肢體協調笨拙。[3]在較高劑量的時候,可能會出現言語不清、共濟失調嘔吐[3]極高劑量會導致換氣不足昏迷、或是死亡[3]相關的併發症可能包括癲癇發作吸入性肺炎傷害(包括自殺)、和低血糖[3][4]酒精中毒會導致與酒精相關的犯罪英语alcohol-related crime發生,而通常是肇事者比受害者的醉酒程度更高。[13]

酒精中毒通常在喝兩杯或以上的酒後開始作用。[5]風險因素是喜好飲酒的社會風氣,還有具有衝動個性的人。[5]對於酒精中毒的診斷通常透過了解事件歷史和身體檢查來達成。[6]有證人協助核實事件經過可能會有幫助。[6]就法律而言,酒精中毒通常被定義為血液酒精濃度(BAC)大於5.4–17.4毫摩爾/升(等於25–80毫克/分升,或是血液酒精含量到達0.025–0.080%)。[14][15]可通過血液或呼氣測試作測量。[5]酒精在人體內以每小時約 3.3毫摩爾 /升(15毫克/分升) 的速度分解,[6]依個人的代謝率而定(請參考代謝)。 [16]

酒精中毒的管理牽涉到對症治療[6]包括把患者置於復原臥式、保暖、並確保呼吸順暢。[4]洗胃和運用活性炭兩種方式被發現用處不大。[6]建議在治療之前最好再做評估,以確定症狀發生的真正原因。[6]

歷史上有關急性酒精中毒的記錄充斥,酒精一直是世上最普遍使用的娛樂性用藥之一。[17][18]某些宗教認為酒精中毒是種罪惡。[5][19]

症狀

荷蘭畫家揚·斯特恩約在1663年作品“酒讓人變成受嘲弄的對象”。

酒精中毒是由於新近飲用酒精而對健康造成的負面影響。[6]當情況嚴重時,它會成為醫療緊急情況。酒精中毒的某些影響,例如產生欣快感和降低社交抑制,成為酒精的重要吸引力。[20]









不同酒精攝取量的影響

不同血液酒精濃度對人體的影響[21]
血液酒精濃度(BAC) (%含量) 國際單位制 (毫摩爾/升) 毫克/分升 行為 損害
0.001–0.029 0.22–6.3 1–29
  • 看來正常
  • 特殊測試方能察覺出微妙的影響
0.030–0.059 6.5–12.8 30-59
0.060–0.099 13.0–21.5 60-99
0.100–0.199 21.7–43.3 100-199
0.200–0.299 43.4–64.9 200–299
0.300–0.399 65.1–86.6 300–399
0.400–0.500 86.80–108.5 400–500
>0.50 >108.5 >500
  • 高死亡風險

病理生理學

澳大利亞籍攝影家作品,醉酒五階段中的達到第三階段的飲者(約在1863年到1868年間拍攝)。

正常肝臟以每小時約可代謝8公克純乙醇。8公克(10毫升,或0.34美國液體盎司)被當作一份英國酒精標準單位英语Unit of alcohol。罹患有肝炎肝硬化膽囊疾病、和癌症等疾病的“異常”肝臟,代謝酒精的速度會降低。[22]

乙醇透過醇脫氫酶(ADH)代謝為乙醛,許多人體組織,包括胃粘膜,均存有這種酶。乙醛透過乙醛脫氫酶(ALDH)(主要存在肝線粒體中)代謝為乙酸。肌肉細胞使用乙酰輔酶A合成酶把乙酸轉換成乙酰輔酶A,然後乙酰輔酶被用於檸檬酸循環。(檸檬酸循環是三大營養素-醣類脂類胺基酸異化作用通路,又是同化作用的樞紐,此外,檸檬酸循環的中間產物可以提供細胞作為合成醣類、脂類、胺基酸等物質的前驅物。)[23][24]

隨著飲酒量增加,人們會變得嗜睡或麻木。在喝下非常高的數量後,呼吸系統受到抑制,飲者將停止呼吸。昏迷的患者可能會吸入嘔吐物(進入肺部,導致窒息,如果倖免於難,可能會成為吸入性肺炎)。中樞神經系統抑制和運動協調受損,加上判斷力變差,會增加意外傷害的可能性。據估計,大約三分之一與酒精有關的死亡是由事故所造成,另外14%的死亡是由故意傷害而造成。[25]

除對中樞神經系統抑制導致呼吸衰竭和事故之外,酒精還會導致嚴重的代謝紊亂。低血糖是由於乙醇抑制糖異生(非碳水化合物轉變為葡萄糖的過程),特別是發生在在兒童身上,會引起乳酸性酸中毒酮症酸中毒、和急性腎損傷。呼吸衰竭加重代謝性酸中毒。患者也可能出現失溫症

