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跨性別:修订间差异

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性別酷兒/性別非二元者是指不完全歸屬於傳統意義上的男性或女性的人,當中包括無性別者、雙性性格者、双性别者、泛性别者、流性者<ref>Amy McCrea, ''Under the Transgender Umbrella: Improving ENDA's Protections'', in the ''Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law'' (2013): "This article will begin by providing a background on transgender people, highlighting the experience of a subset of non-binary individuals, bigender people, ..."</ref>,他們的存在[[跨性別恐懼症|順性别主義]](假定所有人皆是順性別的信條)跟相違背<ref>Wilchins, Riki Anne (2002) 'It's Your Gender, Stupid’, pp.23–32 in Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Wilchins (eds.) Genderqueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Los Angeles:Alyson Publications, 2002.</ref><ref>Nestle, J. (2002) "...pluralistic challenges to the male/female, woman/man, gay/straight, butch/femme constructions and identities..." from ''Genders on My Mind'', pp.3–10 in ''Genderqueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary'', edited by Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Wilchins, published by Los Angeles:Alyson Publications, 2002:9. Retrieved 2007-04-07.</ref>。双性别和雙性性格是兩個有所重疊的類別;双性别者認為自己一時是男性,一時是女性;或者認為自己既是男性又是女性。雙性性格者則可能類似地認為自己是無性別的(無性別者)、處於兩性之間、時男時女(流性者),或同时擁有多个性別(泛性别者)。有限度的雙性化表现是常見的(比如穿褲子的女性、戴耳環的男性),且不會遭視作跨性別行為。-{「}-Androgyne-{」}-在醫學上有時会被用作雙性人的同義詞<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/androgyne |title=Androgyne&nbsp;– Define Androgyne at Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.com |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413044915/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/androgyne |archivedate=2008-04-13 |df= }}</ref>。
性別酷兒/性別非二元者是指不完全歸屬於傳統意義上的男性或女性的人,當中包括無性別者、雙性性格者、双性别者、泛性别者、流性者<ref>Amy McCrea, ''Under the Transgender Umbrella: Improving ENDA's Protections'', in the ''Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law'' (2013): "This article will begin by providing a background on transgender people, highlighting the experience of a subset of non-binary individuals, bigender people, ..."</ref>,他們的存在[[跨性別恐懼症|順性别主義]](假定所有人皆是順性別的信條)跟相違背<ref>Wilchins, Riki Anne (2002) 'It's Your Gender, Stupid’, pp.23–32 in Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Wilchins (eds.) Genderqueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Los Angeles:Alyson Publications, 2002.</ref><ref>Nestle, J. (2002) "...pluralistic challenges to the male/female, woman/man, gay/straight, butch/femme constructions and identities..." from ''Genders on My Mind'', pp.3–10 in ''Genderqueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary'', edited by Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Wilchins, published by Los Angeles:Alyson Publications, 2002:9. Retrieved 2007-04-07.</ref>。双性别和雙性性格是兩個有所重疊的類別;双性别者認為自己一時是男性,一時是女性;或者認為自己既是男性又是女性。雙性性格者則可能類似地認為自己是無性別的(無性別者)、處於兩性之間、時男時女(流性者),或同时擁有多个性別(泛性别者)。有限度的雙性化表现是常見的(比如穿褲子的女性、戴耳環的男性),且不會遭視作跨性別行為。-{「}-Androgyne-{」}-在醫學上有時会被用作雙性人的同義詞<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/androgyne |title=Androgyne&nbsp;– Define Androgyne at Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.com |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413044915/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/androgyne |archivedate=2008-04-13 |df= }}</ref>。


