User:Cswquz/沙盒/科学
| 科学 系列条目 |
|---|
 |
 专题  科学史 |
科学分支即各个门类的科学，也称作“科学领域”或“科学学科”，通常划分为三大门类：
- 形式科学：研究形式系统，例如逻辑和数学里所研究的那些；使用先验的方法论，不依赖于经验证据。
- 自然科学：对自然现象的研究（包括物理学、化学、地质学、宇宙学及生物学等）。自然科学可分为两大分支：物理科学及生命科学（或称生物科学）。
- 社会科学：对人的行为的社会及文化方面进行的科学研究[1]。
自然科学与社会科学俱为经验科学，意即其知识须基于可观测现象，且必须能被其他研究者在相同条件下证实[2]。不过此种可证实性即使在一门科学学科内部也很可能标准不一[3][4]。
形式科学、自然科学以及社会科学组成基础科学，是交叉科学学科及诸如工程学和医学等应用科学的基础。专门化的科学学科，如果从属于多个门类，有可能包含其它科学学科的某些部分，不过也经常会拥有本学科独门的术语及技能[5]。
形式科学[编辑]
形式科学是专注于研究形式系统的那些科学分支，如逻辑、数学、理论计算机科学、信息论、系统论、决策论、统计学以及理论语言学等。
Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world (empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal sciences actually constitute a science. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality,[6] and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences.
[与其它分支不同，形式科学不关心以现实世界中的观测（经验知识）为基础所构建的理论的有效性，而只专注于研究基于定义和规则的形式系统的性质。因此，关于形式科学能否真正算作一类科学存在不同意见。但不管怎么说，形式科学的方法对于构造和检验描述可观测现实的科学模型来说至关重要，而且形式科学上的重大进展往往可以带动经验科学取得重大进展。]
逻辑[编辑]
Logic (from Greek: λογική，logikḗ，possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative)[7][8][註 1] is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the conclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments.[9]
[逻辑 (from Greek: λογική，logikḗ，possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative)[7][8][註 1] is the systematic study of valid 推理规则, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the 结论) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of 逻辑论证s.[9] ]
It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of the logical forms; the validity and soundness of deductive reasoning; the strength of inductive reasoning; the study of formal proofs and inference (including paradoxes and fallacies); and the study of syntax and semantics.
[ It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of the 逻辑形式s; the 有效性 and 健全性 of 演绎推理; the 强度 of 归纳推理; the study of 形式证明s and 推理 (including 悖论es and 谬误es); and the study of 句法 and 语义学. ]
Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy (since ancient times) and mathematics (since the mid-19th century). More recently, logic has been studied in cognitive science, which draws on computer science, linguistics, philosophy and psychology, among other disciplines.
[ Historically, logic has been studied in 哲学 (since ancient times) and 数学 (since the mid-19th century). More recently, logic has been studied in 认知科学, which draws on 计算机科学, 语言学, philosophy and 心理学, among other disciplines. ]
(Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science. Logic examines general forms which arguments may take, which forms are valid, and which are fallacies. In philosophy, the study of logic figures in most major areas: epistemology, ethics, metaphysics. In mathematics and computer science, it is the study of valid inferences within some formal language.[10]
Logic is also studied in argumentation theory[11]。)
[逻辑 is the formal systematic study of the 原理s of valid 推理 and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of 哲学, 数学, 语义学, and 计算机科学. Logic examines general forms which 论证s may take, which forms are valid, and which are 謬誤es. In philosophy, the study of logic figures in most major areas: 认识论, 伦理学, 形而上学. In mathematics and computer science, it is the study of valid 推理s within some 形式语言. Logic is also studied in 论证理论.]
数学[编辑]
Mathematics, in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of formal science; but traditionally mathematics means more specifically the coalition of four areas: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis, which are, roughly speaking, the study of quantity, structure, space, and change.
[数学，若以最宽泛的意义而言，可等同于全部形式科学，两者为同义词；不过传统上数学为算术、代数、几何以及分析这四个领域的总称。粗略来说，这四个领域分别以数量、结构、空间以及变化为研究对象。]
统计学[编辑]
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data.[12][13] It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.[12]
[统计学研究的是数据的采集、组织与解释。It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.]
A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.
[A 统计学家 is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called 数理统计学, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.]