機制

請參考乙醇 (藥物)英文版#Pharmacology部分

人們在過去認為酒精是一種影響大腦中許多神經遞質系統的非特異性藥物。[26]然而,分子藥理學研究顯示,酒精只會針對幾個系統作用。在某些系統中,影響屬於促進性,而在其他系統中則是抑制性的。

具有促進功能的神經遞質系統包括:GABAA受體[27]5-HT3受體英语5-HT3 receptor激動劑[28](負責γ-氨基丁酸(GABAA受體變構調節劑英语Allosteric modulator)、甘氨酸能劑英语glycinergic、和膽鹼能藥英语cholinergic作用)、菸鹼型乙醯膽鹼受體[29] 受到抑制的有:N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸英语N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid(NMDA)、[28]L型鈣通道α1亞基英语Cav1.1[30]G蛋白門控離子通道英语G protein-gated ion channel[31]

酒精也被磷脂酶D2英语PLD2轉化為脂質代謝英语Lipid metabolism磷脂酰乙醇英语phosphatidylethanol,而且顯示這種代謝物直接結合並調節離子通道[32][33]這些直接影響的結果是一波進一步的間接影響,涉及各種其他神經遞質和神經肽系統,最終導致酒精中毒行為或症狀影響的形成。[26]

按照流傳的說法如“只喝葡萄酒,或是穀物酒,不要混著喝”,還有“先喝啤酒,再喝葡萄酒,感覺愉快。先喝葡萄酒,再喝啤酒,感覺奇怪”,但有關依照順序喝不同酒類的說法,醉酒的結果依然相同。[34]

GABAA受體

乙醇與GABAA受體結合。

許多激活GABAA受體物質的作用,與飲酒激活的結果相同。例如發生抗焦慮抗痙攣英语Anticonvulsant鎮靜、和安眠的作用,以及認知障礙和行動不協調的結果。[35]激活GABAA受體與飲酒產生的影響之間的相關性,導致針對乙醇及其對GABAA受體影響的研究。也發現乙醇對GABAA受體確實表現出積極別構調節英语allosteric binding的特質。然而,它的作用僅限於含有G蛋白δ-亞基,而不是含有γ-亞基的五聚體英语pentamer[36]含有δ-亞基的GABAA受體已被證明位於突觸外部,參與強直抑制,而其γ-亞基對應物僅參與階段性抑制。[35]δ-亞基已被證明能夠形成變構調節位點,使得含有δ-亞基的GABAA受體對乙醇濃度更敏感,甚至在中等社交乙醇飲酒水準(30毫莫耳每升)時也會作用。[37] 雖然提出研究報告的Sandeep Kumar等作者已證明含有δ-亞基的GABAA受體對乙醇調節敏感,但不同的亞基組合,受體敏感度會有變化。[38]而含有δ和β3亞基的GABAA受體會增加對乙醇的敏感性。[36]含有α3-β6-δ亞基的GABAA受體則對乙醇不敏感。[38]研究結果還顯示亞基組合並非導致乙醇敏感性的唯一因素。GABAA受體分佈在突觸內的位置也會影響對乙醇的敏感性。[35]

診斷

國際疾病與相關健康問題統計分類(ICD第10版)把酒精中毒描述為一種精神疾患異常行為[39]確定性的診斷要靠毒理學篩檢來檢測血液中的酒精含量。美國和其他國家的執法人員經常使用呼氣式酒精檢測儀現場清醒度測試英语Field sobriety testing作為較方便和快捷的替代方法。[40]市面另有多種呼氣式檢測儀可供消費者使用。這些儀器可能具有不同的可靠性,並且可能會與執法目的的測試有不同的結果,對於此類設備提供的結果要審慎解讀。

另有多種非正式的酒精中毒測試,但通常均非可靠,不推薦作為勸阻過度飲酒或是當作如機動車輛駕駛、重型設備和機床操作的安全指標使用。

除利用血液酒精測試以確定某人是否因飲酒而導致酒精中毒,也要使用其他方法,把其他情況,例如低血糖、中風、使用其他麻醉物、心理健康問題等排除。最好在受試者清醒時觀察他們的行為以建立基線。可使用幾種通用的標準來確定診斷。對於緊急治療環境中的醫生來說,急性酒精中毒與其他急性神經系統疾病相似,或者患者經常與娛樂性用藥混合使用,會把診斷和治療的複雜度增加。