===装者===
===者===
装者會穿着被視為「與其出生時的生理性徵不同」的服裝<ref name="TV1">E. D. Hirsch, Jr., E.D., Kett, J.F., Trefil, J. (2002) "Transvestite: Someone who dresses in the clothes usually worn by the opposite sex." in [http://www.bartleby.com/cgi-bin/texis/webinator/sitesearch?query=transvestite&filter=col59 Definition of the word "transvestite"] from [http://www.bartleby.com/59/ The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818065027/http://www.bartleby.com/59/ |date=August 18, 2007 }}. Retrieved 2007-08-13.</ref><ref name="TV2">various (2006) "trans·ves·tite... (plural trans·ves·tites), noun. Definition: somebody who dresses like opposite sex:" in [http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/transvestite.html Definition of the word "transvestite"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109164009/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/transvestite.html |date=2007-11-09 }} from the [http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/dictionaryhome.aspx Encarta World English Dictionary (North American Edition)] {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwKE4XUv?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/dictionaryhome.aspx |date=2009-10-31 }}. Retrieved 2007-08-13.</ref>。-{「}-transvestite-{」}-一詞跟-{「}-cross-dresser-{」}-屬同義<ref name="TV3">Raj, R (2002) "transvestite (TV): n. Synonym: crossdresser (CD):" in [http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtvo06no02_04.htm Towards a Transpositive Therapeutic Model: Developing Clinical Sensitivity and Cultural Competence in the Effective Support of Transsexual and Transgendered Clients] from the International Journal of Transgenderism 6,2. Retrieved 2007-08-13. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927183942/http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtvo06no02_04.htm |date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref><ref name="TV4">Hall, B. et al. (2007) "...Many say this term (crossdresser) is preferable to transvestite, which means the same thing..." and "...transvestite (TV)&nbsp;– same as cross-dresser. Most feel cross-dresser is the preferred term..." in [http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/resources/discussion_consultation/genderidentity?page=dfhh-Appendix-2.html Discussion Paper: Toward a Commission Policy on Gender Identity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927031902/http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/resources/discussion_consultation/genderidentity?page=dfhh-Appendix-2.html |date=2007-09-27 }} from the [http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/ Ontario Human Rights Commission] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813112257/http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en |date=2007-08-13 }}. Retrieved 2007-08-13.</ref> ,不過-{「}-cross-dresser-{」}-一詞較為常用<ref name="TV4" /><ref name="TV6">Green, E., Peterson, E.N. (2006) "...The preferred term is 'cross-dresser', but the term 'transvestite' is still used in a positive sense in England..." in [http://www.trans-academics.org/lgbttsqiterminology.pdf LGBTTSQI Terminology] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905233210/http://www.trans-academics.org/trans_and_sexuality_termi |date=2013-09-05 }} from [http://www.trans-academics.org/ Trans-Academics.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070424185600/http://www.trans-academics.org/ |date=2007-04-24 }}. Retrieved 2007-08-13.</ref>。-{「}-异装-{」}-一詞在相關文獻中並沒有完整的定義。[[约克大学_(加拿大)|加拿大约克大学]]哲學系教授邁克爾·吉爾伯特(Michael A. Gilbert)則把装者定義為:-{「}-有著明顯的性別認同且與其出生時的生理性徵相同的人,但因為那是異性的服裝而選擇穿着之<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://iiav.nl/ezines/web/IJT/97-03/numbers/symposion/gilbert.htm |title=The Transgendered Philosopher |last=Gilbert |first=Michael A. |year=2000 |journal=[[International Journal of Transgenderism]] |access-date=December 16, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126101549/http://www.iiav.nl/ezines/web/IJT/97-03/numbers/symposion/gilbert.htm |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref>。-{」}-
者會穿着被視為「與其出生時的生理性徵不同」的服裝<ref name="TV1">E. D. Hirsch, Jr., E.D., Kett, J.F., Trefil, J. (2002) "Transvestite: Someone who dresses in the clothes usually worn by the opposite sex." in [http://www.bartleby.com/cgi-bin/texis/webinator/sitesearch?query=transvestite&filter=col59 Definition of the word "transvestite"] from [http://www.bartleby.com/59/ The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818065027/http://www.bartleby.com/59/ |date=August 18, 2007 }}. Retrieved 2007-08-13.</ref><ref name="TV2">various (2006) "trans·ves·tite... (plural trans·ves·tites), noun. Definition: somebody who dresses like opposite sex:" in [http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/transvestite.html Definition of the word "transvestite"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109164009/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/transvestite.html |date=2007-11-09 }} from the [http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/dictionaryhome.aspx Encarta World English Dictionary (North American Edition)] {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwKE4XUv?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/dictionaryhome.aspx |date=2009-10-31 }}. Retrieved 2007-08-13.</ref>。-{「}-transvestite-{」}-一詞跟-{「}-cross-dresser-{」}-屬同義<ref name="TV3">Raj, R (2002) "transvestite (TV): n. Synonym: crossdresser (CD):" in [http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtvo06no02_04.htm Towards a Transpositive Therapeutic Model: Developing Clinical Sensitivity and Cultural Competence in the Effective Support of Transsexual and Transgendered Clients] from the International Journal of Transgenderism 6,2. Retrieved 2007-08-13. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927183942/http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtvo06no02_04.htm |date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref><ref name="TV4">Hall, B. et al. (2007) "...Many say this term (crossdresser) is preferable to transvestite, which means the same thing..." and "...transvestite (TV)&nbsp;– same as cross-dresser. Most feel cross-dresser is the preferred term..." in [http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/resources/discussion_consultation/genderidentity?page=dfhh-Appendix-2.html Discussion Paper: Toward a Commission Policy on Gender Identity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927031902/http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/resources/discussion_consultation/genderidentity?page=dfhh-Appendix-2.html |date=2007-09-27 }} from the [http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/ Ontario Human Rights Commission] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813112257/http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en |date=2007-08-13 }}. Retrieved 2007-08-13.</ref> ,不過-{「}-cross-dresser-{」}-一詞較為常用<ref name="TV4" /><ref name="TV6">Green, E., Peterson, E.N. (2006) "...The preferred term is 'cross-dresser', but the term 'transvestite' is still used in a positive sense in England..." in [http://www.trans-academics.org/lgbttsqiterminology.pdf LGBTTSQI Terminology] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905233210/http://www.trans-academics.org/trans_and_sexuality_termi |date=2013-09-05 }} from [http://www.trans-academics.org/ Trans-Academics.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070424185600/http://www.trans-academics.org/ |date=2007-04-24 }}. Retrieved 2007-08-13.</ref>。-{「}-异装-{」}-一詞在相關文獻中並沒有完整的定義。[[约克大学_(加拿大)|加拿大约克大学]]哲學系教授邁克爾·吉爾伯特(Michael A. Gilbert)則把者定義為:-{「}-有著明顯的性別認同且與其出生時的生理性徵相同的人,但因為那是異性的服裝而選擇穿着之<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://iiav.nl/ezines/web/IJT/97-03/numbers/symposion/gilbert.htm |title=The Transgendered Philosopher |last=Gilbert |first=Michael A. |year=2000 |journal=[[International Journal of Transgenderism]] |access-date=December 16, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126101549/http://www.iiav.nl/ezines/web/IJT/97-03/numbers/symposion/gilbert.htm |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref>。-{」}-這個定義不包括-{「}-因其他原因而穿異性服裝-{」}-的人,例如扮演異性角色的演員、出席化妝舞會的男女<ref name="CD1">Gilbert, Michael ‘Miqqi Alicia’ (2000) "The Transgendered Philosopher" in [http://www.symposion.com/ijt/gilbert/gilbert.htm Special Issue on What is Transgender?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011211239/http://www.symposion.com/ijt/gilbert/gilbert.htm |date=2007-10-11 }} from [http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ The International Journal of Transgenderism, Special Issue July 2000]. Retrieved 2007-10-09. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011211239/http://www.symposion.com/ijt/gilbert/gilbert.htm |date=October 11, 2007 }}</ref>。易装癖者可能但不一定會模仿異性的行為或習俗,且一般不會想在醫學上改變自己的身體。大部分易装癖者認同自己為異性戀者<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Docter |first1=Richard F. |last2=Prince |first2=Virginia |year=1997 |title=Transvestism: A survey of 1032 cross-dressers |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=589–605|doi=10.1023/a:1024572209266|pmid=9415796 }}</ref>。