系统论[编辑]
Systems theory is the interdisciplinary study of systems. A system is a cohesive conglomeration of interrelated and interdependent parts which can be natural or human-made. Every system is bounded by space and time, influenced by its environment, defined by its structure and purpose, and expressed through its functioning. A system may be more than the sum of its parts if it expresses synergy or emergent behavior.
[Systems theory is the 科际整合 study of 系统s. A system is a cohesive conglomeration of interrelated and interdependent parts which can be natural or human-made. Every system is bounded by space and time, influenced by its environment, defined by its structure and purpose, and expressed through its functioning. A system may be more than the sum of its parts if it expresses 协同效应 or emergent behavior.]
Changing one part of a system may affect other parts or the whole system. It may be possible to predict these changes in patterns of behavior. For systems that learn and adapt, the growth and the degree of adaptation depend upon how well the system is engaged with its environment. Some systems support other systems, maintaining the other system to prevent failure. The goals of systems theory are to model a system's dynamics, constraints, conditions, and to elucidate principles (such as purpose, measure, methods, tools) that can be discerned and applied to other systems at every level of nesting, and in a wide range of fields for achieving optimized equifinality.[14]
[Changing one part of a system may affect other parts or the whole system. It may be possible to predict these changes in patterns of behavior. For systems that learn and adapt, the growth and the degree of 适应 depend upon how well the system is engaged with its environment. Some systems support other systems, maintaining the other system to prevent failure. The goals of systems theory are to model a system's dynamics, constraints, conditions, and to elucidate principles (such as purpose, measure, methods, tools) that can be discerned and applied to other systems at every level of nesting, and in a wide range of fields for achieving optimized equifinality.[14] ]
General systems theory is about developing broadly applicable concepts and principles, as opposed to concepts and principles specific to one domain of knowledge. It distinguishes dynamic or active systems from static or passive systems. Active systems are activity structures or components that interact in behaviours and processes. Passive systems are structures and components that are being processed. For example, a program is passive when it is a disc file and active when it runs in memory.[15] The field is related to systems thinking, machine logic, and systems engineering.
[General systems theory is about developing broadly applicable concepts and principles, as opposed to concepts and principles specific to one domain of knowledge. It distinguishes dynamic or active systems from static or passive systems. Active systems are activity structures or components that interact in behaviours and processes. Passive systems are structures and components that are being processed. For example, a program is passive when it is a disc file and active when it runs in memory.[15] The field is related to systems thinking, machine logic, and 系统工程. ]
(Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the system-theory of Niklas Luhmann.)
[系统论(systems theory) is the 跨学科研究 of 系统s in general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the system-theory of Niklas Luhmann.]
In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through feedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of our body, in local and global ecosystems, and in climate.
[In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through 反馈. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of our body, in local and global ecosystems, and climate.]
决策论[编辑]
Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be confused with choice theory) is the study of an agent's choices.[16] Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines the optimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzes how agents actually make the decisions they do.
[决策论(decision theory) (or the theory of choice not to be confused with 选择理论)研究的是决策者的抉择[14]。决策论可分为两支：规范性决策论，分析决策的后果，或在给定的限制条件和假定下给出最优决策；以及描述性决策论，分析决策者是如何作出其决策的。]
Decision theory is closely related to the field of game theory[17] and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by economists, statisticians, psychologists, biologists,[18] political and other social scientists, philosophers,[19] and computer scientists.
[决策论与博弈论有密切关联[15]，是一个交叉学科，其研究者包括经济学家、统计学家、心理学家、生物学家[16]、政治学及其他社会科学学者、哲学家[17]和计算机科学家。]
Empirical applications of this rich theory are usually done with the help of statistical and econometric methods.
[这个内容丰富的理论的实证应用通常需要借助统计学和计量经济学的方法来完成。]
(Decision theory in economics, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, and statistics is concerned with identifying the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision. It is very closely related to the field of game theory. )
[决策论(decision theory) in economics, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, and statistics is concerned with identifying the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision. It is very closely related to the field of 博弈论.]
理论计算机科学[编辑]
Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing, and includes the theory of computation.
It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. The ACM's Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description:[20]
TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation, quantum computation, automata theory, information theory, cryptography, program semantics and verification, machine learning, computational biology, computational economics, computational geometry, and computational number theory and algebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigor.