管理

急性酒精中毒是種醫療緊急情況,有因呼吸抑制,或是因把嘔吐物吸入導致吸入性肺炎,而發生死亡的風險。緊急治療力求在等待酒精代謝的過程中,讓患者的呼吸道維持通暢,呼吸順利。這可透過排除嘔吐物來完成,如果患者失去知覺或咽反射受損,則要進行氣管插管。[41] 其他措施也包括

  • 處理低血糖問題,因為乙醇引起的低血糖對胰高血糖素無反應,利用靜脈注射糖溶液解決。
  • 施用[[硫胺|維生素B1}}以預防可能導致癲癇發作的韋尼克-科爾薩科夫症候群英语Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome(這種做法通常用於治療長期酗酒者,但也會在急性情況使用,以確保取得最高效果)。
  • 如果酒精血液濃度非常高(高於130毫摩爾/升,或是600毫克/分升),則進行血液透析[42]
  • 根據需要,利用鼻插管或非循環呼吸面罩提供氧氣治療。
  • 雖然藥物美他多辛英语metadoxine可能會加速酒精分解,但用於治療酒精中毒需待進一步研究。截至2017年[6][43]這種藥物在歐洲幾國,以及印度巴西已獲批准使用。[43]

可能需用到其他藥物來治療噁心、震顫、和焦慮。

臨床發現

入院治療

在一項1999年到2004年所做的研究,美國年齡在18到24歲的群組因為創傷而接受治療的人[8][44]中被發現普遍有酒精中毒的現象[45]。美國在2010至2012年間,年齡在15歲或以上的樣本組中,平均每年有2,221人直接因為急性酒精中毒而死亡。[9]而每年有超過30,000人的死亡是間接由相同路徑所造成。[5]

預後

正常的肝臟會在一段時間內把血液中的酒精分解,取決於最初攝取的數量和患者的身體狀況。只要酒精不達到讓肝衰竭的程度,功能不全的肝臟仍能花較長的時間把酒精分解完畢。[46]

連續重度飲酒數天或數週的人,在急性酒精中毒消退後可能會出現酒精戒斷症候群 症狀。[47]

一個人持續攝入危險數量的酒精會導致酒精性失憶英语Blackout (drug-related amnesia)和特異性酒精中毒(或稱病理性酒精中毒)症狀發生。[48]

長期持續過量飲酒會導致肝損傷,並產生有害的健康結果。

社會與文化

一張1936年的反飲酒海報。

酒精中毒是導致某些重大傷害英语catastrophic injury案例發生的危險因子,尤其是從事無人監督的休閒活動時候。加拿大安大略省根據1986、1989、1992、1995年的流行病學數據所做的研究顯示,記錄中的2,154起重大傷害中有79.2%是可預防的,而其中346起(17%)和飲酒有關聯[49]。那些與酒精相關的重大傷害中。最常見是雪上摩托車(124)、捕魚(41)、潛水(40)、划船(31) 和輕艇活動(7)、游泳(31)、駕駛全地形車(24 )、和騎自行車(23)。[49]這些事件通常發生在無人監管的年輕男性身上,他們往往缺乏經驗,許多會導致溺斃的結果。[49]飲酒也與不安全的性行為有關聯。

法律問題

在加拿大蒙特婁的酒後駕駛模擬器。

關於醉酒的法律問題在各地並不相同。在美國,酒後駕駛機動車輛是犯罪行為(威斯康辛州除外,初犯者僅會被處以罰款)。[50]酒後駕駛飛機,或在美國的某些州,酒後在遊樂園從事遊樂也屬刑事犯罪。[51]英國和大多數其他國家也有類似的法律。

在一些國家,提供酒精給已經醉酒的人也是一種違法行為,[52]並且通常只有通過酒類服務訓練英语alcohol server training的人員才能出售酒精。

符合駕駛車輛的血液酒精濃度(BAC),在羅馬尼亞阿拉伯聯合大公國為0.00%;在澳大利亞南非德國蘇格蘭、和紐西蘭為0.05%(未成年人為0.00%);在英格蘭威爾士、美國、和加拿大為0.08%。[53]

美國聯邦航空管理局禁止空勤人員在飲用酒精飲料後八小時內,仍可能受到酒精的影響下,或是BAC仍高於0.04%時登機服務。[54][55]

在美國、英國、和澳大利亞,公共場所醉酒英语public intoxication被當作是種犯罪行為。[56]