== 性傾向 ==
== 性傾向 ==

2017年11月29日 (三) 10:58的版本

跨性別(英語:Transgender)人士的性別認同與其出生时的生理性征不同[1][2][3]。如果跨性別人士以醫學手段從一種性別過渡到另一種性別,則會被稱為變性人。「跨性別」是一個傘式術語:除了包括性別認同與其出生时的生理性征相反的人(跨性別男性跨性別女性),它還可能包括不完全歸屬於傳統上的男性或女性的人(性別酷兒者/性別非二元者,例子有双性别者泛性别者、流性人、無性別者)[2][4][5]。有些定義則把第三性也歸類於跨性別之下,或概念性地視跨性別为第三性[6][7]。跨性別的定義很少會廣至包含異裝者,而不論其性別認同[8]

跨性別者的性傾向獨立於其性別認同[9]:跨性別者可能自我認同為異性戀者、同性戀者、雙性戀者、無性戀者,以至拒絕為其性傾向下一個標籤。「跨性別」一詞亦可跟雙性人作區分,雙性人是指出生時所具有的身體性別特徵「不符合典型的男女身體二元概念」[10]。跨性別的相反詞則為順性別——順性別者的性別認同與其出生时的生理性征一致。

個人對於外表的感覺良好且認為其符合性別認同的情況則稱為「跨性別一致」(transgender congruence)[11]。許多跨性別者經歷性別不安症,當中有些則尋求荷爾蒙補充療法性別重置手術以及心理治療(但需注意的是,心理治療無法改變跨性別人士的性別認同[12]:1568。)[13] 。不是所有跨性別者皆渴望接受這些治療,也有些則因為經濟或醫学方面的原因而無法接受之[13][14]

大多數跨性別人士在工作及公共場所[15][16],和在醫療機構求診時[17] 遭他人歧視。許多地方的法律没有阻止此一情況發生的條文[18]

術語及定義的演變

美國人Holly Boswell設計的跨性別象徵符號(⚧),結合了雄性與雌性的星相符號。

哥倫比亞大學醫學院精神科醫師約翰·F·奧利文(John F. Oliven)在其所著並於1965年出版的參考書《性衛生與病理學》(Sexual Hygiene and Pathology)中首次提出了「transgender」此一用語,並指出以前所使用的用語「transsexualism」「是具有誤導性的,因為性本身不是跨性別的一個重大影響因子」[19][20][21]。跨性別一詞因能跟「變性」(transsexual)和「易裝癖」(transvestite)區分開來,而得到廣泛推廣。相關推廣者包括易裝愛好者雜誌《Transvestia》的主编弗吉尼亞·普林斯英语Virginia Prince,其於該雜誌的1969年12月號中推广此一用語[22][23]。在20世紀70年代中期,人們普遍視「trans-gender」和「trans people」為兩個傘式術語並使用之[註 1] ,並使用「transgenderist」一詞去代指没有接受性別重置手術的跨性別者[24]。到了1976年,跨性別者在教材中會遭縮寫為TG[25]

到了1984年,「跨性別群體」(transgender community)此一概念經已發展起來,此用詞當中的跨性別也是一個傘式術語[26]阿爾斯特大學的理查德·艾爾金斯(Richard Elkins)於1985年建立了「跨性別檔案」(Trans-Gender Archive)[23]。1992年的跨性別法律和就業政策國際會議(International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy)將跨性別定義為一個傘式術語,當中包括「變性者、跨性別者和易裝者等」[27]費雷思所著並於1992年發表的小冊子《跨性別解放:時機經已成熟的運動》(Transgender Liberation: A Movement Whose Time has Come)把跨性別定義為性別認同與其出生時的生理性徵不一致的统合術語;並認为其已成为酷兒的同義詞[28]