[理论计算机科学 (TCS) 为一般的计算机科学与数学所共有的一些子学科，关注的是计算的更偏于数学方面的课题，包括计算理论。
此领域的范围不易精确划定。美国计算机协会 (ACM) 的算法与计算理论特别兴趣小组 (SIGACT) 给出了如下描述[14]：
TCS涵盖范围宽广，其课题包括算法、数据结构、计算复杂性、并行计算与分布式计算，概率式计算(probabilistic computation)、量子计算、自动机理论、信息论、密码学、程序的语义及验证、机器学习、计算生物学、计算经济学、计算几何、计算数论和计算机代数。这个领域的工作常以其对数学方法及数学严格性的强调为特征。
]
自然科学[编辑]
Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.
Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the "laws of nature".[21]
[自然科学为科学的一个分支，所关注的是以从观察和实验中获得的经验证据为基础来描述、预期和理解自然现象。诸如同行评议和所宣称之发现的可重复性等机制被用来尽可能保证科学进展的可查证性。
自然科学可分作两支：生命科学和物理科学。生命科学也称作生物学，而物理科学又分为物理学、化学、天文学和地球科学等分支。这些分支又可继续细分为更专业的分支（或称领域）。自然科学属于经验科学，而用到由形式科学提供的工具如逻辑、数学等，将有关自然的信息转换为测量结果，再用陈述为清晰形式的“自然定律”来解释这些结果[11]。]
物理科学[编辑]
Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.
[物理科学为一总括性的术语，指自然科学中研究无生命系统的那些分支，而与生命科学相对。不过这种划分在一定程度上是随意而且模糊的，因为物理科学的许多分支也研究生物现象。注意物理科学与物理学不是一回事。]
物理学[编辑]
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter[註 2] and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force.[23] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.[24][25][註 3]
[物理学是一门自然科学，致力于研究物质及其在时空中的运动，还有诸如能量和力等等的相关概念。广义而言，物理学是对自然界进行的一般分析，以理解宇宙如何运行。]
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[註 4] Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right.[註 5] Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.
[物理学为最古老的学术领域之一；如果把天文学也算进去，则或许连“之一”都可以去掉。过去两千多年间，物理学与数学的某些分支、化学以及生物学一样，皆属自然哲学的一部分。不过，在16世纪的科学革命中，诸门自然科学逐渐发展为独立的研究领域。其中某些是跨学科的，例如生物物理学和量子化学，所以说物理学的边界并不能严格的限定。从19世纪到20世纪，物理主义开始作为科学哲学主要的统一特征而出现，因为物理学为每一种观察到的自然现象给出了基本解释。物理学中的新观念，除了能够解释其它科学的底层机制，还为数学和哲学开辟了新的研究领域。]
化学[编辑]
Chemistry is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.[26][27] It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based). Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include: biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system.
[化学是研究物质及其变化的科学。物理学也是研究物质的科学，不过关注的是更为一般和基本的层面；化学与之相比则更为专门化，关注的是物质的成分、行为（或反应）、结构、性质，以及它们在化学反应中所起的变化，是研究各种各样的化学物质、原子、分子以及物质（特别是碳基物质）的物理科学。化学的子学科举例：生物化学，研究生物体内发现的化学物质；物理化学，运用诸如热力学及量子力学等物理概念来研究化学过程；以及分析化学，对物料样品进行分析，从而了解其化学成分和结构。近年又出现许多更为专门的子学科，例如神经化学研究的是神经系统中的化学。]
地球科学[编辑]
Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.[28] It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, geography, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.
[地球科学，亦称地学，是一个总括性的术语，指与地球这颗行星相关的所有科学。地球科学可以说是行星科学的一个特例，因为地球是已知唯一承载着生命的行星。地球科学的研究途径，既有还原主义的，也有整体主义的。地球科学的常规研究对象包括大气圈、水圈、岩石圈、生物圈，以及固体地球。研究地学的科学家通常会运用来自物理学、化学、生物学、地理学、年代学以及数学的工具，以建立对于地球系统如何运行以及如何演化至其当前状态的定量化理解。]
地质学[编辑]
Geology (from the Ancient Greek γῆ, gē ("earth") and -λoγία, -logia, ("study of", "discourse")[29][30]) is an Earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major aspect of integrated Earth system science and planetary science.
[地质学为地球科学的分支，研究对象为固体地球，包括组成它的各种岩石及其在地质史中的变迁。地质学也可以把关于任何类地行星或卫星（如火星和月球）的固体部分的研究包括进来。当代的地质学与所有其它地球科学皆有显著的交叉，其中包括水文学与大气科学。因此地质学可以视作综合性的地球系统科学乃至行星科学的主要组成部分之一。]
海洋学[编辑]
Oceanography, or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as well as geography.