有些國家設有專門的設施(有人稱為“醉鬼拘留所英语drunk tanks”),用於暫時拘留那些醉酒者。

宗教對飲酒的觀點

明朝畫家郭詡作品 - 鍾馗醉歸。上海博物館收藏。

一些宗教團體允許飲酒。有些允許,但禁止喝到醉的程度,而有些則完全禁止。許多基督教教派,如天主教會正教會、和路德宗,都把葡萄酒作為聖餐禮的一部分,允許飲酒,但認為醉酒屬於有罪。

舊約聖經箴言中有幾章談及醉酒的壞影響,並警告人們遠離會讓人醉酒的飲料。利未記記載摩西的兄長亞倫的兩位長子拿答和亞比戶英语Nadab and Abihu,可能在聖殿服務時因醉酒緣故而被殺。利末記繼續討論修道主義,這種修行禁酒。士師記中有關參孫的故事敘述有位但支派的僧侶,受到禁止剪頭髮和喝酒的約束。[57]新約聖經中的羅馬書第13章第13和14節[58]哥林多前書第6章第9-11節、加拉太書第5章第19-21節、[59]以弗所書第5章第18節[60]都載有反對醉酒的段落。箴言第31章第4節警告君王和統治者不要飲用葡萄酒和烈酒,箴言第31章第6-7節倡導給臨終者喝烈酒,給生活苦澀的人喝葡萄酒,讓他們把貧窮和苦難遺忘。[61]

某些基督新教教派因為聖經載有譴責醉酒的段落而禁止飲酒[57][62]但其他教派則允許適度飲酒。[63]在一些基督教團體中,飲用少量的葡萄酒是聖餐禮儀式的一部分。

耶穌基督後期聖徒教會j教派則禁止飲酒,[64]遵守禁酒是這個教派成員的顯著特徵。耶和華見證人教派允許成員適度飲酒。

古蘭經[65][66][67]禁止飲用以葡萄為原料的酒精飲料,聖訓把醉酒認為可憎。麥茲海布伊斯蘭教法學中一個支派)的解讀是嚴禁飲用所有類型的酒精,並稱這種行為為哈拉姆 (「禁止的」、「違反教律的」)。

一般來說,佛教僧侶和普通信徒都不鼓勵飲酒。許多佛教信徒都遵守五戒的行為準則,其中第五戒是承諾不飲酒[68](除非作醫療用途)。[69]大乘佛教梵網經中,同樣不鼓勵分送酒類,也不鼓勵攝取。[70]

印度教中的高迪亞毗溼奴派英语Gaudiya Vaishnavism支派,四項監管規矩之一就是禁止攝取麻醉物品(包括酒精)。

猶太教根據聖經,採反對飲酒的立場,[57]教士和修士都不許飲酒。[71]猶太聖經把安息日和其他猶太節日聖化,被理解為需要準備三頓禮儀餐,其中包括飲用葡萄酒,稱之為Kiddush英语Kiddush(字面意思是“成聖”,是對葡萄酒或葡萄汁的一種祝福)。[72][73]猶太婚禮以新娘和新郎在誦讀七項祝福(請參考Sheva Brachot英语Sheva Brachot)後共享一杯葡萄酒結束,根據“阿什肯納茲猶太人”的傳統,在禁食一天之後也會飲用葡萄酒。但根據猶太教慣例,人們被要求適度飲酒以保持清醒,並且喝酒時機只在祈禱結束後方可。[74]

逾越節晚餐時,參與者必須背誦哈加達(Haggadah)的同時,喝4杯禮儀酒。這種做法被認為是一些基督教團體聖餐飲酒儀式的源頭。[75]根據普珥節的規定,人們被要求喝醉以示慶祝,在許多猶太社區會根據教令,利用白天睡覺來替代醉酒的行為。[76] 1920年代的猶太教改革派運動中,一位拉比提議在儀式上使用葡萄汁代替葡萄酒。雖在起初遭到駁斥,但這種做法後來被猶太教正統派廣泛接受。[77]

在巴勒斯坦西岸希伯倫麥比拉洞(猶太教中僅次於聖殿山,排名第二的聖地。穆斯林信徒稱之為“易卜拉欣清真寺”),猶太人在婚禮、安息日、和猶太節日在此地的飲酒儀式,會與同樣居住在此地的穆斯林之間產生緊張關係.[78]

其他動物的醉酒行為

1974年金球獎最佳紀錄片英语Golden Globe Award for Best Documentary Film得獎作品《美麗的動物英语Animals are Beautiful People》中,展示許多不同的動物,包括猴子、大象、野豬、長頸鹿、和鴕鳥,吃了馬魯拉樹過熟的果實,導致它們表現如同人類喝醉酒一般的搖晃和站立不穩的模樣。[79]鳥類可能會因吃下發酵的漿果而發生醉酒情事,有些鳥類會因此撞上堅硬物體而死亡。[80][81]