跨性別男性是指出生時的生理性徵为女性,性別認同为男性的人;跨性別女性則兩者相反:出生時的生理性徵为男性,性別認同为女性。衛生專業人員手冊、專業新聞風格指南和LGBT擁護組織建議其他人採用跨性別者自我認同的姓名和人稱代詞,提及跨性別人士的過去时亦同樣如是[29][30],当中許多亦建議在英語中「Transgender」不應当作名詞,而應当作形容詞使用;同时也指出「Transgender」不應在结尾加上「-ed」,變成「transgendered」[31][32][33]

性別認同與其出生時的生理性徵一致,而又不是性別酷兒者/性別非二元者的人則稱作順性別者[34]

變性及其跟跨性別的關係

「 transsexual」(變性)一詞於1949年被戴維·奧利弗·考爾德韋爾英语David Oliver Cauldwell引入至英語[註 2],並於1966年得到哈里·本傑明英语Harry Benjamin推廣,相近於「transgender」一詞的提出和推廣時間[22]。自20世紀90年代以來,「變性」一詞一般用於形容跨性別群體下面的一個子分類[22][35][36],變性者是指想把性別永久過渡至跟他們的性別認同一致,並為此尋求醫療援助的人們。但是這兩個群體的關注點有時是不同的,比如可以支付醫療費用的變性男性和女性可能會相對較關注醫療私隱及法律承認問題。

跨性別和變性之間一般依據社會性別(心理及社會性的性別)和生理性別的差異來作區別[37][38]。因此,變性可以說是較注重於生理層面的性別;而跨性別則較着重於心理性別傾向和性別角色.[39]。許多跨性別人士更喜歡以跨性別者來自稱,並抗拒以變性者自稱[40][41][42]。比如美國跨性別女性克里斯汀·約根森英语Christine Jorgensen於1979年公開拒絕承認自己為「變性者」,而用跨性別者自稱,並說道:「性別不是與床伴有關,而是與身份有關」[43][44]。這意味著跨性別實際上是關於性別認同的[45][註 3]。但是一些變性人反對將自己列入跨性別此一傘式術語中[46][47][48][49]

人類學家戴維·瓦倫丁(David Valentine)在其2007年的著作《跨性別:一個分類的民族志》(Transgender, an Ethnography of a Category)中指出,跨性別一詞是由活動家們創造出來的,但其定義範圍包括許多不認同自身为跨性別者的人。隨後他亦指出不應把不認同自己為跨性別者的人納入跨性別光譜中[46]。費雷思亦同樣宣稱跨性別對於一些人而言並不是一个合適的自我認同,而是他者為了理解某些人而設立的一个分類[47]。然而,波士頓fenway health公司的跨性別者健康計劃對以上此一說法提出了質疑;其指出,跨性別一詞並沒有普遍得到接受的定義,且人們很容易就对此詞產生混淆,因為在21世紀之交流行的用詞現在看來可能具有冒犯性。該計劃建議臨床醫师詢問求診者对哪个用詞較为滿意,並避免使用變性者此一用詞,除非他們確定求診者對此感到滿意[45]

哈里·本傑明開發了一套適用於跨性別者和異裝者的分類系統,該分類系統稱為本傑明量表英语Benjamin scale,當中他根據易裝的原因和是否急需進行性別重置手術來把跨性別者和異裝者分為六類[50]。本傑明認為中等程度的「真正跨性別者」需要補充雌激素睾酮來進行「初步性的手術或代替手術」[50];包括米里亞姆·里維拉英语Miriam (TV personality)在內,一些人儘管符合本雅明對「真正的跨性別者」的定義,但又不希望進行性別重置手術。此外也有儘管接受了性別重置手術,但又不符合「跨性別者」的定義的例子,比如格雷戈里·海明威英语Gregory Hemingway[51][52]

跨性別的其他子類別

除了性別認同與其出生時的生理性徵不同的跨性別男性和跨性別女性外,一些群體亦包含在跨性別此一傘式術語的定義中,即使用上最狹隘的定義亦同樣如是。該些群體包括不完全歸屬於傳統上的男性或女性的人,例子有雙性性格者雙性別者泛性别者、無性別者——他們一般遭統稱為性別酷兒[5]——或第三性者(一些參考文獻和一些社會將跨性別人群概念化成第三性別)[6][7]。儘管一些文獻將跨性別者的定義扩及至異裝者[8],但一般都会將他們排除於外,如同異服癖者英语Transvestic fetishism(因為一般將其分類為性慾倒錯)、以娱乐为目的的男扮女装/女扮男装。

性別酷兒(包括雙性性格者、双性别者)

性別酷兒/性別非二元者是指不完全歸屬於傳統意義上的男性或女性的人,當中包括無性別者、雙性性格者、双性别者、泛性别者、流性者[53],他們的存在順性别主義(假定所有人皆是順性別的信條)跟相違背[54][55]。双性别和雙性性格是兩個有所重疊的類別;双性别者認為自己一時是男性,一時是女性;或者認為自己既是男性又是女性。雙性性格者則可能類似地認為自己是無性別的(無性別者)、處於兩性之間、時男時女(流性者),或同时擁有多个性別(泛性别者)。有限度的雙性化表现是常見的(比如穿褲子的女性、戴耳環的男性),且不會遭視作跨性別行為。「Androgyne」在醫學上有時会被用作雙性人的同義詞[56]