[海洋学，或称作海洋科学，是地球科学的分支，研究海洋。海洋学涵盖面广，其研究课题包括海生生物及生态系统动力学；洋流、海浪和地球物理流体动力学；板块构造及海底地质学；以及各种化学物质与物理性质在海洋中及穿越海洋边界的通量。这多种多样的课题反映出海洋学家为加深对世界海洋及发生在其中的过程的的认识和理解而运用的多门学科：生物学、化学、地质学、气象学、物理学以及地理学。]
气象学[编辑]
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.
[气象学是以大气为研究对象的跨学科科学研究。这个领域的研究史虽可回溯至数千年前，不过直到17世纪，气象学才有了长足进步。到了19世纪，在几个国家的气象观测网络建立以后，气象学迎来突破。20世纪后半叶计算机技术的发展则使气象学在天气预报方面取得突破。]
空间科学或天文学[编辑]
Space science, or astronomy, is the study of everything in outer space.[31] This has sometimes been called astronomy, but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields,[32] such as studying issues related to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine), space archaeology[33] and science performed in outer space (see space research).
[空间科学，或天文学，研究的是存在于外太空的一切事物。这门学科往往被称作天文学，不过近年来天文学已经逐渐被视作更广泛的空间科学的一部分，后者在发展中将其它相关领域也包括了进来，例如研究与太空旅行及空间探索相关的课题（包括太空医学）、太空考古学以及在外太空里进行的科学研究（参见“太空科研”）。]
生命科学[编辑]
Life science, also known as biology, is the natural science that studies life and living organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings, – including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development and evolution.[34] Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. Living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy[35] to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis.[36]
[生命科学，亦称作生物学，为研究生命及活的有机体——如微生物、植物、动物（包括人在内）——的自然科学，包括其生理结构、化学过程、分子相互作用、生理学机制、发育以及进化。[22]生命科学虽然庞杂，一些统一概念却将其整合为一门单一而连贯的学问。生物学认为细胞是生命的基本单位，基因是遗传的基本单位，而进化是推动物种之创生和绝灭的引擎。活的有机体是一个开放系统，其生存方式是通过能量的转化以降低其局部的熵，[23]从而维持所谓体内平衡，即一个稳定且有活力的状态。[24] ]
生物化学[编辑]
Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.[37] It is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, and physiology.
[生物化学研究的是发生在活的有机体内及与之相关的化学过程；它既属于化学也属于生物学，而以还原主义的观点来看，生物化学在生物学中占有基础地位。生物化学与分子生物学、细胞生物学、遗传学以及生理学等学科密切相关。]
微生物学[编辑]
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology and parasitology.
[微生物学研究的是微生物，其中有单细胞的，有多细胞的，乃至还有非细胞（缺乏细胞结构）的。微生物学涵盖了为数众多的子学科，其中包括病毒学、细菌学、原生生物学、真菌学、免疫学以及寄生虫学。]
植物学[编辑]
Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants),[38] and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes.[39]
[植物学，或称植物科学，为研究植物的生物学分支。传统上，植物学亦包括分别研究真菌和藻类的真菌学和藻类学，而当前国际植物学大会的研讨范围也依然涵盖植物、真菌和藻类。目前，（狭义上的）植物学家所研究的陆生植物约有41万种，其中维管植物约有39.1万种（包括约36.9万种开花植物）[1]，以及约2万种苔藓植物。[2] ]
动物学[编辑]
Zoology is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. Some branches of zoology include: anthrozoology, arachnology, archaeozoology, cetology, embryology, entomology, helminthology, herpetology, histology, ichthyology, malacology, mammalogy, morphology, nematology, ornithology, palaeozoology, pathology, primatology, protozoology, taxonomy, and zoogeography.
[动物学为研究动物界的生物学分支，包括所有（无论是现生的还是绝灭了的）种类动物的结构、胚胎学、进化、分类、习性、分布，以及它们与所在生态系统的相互作用。以下为动物学的一些分支：人与动物关系学、蛛形动物学、动物考古学、鲸类学、胚胎学、昆虫学、蠕虫学、两栖爬行动物学、组织学、鱼类学、软体动物学、哺乳动物学、形态学、线虫学、鸟类学、古动物学、病理学、灵长类学、原生动物学、分类学以及动物地理学。]
生态学[编辑]
Ecology (from 希臘語：οἶκος, "house", or "environment"; -λογία, "study of")[註 6] is a branch of biology[40] concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic and abiotic components. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits.