發生在公元前167年到160年的馬加比起義,還有發生在公元前第三世紀的第二次布匿戰爭,都曾使用過大象作戰,根據記載,在攻擊發動之前會提供酒類讓大象飲用,受酒精影響的大象在象伕催促下衝鋒向前。[82]

愛爾蘭,通常會提供少量啤酒給賽馬飲用。反芻動物的胃中本來就會自然發酵,一般而言,提供少量的酒精飲料給予這類動物飲用不會對它們造成傷害,也不會導致它們醉酒。

酒精飲料對於狗類極為有害,[83]通常是因為飲料中添加人造甜味劑木糖醇的緣故。狗類除了在食物,或是飲料中吸收乙醇之外,也可透過皮膚吸收達到產生危險程度的乙醇。甚至是發酵的麵團對狗而言也很危險。[84]

參見






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  71. ^ The Talmudic decree set a schedule according to which the priests would take turns staying sober. The practice of becoming a 'biblical' monk, is discussed in a full tractate of the Mishna and Talmud. The Talmud tells of a family 'the sons of Reichab' who never drank wine, although it is not clear if this is considered good or bad.
  72. ^ The Kiddush is recited today only in the opening meal on Friday night and the main meal during the day. See On the mystery of the missing Kiddush during the third Sabbath meal Ruth Foichtwanger Segel, Shabbat Magazine, August 21, 2016 (Hebrew, Makor Rishon website)
  73. ^ The Pharisees, avoiding the Zadokites' temple-based rituals, had installed many ceremonies which in a way change or contradict the literal meaning of the biblical protocol. These include the ceremony of lighting candles which stay lit during the Sabbath day, eating hot food from a fire lit previously, starting the Sabbath rituals on the night before, and the drinking of wine with the Sabbath meal. See Qimron Sabbath Laws 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2021-03-08. Vered Noam, Department of Hebrew Culture Studies, Tel Aviv University (Dead Sea Discoveries 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2017-01-31., Brill Institute)
  74. ^ Menachem Posner: What is Judaism's take on alcohol consumption? on Chabad.org
  75. ^ Was Jesus' last supper a Seder? Jonathan Klawans, January 7, 2014 (Biblical Archaeology organization's website)
  76. ^ The Babylonian Talmud says in Megillah 7b that "Rava said: A person is obligated to become intoxicated on Purim until he is unaware of the difference between 'Cursed be Haman' and 'Blessed be Mordechai.'" This is taken to mean that on the Jewish festival of Purim one is commanded to drink alcohol to the point of intoxication. See Yanki Tauber: Are Jews actually supposed to get drunk on Purim? Chabad.org (referring to the Talmudic tractate Megillah (7b)).
  77. ^ Using grape juice for Kiddush 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2021-01-16. (Torahlab website)
  78. ^ Hebron: Jews and Palestinians share holy site begrudgingly, Daniel Estrin, November 10, 2015 (Public Radio International website)
  79. ^ Drunken animals scene (YouTube)
  80. ^ Katz, Brigit. Birds Are Acting Erratically in Minnesota. Blame It on the Alcohol. Smithsonian. 4 October 2018 [5 October 2018]. 
  81. ^ Kinde, Hailu; et al. Strong circumstantial evidence for ethanol toxicosis in Cedar Waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum). Journal of Ornithology. July 2012, 153 (3): 995–998. S2CID 15546534. doi:10.1007/s10336-012-0858-7. 
  82. ^ Hannibal's superweapon: The war elephant (HistoryThings.com website)
  83. ^ How Harmful is Alcohol to Dogs? What to do if Your Dog Drinks Alcohol. 
  84. ^ Alcohol Poisoning in Dogs - Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, Recovery, Management, Cost. 

書目

  • Bales, Robert F. "Attitudes toward Drinking in the Irish Culture". In: Pittman, David J. and Snyder, Charles R. (Eds.) Society, Culture and Drinking Patterns. New York: Wiley, 1962, pp. 157–187.
  • Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr., God Gave Wine: What the Bible Says about Alcohol. Lincoln, Calif.: Oakdown, 2001.
  • Rorabaugh, W.J. "The Alcoholic Republic," Chapter 2 & 5, Oxford University Press.
  • Sigmund, Paul. St. Thomas Aquinas On Politics and Ethics. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1988, p. 77.
  • Walton, Stuart. Out of It. A Cultural History of Intoxication. Penguin Books, 2002. ISBN 0-14-027977-6.

外部連結