易装癖者

易装癖者會穿着被視為「與其出生時的生理性徵不同」的服裝[57][58]。「transvestite」一詞跟「cross-dresser」屬同義[59][60] ,不過「cross-dresser」一詞較為常用[60][61]。「异装」一詞在相關文獻中並沒有完整的定義。加拿大约克大学哲學系教授邁克爾·吉爾伯特(Michael A. Gilbert)則把易装癖者定義為:「有著明顯的性別認同且與其出生時的生理性徵相同的人,但因為那是異性的服裝而選擇穿着之[62]。」這個定義不包括「因其他原因而穿異性服裝」的人,例如扮演異性角色的演員、出席化妝舞會的男女[63]。易装癖者可能但不一定會模仿異性的行為或習俗,且一般不會想在醫學上改變自己的身體。大部分易装癖者認同自己為異性戀者[64]

性傾向

跨性別者有別於同性戀群體,而跨性別者的性傾向判定,是用心理性別加上喜歡的性別判定,並不是用生理性別判定,也有男跨女跨性別女同志女跨男跨性別男同志存在,他們也可能是雙性戀同性戀泛性戀無性戀

醫療

性別不安醫療方式

  1. 與性別不安共存
  2. 跨性別生活
  3. 完全可逆和部分可逆治療
  4. 不可逆手術

精神醫療

性別不安相關現象,最早在精神醫學領域中以診斷名稱「變性慾(transsexualism)」出現在1975年出版的世界衛生組織診斷準則《國際疾病分類》第九版(ICD-9),及1980年出版的美國精神醫學會 9 《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》第三版(DSM-III)之 中。在1994年《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》第四版(DSM-IV)以及《國際疾病分類》第十版(ICD-10)將診斷名稱改為「性別認同疾患」(gender identity disorder, GID)。荷爾蒙及性別置換手術,輔以心理社會支持,成為「性別認同疾患」的「治療」方式。隨著研究與臨床經驗的累積與反省,性別認同與生物性別的不一致如今已不被視為病態,而應當去疾病化。但考量性別不安者因遭遇社會壓力或歧視、或因性別不安產生之性別焦慮或困擾,仍可藉由醫療協助與心理諮詢而緩解,故2013年出版的《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》第五版(DSM-5)摒除之前版本中以「性別認同」為疾病的命名,更名為「性別不安」(gender dysphoria),且去除「障礙症」/「疾患」(disorder)的命名。

身體醫療

對於變性和跨性別者,存在著醫療和外科手術,不過大多數人都不知道有這些醫療方法。跨性別男性激素替代療法英语Hormone replacement therapy (female-to-male)包括誘導鬍子生長,並使皮膚、頭髮、聲音和脂肪分佈變得男性化。跨性別女性激素替代療法則將脂肪分佈和乳房變得女性化。雷射脫毛英语Laser hair removal或電解法可為跨性別女性除去多餘的毛髮。跨性別女性手術可使聲音、皮膚、臉部、喉結、乳房、腰部、臀部和生殖器女性化。跨性別男性手術將胸部和生殖器男性化,並割除子宮、卵巢和輸卵管。術語「性別重置手術」(SRS)用來專指生殖器手術。術語“性別重置治療英语Sex reassignment therapy”(SRT)則用來作為跨性別身體醫療行為的總稱。“變性”一詞被批評過度強調手術,而“性別轉換”則較為中立。[4][65]這些程序的適用性取決於性別不安症(舊稱性別認同障礙)的程度,[66]和當地司法管轄範圍內的護理標準。

跨性別男性若未進行子宮切除術並且服用睾丸酮,則罹患子宮內膜癌的風險增加,因為體內睾丸酮產生的雄烯二酮可以轉化為雌激素,而外部雌激素是子宮內膜癌的風險因子。[67]

跨性別權利

不同於同性戀及雙性戀者,跨性別者更為小眾,缺乏社會認知,受到的歧視較同性戀者更多。跨性別權利是LGBT權利運動一部分,支持者爭取享有有別同性戀者的平等權利,反對者則反對倡導跨性別,擔心影響社會對自身性別認同的教育,是支持者和反對者的爭議之處,例如反對者反對跨性別生育及使用異性的廁所,支持者認為沒問題。

  • 性別認同和身分登記:身分登記包括護照、身份証和出世紙。

支持者認為最理想為無須任何生理治療及心理評估可改變身分登記,包括出世紙。 反對者認為身分登記一定要根據生理性別不能改變。或需要完成完全性別重置手術後只可改身分証。有些國家有性別認同條例,如英國,可供跨性別者改變登記性別身分。另設第三性構成其他爭議[68]

  • 跨性別婚姻:和同性或和異性結婚,甚至與同屬跨性別人士同婚。

支持者認為,跨性別可與異性結婚。若已有同性婚姻,則無需另外立法。 反對者認為,必須和原身性別的異性結婚。例如香港變性人婚權案,為免同性婚姻變相合法,裁決只容許完成變性手術的跨性別人士與異性性別的人結婚。