[生态学为生物学的分支[1]，研究的是生物体之间以及它们与其周边的生态环境（其中既包括生物因子也包括非生物因子）之间的相互作用。生态学关注的课题包括生物多样性、生物的分布、生物量、生物体种群，以及物种内部和物种之间的合作与竞争。生态系统是由生物体和它们所组成的群落以及其环境中的非生物因子所共同构成的动态相互作用系统。生态系统中的过程，如初级生产、成土作用、营养循环以及生态位构建，调节着一个环境中能量与物质的通量。而这些过程是由具有特定生活史特征的生物体来维持的。]
社会科学[编辑]
Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, management science, media studies, political science, psychology, and social history.
[社会科学是科学的一个分支，致力于研究社会以及身处其中的 个体之间的关系。“社会科学”这个词曾经指的是社会学，即初始意义上的“关于社会的科学”，创立于19世纪。当前，除了社会学以外，范围宽广的一系列学术领域也都归入社会科学，其中包括人类学、考古学、经济学、人文地理、语言学、管理科学、媒体研究、政治科学、心理学以及社会史。]
Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term "social research" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.
[ 实证主义社会科学学者采用与自然科学中类似的方法来考察社会，由是科学便定义在其较为严格的现代意义上。与之相反，解释主义社会科学学者更倾向于运用社会批判或符号解释，而不是构建经验上可证伪的理论；这样的做法则是在一种更宽泛的意义上来定义科学。在当代的学术实践中，研究者们往往采取折衷主义，使用复合的方法论（例如将定量研究与定性研究结合起来）。而“社会研究”这个词现在也具备了一定的自治性，因为其目标和方法被来自各种不同领域的从业者所共同采纳。]
应用科学[编辑]
Applied science is the use of existing scientific knowledge to practical goals, like technology or inventions.
Within natural science, disciplines that are basic science develop basic information to explain and perhaps predict phenomena in the natural world. Applied science is the use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a particular practical or useful result. This includes a broad range of applied science related fields, including engineering and medicine.
Applied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology. Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods.
[应用科学是将既有的科学知识运用于实际目的，如技术和发明。
在自然科学的范畴中，属于基础研究的那些学科是积累基本信息，从而解释，以及如有可能的话，预言自然现象。而应用科学则是以科学的过程和知识为手段，用来达成特定的实用结果。是故应用科学的相关领域包罗甚广，工程学和医学皆在其中。
应用科学亦会应用比如说统计学和概率论等形式科学，例如流行病学。遗传流行病学即为运用了生物学及统计方法的应用科学。]
各分支之间的关系[编辑]
以下表格概括了各个科学分支之间的关系：
| 科学 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| 形式科学 | 经验科学 | ||
| 自然科学 | 社会科学 | ||
| 基础 | 逻辑学、数学、统计学 | 物理学、化学、生物学、地球科学、空间科学 | 经济学、政治学、社会学、心理学 |
| 应用 | 计算机科学 | 工程学、农学、医学、牙医学、药学 | 工商管理、法学、教育学 |
参见[编辑]
- Index of branches of science
- List of words ending in ology
- Outline of science
- Branches of philosophy
- Engineering science
- Moral science
[
]
注释[编辑]
- ^ Also related to λόγος (logos), "word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle." (Liddell and Scott, 1999).
- ^ Richard Feynman begins his Lectures with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations ..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..." [22]
- ^ The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
- ^ Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
- ^ Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method.
- ^ In Ernst Haeckel's (1866) footnote where the term ecology originates, he also gives attribute to 古希臘語：χώρας，羅馬化：khōrā，直译：χωρα, meaning "dwelling place, distributional area" —quoted from Stauffer (1957).
引用[编辑]
脚注[编辑]
- ^ social science | History, Disciplines, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. [2020-08-18] （英语）.[需要較佳来源]
- ^ Popper 2002，第20頁.
- ^ Davide Castelvecchi, Nature Magazine. Is String Theory science?. Scientific American. 2015-12-23 [2018-04-03].
- ^ Editorial Staff. Psychology's reproducibility problem. Nature. 2016-03-03 [2018-04-03].
- ^ see: Editorial Staff. Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms. Seed magazine. March 7, 2008 [2007-09-12].
- ^ Popper 2002，第79–82頁.
- ^ Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. 1940. "Logikos." A Greek–English Lexicon, edited by H. S. Jones with R. McKenzie. Oxford: Clarendon Press. – via Perseus Project. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- ^ Harper, Douglas. 2020 [2001]. "logic (n.)." Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- ^ Gensler, Harry J. Chapter 1: Introduction. Introduction to logic 3rd. New York: Routledge. 2017: 1 [2002]. ISBN 9781138910591. OCLC 957680480. doi:10.4324/9781315693361.
- ^ Hofweber, T. Logic and Ontology. Zalta, Edward N (编). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2004.
- ^ Cox, J. Robert; Willard, Charles Arthur (编). Advances in Argumentation Theory and Research. Southern Illinois University Press. 1983. ISBN 978-0-8093-1050-0.
- ^ 12.0 12.1 Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9
- ^ statistics. TheFreeDictionary.com. [2020-08-25] （英语）.
- ^ Beven, K. (2006). A manifesto for the equifinality thesis. Journal of hydrology, 320(1), 18-36.
- ^ Paolo Rocchi. Technology + Culture. IOS Press. 2000. ISBN 978-1-58603-035-3.
- ^ Steele, Katie and Stefánsson, H. Orri, "Decision Theory", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = [1]
- ^ Myerson, Roger B. 1.2: Basic concepts of Decision Theory. Game theory analysis of conflict. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1991. ISBN 9780674728615.
- ^ Habibi I, Cheong R, Lipniacki T, Levchenko A, Emamian ES, Abdi A. Computation and measurement of cell decision making errors using single cell data. PLOS Computational Biology. April 2017, 13 (4): e1005436. Bibcode:2017PLSCB..13E5436H. PMC 5397092
. PMID 28379950. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005436.
- ^ Hansson, Sven Ove. "Decision theory: A brief introduction." (2005) Section 1.2: A truly interdisciplinary subject.
- ^ SIGACT. [2017-01-19].
- ^ Lagemaat 2006，第283頁.
- ^ R.P. Feynman; R.B. Leighton; Matthew Sands. The Feynman Lectures on Physics 1. 1963: I-2. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.
- ^
J.C. Maxwell. Matter and Motion. D. Van Nostrand. 1878: 9. ISBN 0-486-66895-9.
Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.
- ^
H.D. Young; R.A. Freedman. University Physics with Modern Physics 11th. Addison-Wesley. 2004: 2.
Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles.
- ^
S. Holzner. Physics for Dummies. Wiley. 2006: 7. ISBN 0-470-61841-8.
Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.
- ^ Definition of CHEMISTRY. www.merriam-webster.com. [2020-08-24] （英语）.
- ^ Definition of chemistry | Dictionary.com. www.dictionary.com. [2020-08-24] （英语）.
- ^ WordNet Search: Earth science. wordnetweb.princeton.edu. [2020-08-24].
- ^ Harper, Douglas. geology. Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ γῆ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
- ^ space science. TheFreeDictionary.com. [2020-08-23].
- ^ National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC) – NASA Science
- ^ Space science | Define Space science at Dictionary.com
- ^ Based on definition from: Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms. Texas State University at San Marcos. （原始内容存档于2004-06-08）.
- ^ Davies, PC; Rieper, E; Tuszynski, JA. Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell. Bio Systems. January 2013, 111 (1): 1–10. PMC 3712629 . PMID 23159919. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2012.10.005.
- ^ Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann. A physiologist's view of homeostasis. Advances in Physiology Education. December 2015, 39 (4): 259–66. ISSN 1043-4046. PMC 4669363 . PMID 26628646. doi:10.1152/advan.00107.2015.
- ^ Biological/Biochemistry. acs.org.
- ^ RBG Kew (2016). The State of the World's Plants Report – 2016. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. https://stateoftheworldsplants.com/report/sotwp_2016.pdf 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期2016-09-28.
- ^ The Plant List – Bryophytes.
- ^ the definition of ecology. Dictionary.com. [20 February 2018]. （原始内容存档于21 February 2018）.
著作[编辑]
- Lagemaat, Richard van de. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-54298-2.
- Popper, Karl R. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York, NY: Routledge Classics. 2002 [1959]. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149.
- Sandoz, R. (ed.), Interactive Historical Atlas of the Disciplines, University of Geneva