  • 跨性別領養:是否能申請領養,跨性別領養是否對被領養者有利,跨性別是否作為領養考慮因素。

支持者認為,跨性別適合養育孩子。 反對者認為,跨性別不適合養育孩子。

支持者認為,跨性別可自我決定生育。 反對者認為,男跨女本身不可能懷孕(尚未有人造子宮),女跨男以男性身份懷孕,顛覆傳統上只有女性可以懷孕的認知。

  • 跨性別行為:行為包括易服、使用異性更衣室及洗手間、使用異性稱呼、使用異性服務及組織和會藉、使用雙性服務及組織和會藉以異性看待、法津上以異性對待。

支持者認為能以新性別身份生活。 反對者認為未完成變性只能以原生性別身份生活。以出世紙性別上洗手間。

支持者認為支持所有跨性別治療及政府資助 反對者認為反對所有跨性別治療及政府資助。

  • 跨性別權利:與異性權利相等。

支持者認為可以新性別對侍。 反對者認為必須以原生性別對侍。

  • 反歧視法:

支持者認為必須立法,把性別認同涵蓋反歧視法,以保障跨性別人士。 反對者認為無領立法,認為不必要。

跨性別運動員

參賽條件

依據國際奧林匹克委員會2003年的指引,改變性別的運動員,不論是男性變女性或女性變男性,都必須在完成性別重置手術後接受兩年荷爾蒙治療,才有資格參加比賽。

2016年1月,國際奧會發佈的新版指引取消手術要求。從女性變為男性的運動員可在沒有限制的情況下參加男性比賽,從男性變為女性的運動員則需滿足4項要求,包括聲明她們的女性性別;在首次參賽前至少一年時間裏將睪丸素維持在12 nmol/L 以下;在獲得參賽資格期間內將睪丸素維持在10 nmol/L 以下;在被測試時維持同樣的水平,若無法達到要求,該運動員將在12個月內無法參加女性比賽。 [69]

性別認同

英國

英國於2004年訂立《性別認同法》,訂明更改性別的條件:申請人須(1)有或曾經有性別焦躁症;(2)在過去兩年完全以其心理性別生活;及(3)決意永久地以其心理性別生活。

阿根廷

2012年5月,阿根廷國會通過《性別認定法》,開放人民有自行選擇性別的自由,無須事先經過法律、心理和醫療程序,成為全世界跨性別人權的先驅。[70]

臺灣

在法律上,除了許多法規要求填寫身分資料時要填上身分證字號與性別之外,完全沒有提到跨性別之身分、手術等項目。變性者完成變性手術後可至戶政事務所辦理變更身分證與出生登記的變更。但未完成手術,身分證則要求不可扮裝。但因為「蔡雅婷事件」的發生,後來內政部並沒有對"扮裝"有所強制規定。

香港

沒相關法例,但有行政措施。[71] 國際特赦組織香港分會亦促請港府,採取立法及行政措施,尊重跨性別人士及雙性人的性別選擇,以及他/她們生理和心理的需要,包括無須他/她們完成整套性別重塑手術後才確認相應性別。 [72]2017年6月23日,性別承認跨部門工作小組發表關於性別承認的諮詢文件,並就性別承認議題徵求社會各界的意見。[73][74]

法律

香港

2013年5月13日,W出生時是一名男生,2008年接受變性手術成功後,獲簽發記載性別為女性的新身份證和護照。同年11月向婚姻登記處申請登記與男友結婚遭拒,其理由是婚姻登記以出生時的性別為準,而且香港也未承認同性婚姻。 W入稟法院提出司法覆核,指責婚姻登記官的決定侵犯了她憲法上的婚姻權和私隱權。高等法院原訟庭和上訴庭都維持婚姻登記官的決定,所以W其後上訴到終審法院。2013年5月13日,終審法院推翻婚姻登記官的決定,裁決W可以與她的男友結婚。但終審法院亦同時下令暫緩執行裁決一年,允許政府有更多時間修改法例。[75]政府其後向香港立法會提交法案,但被否決,不過不、影響法。

美國

2016年4月,北卡羅來納州政府立法要求所有人根據出生證明上的性別使用公廁。發言人表示,「在我們通過一項合理法令,確保沒有政府能剝奪我們對廁所、更衣室及浴室基本的隱私期望後,全國出現彼此串聯、企圖抹黑北卡州名聲的行動」。[76]

2017年2月22日,美國總統當勞·特朗普發表正式聲明,表示將會撤回奧巴馬政府發布的有關跨性別學生可根據性別認同選擇廁所的指引,這是他競選承諾的一部分。[77]

2017年7月,美國總統當勞·特朗普宣布將會禁止跨性別人士從軍。[78]

立陶宛

立陶宛禁止性別重置手術,指出性別重置手術很具爭議,基於一些心理因素社會還不能接受這事。普遍的人認為性別是受孕的那一刻通過遺傳決定的,如果容許進行性別重置手術會引發醫學和倫理上的問題。「批評同性戀行為」的言論不被視為憎恨言語。條款列明:有關性別身份認同、性行為、性犯罪或性信念的批評,或遊說改變性別身份認同、性行為、性犯罪或性信念的做法,不被定性為騷擾、詆毀、煽動仇恨或煽動歧視的行為。 針對壓制抗議活動,尤其是同志遊行。其中一項法案要求公眾活動主辦人承擔「公開詆毀憲法的道德價值觀」的行政費用和罰款,罰款最高可達1,800歐羅。另一項法案要求公眾活動主辦人負責一切與確保公眾安全和秩序有關的費用。[79]

俄罗斯

2015年,变性者和跨性别者无资格获取驾驶执照。政府表示,由于俄罗斯交通事故过多,这样做是为了加强驾驶者的医疗控制。[80]

各地民間反應

美國

2016年底媒體傳出,《國家地理雜誌》破天荒以一名9歲大跨性別兒童作為2017年1月份的封面,引起廣泛迴響。[81]

2017年1月底,美國男童軍總會宣布從即日起,不再以出生紙作為性別證明,將以申請表上列明的性別,作為判別男童軍申請資格的依據,亦即變相容許認為自己是男性的跨性別兒童加入。[82]

日本

2017年,擁有逾百年歷史的日本私立女校日本女子大學,收男跨女學生。[83]

巴西

2017年2月,由男變女的巴西跨性別女子丹達拉遭多人從公寓拖出,在眾目睽睽下,被毆打致死。這是巴西當月第五名被殺害的跨性別人士。[84]

香港

2015年,國際特赦組織香港分會禁止酷刑委員會於2015年的審議結論中亦提及現時跨性別人士事必須於完成整套性別重塑手術後,港府才會承認他/她們的跨性別身份;上述情況都會令跨性別人士受到長期的心理及生理傷害,委員會對此表示關注。委員會亦促請港府,採取立法及行政措施,尊重跨性別人士及雙性人的性別選擇,以及他/她們生理和心理的需要,包括無須他/她們完成整套性別重塑手術後才確認相應性別。 [85]

2016年10月,威院跨專科診所啟用[86]

印度

2017年5月,印度南部喀拉拉邦柯枝市(Kochi)的地鐵公司Kochi Metro僱用了23名跨性別者為員工打破傳統[87]

媒體形象

電影

跨性別或變性名人

丹麥

  • 莉莉·埃尔伯(舊名格爾達·韋格納),丹麥畫家,歐洲首位接受變性手術的跨性別人士。

美国

德國

英國

韓國

日本

台灣

中國

泰國

  • 帕莉亞,又名龍唐,泰國有名變性女泰拳冠軍、模特兒和演員。她的故事曾被拍成電影《美麗拳王》。
  • 寶兒,泰國女演員、模特兒。
  • Yoshi Rinrada,泰國變性人。
  • Woranun Nalatworasakul,泰國徵兵矚目的變性人。
  • Kittamuk Pinnarong,泰國徵兵矚目的變性人。
  • Kittikhun Sangtubtim,韓國留學的泰國變性人。
  • Nong Rose Baan Charoensuk,首個登上泰拳聖地Rajadamnern Stadium的跨性別拳手。

馬來西亞

  • 鐘潔希,歌手、武術家、慈善家、自然醫學專家,也是最成功的華人世界天后之一。

香港

組織

反对者的論點

有部份組織或個人反對跨性別,因LGBT中的跨性別有別於同性恋及双性恋,同性恋及双性恋不会改變社會及自身的性別认同。反對者並非從涉歧視的法律出發,指出跨性別權益的倡議會導致社會對自身性別認知感到不必要的混亂,並認為跨性別運動和同志運動连结。

理由

組織

相關條目

名稱以「跨性別」開頭的所有条目

註腳

  1. ^ *In April 1970, TV Guide published an article which referenced a post-operative transsexual movie character as being "transgendered."(Sunday Highlights. TV Guide. April 26, 1970 [28 May 2012]. (原始内容存档于4 June 2012). [R]aquel Welch (left), moviedom's sex queen soon to be seen as the heroine/hero of Gore Vidal's transgendered "Myra Breckinridge"... )
    • In the 1974 edition of Clinical Sexuality: A Manual for the Physician and the Professions, transgender was used as an umbrella term and the Conference Report from the 1974 "National TV.TS Conference" held in Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK used "trans-gender" and "trans.people" as umbrella terms.(Oliven, John F. Clinical sexuality: A Manual for the Physician and the Professions 3rd. University of Michigan (digitized Aug 2008): Lippincott. 1974: 110, 484–487. ISBN 978-0-397-50329-2. (原始内容存档于2015-12-05). "Transgender deviance" p 110, "Transgender research" p 484, "transgender deviates" p 485, Transvestites not welcome at "Transgender Center" p 487 ), (2006). The Transgender Phenomenon (Elkins, Richard; King, Dave. The Transgender Phenomenon. Sage. 2006: 13. ISBN 978-0-7619-7163-4. (原始内容存档于2015-09-26). )
    • However A Practical Handbook of Psychiatry (1974) references "transgender surgery" noting, "The transvestite rarely seeks transgender surgery, since the core of his perversion is an attempt to realize the fantasy of a phallic woman."(Novello, Joseph R. A Practical Handbook of Psychiatry. University of Michigan, digitized August 2008: C. C. Thomas. 1974: 176. ISBN 978-0-398-02868-8. (原始内容存档于2015-09-19). )
  2. ^ Magnus Hirschfeld coined the German term "Transsexualismus" in 1923, which Cauldwell translated into English.
  3. ^ The recurring concern that transsexual implies sexuality stems from the tendency of many informal speakers to ignore the sex and gender distinction and use gender for any male/female difference and sex for sexual activity]. (Liberman, Mark. Single-X Education. Language Log. [28 June 2012]. (原始内容存档于15 April 2012). )

參考

  1. ^ Terry Altilio, Shirley Otis-Green. Oxford Textbook of Palliative Social Work. Oxford University Press. 2011: 380 [April 12, 2016]. ISBN 0199838275. (原始内容存档于December 1, 2016). Transgender is an umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth (Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation [GLAAD], 2007). 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Craig J. Forsyth, Heith Copes. Encyclopedia of Social Deviance. Sage Publications. 2014: 740 [April 12, 2016]. ISBN 1483364690. (原始内容存档于December 1, 2016). Transgender is an umbrella term for people whose gender identities, gender expressions, and/or behaviors are different from those culturally associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth. 
  3. ^ Marla Berg-Weger. Social Work and Social Welfare: An Invitation. Routledge. 2016: 229 [April 12, 2016]. ISBN 1317592026. (原始内容存档于December 1, 2016). Transgender: An umbrella term that describes people whose gender identity or gender expression differs from expectations associated with the sex assigned to them at birth. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. "GLAAD Media Reference Guide – Transgender glossary of terms" WebCite存檔,存档日期2012-06-03, "GLAAD", USA, May 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-24. "An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differs from what is typically associated with the sex they were assigned at birth."
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Bilodeau, Brent. Beyond the Gender Binary: A Case Study of Two Transgender Students at a Midwestern Research University. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in Education. 2005, 3 (1): 29–44. doi:10.1300/J367v03n01_05.  "Yet Jordan and Nick represent a segment of transgender communities that have largely been overlooked in transgender and student development research – individuals who express a non-binary construction of gender[.]"
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 Susan Stryker, Stephen Whittle, The Transgender Studies Reader (ISBN 1-135-39884-4), page 666: "The authors note that, increasingly, in social science literature, the term "third gender" is being replaced by or conflated with the newer term "transgender."
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Joan C. Chrisler, Donald R. McCreary, Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology, volume 1 (2010, ISBN 1-4419-1465-X), page 486: "Transgender is a broad term characterized by a challenge of traditional gender roles and gender identity[. ...] For example, some cultures classify transgender individuals as a third gender, thereby treating this phenomenon as normative."
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Reisner, Sari L; Conron, Kerith; Scout, Nfn; Mimiaga, Matthew J; Haneuse, Sebastien; Austin, S. Bryn. Comparing In-Person and Online Survey Respondents in the U.S. National Transgender Discrimination Survey: Implications for Transgender Health Research. LGBT Health. 2014, 1 (2): 98–106. PMID 26789619. doi:10.1089/lgbt.2013.0018. Transgender was defined broadly to cover those who transition from one gender to another as well as those who may not choose to socially, medically, or legally fully transition, including cross-dressers, people who consider themselves to be genderqueer, androgynous, and… 
  9. ^ Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality. American Psychological Association. [August 10, 2013]. (原始内容存档于August 8, 2013). 
  10. ^ Free & Equal Campaign Fact Sheet: Intersex (PDF). United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2015 [March 28, 2016]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于March 4, 2016). 
  11. ^ Kozee, H. B.; Tylka, T. L.; Bauerband, L. A. Measuring transgender individuals' comfort with gender identity and appearance: Development and validation of the Transgender Congruence Scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2012, 36 (2): 179–196. doi:10.1177/0361684312442161. 
  12. ^ George R. Brown, MD. Chapter 165 Sexuality and Sexual Disorders. Robert S. Porter, MD; et al (编). The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy 19th. Whitehouse Station, NJ, USA: Merck & Co., Inc. 20 July 2011: 1567–1573. ISBN 978-0-911910-19-3. 
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 Victoria Maizes, Integrative Women's Health (2015, ISBN 0190214805), page 745: "Many transgender people experience gender dysphoria—distress that results from the discordance of biological sex and experienced gender (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Treatment for gender dysphoria, considered to be highly effective, includes physical, medical, and/or surgical treatments [...] some [transgender people] may not choose to transition at all."
  14. ^ Understanding Transgender People FAQ. National Center for Transgender Equality. 1 May 2009 [20 April 2016]. (原始内容存档于22 April 2016). 
  15. ^ Lombardi, Emilia L.; Anne Wilchins, Riki; Priesing, Dana; Malouf, Diana. Gender Violence: Transgender Experiences with Violence and Discrimination. Journal of Homosexuality. October 2008, 42 (1): 89–101. PMID 11991568. doi:10.1300/J082v42n01_05. 
  16. ^ Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. "Groundbreaking Report Reflects Persistent Discrimination Against Transgender Community" 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2011-08-03., GLAAD, USA, February 4, 2011. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
  17. ^ Bradford, Judith; Reisner, Sari L.; Honnold, Julie A.; Xavier, Jessica. Experiences of Transgender-Related Discrimination and Implications for Health: Results From the Virginia Transgender Health Initiative Study. American Journal of Public Health. 2013, 103 (10): 1820–1829. PMID 23153142. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300796. 
  18. ^ Whittle, Stephen. "Respect and Equality: Transsexual and Transgender Rights." Routledge-Cavendish, 2002.
  19. ^ Oliven, John F. Sexual Hygiene and Pathology. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 1965, 250 (2): 235. doi:10.1097/00000441-196508000-00054. 
  20. ^ Oliven, John F. Sexual Hygiene and Pathology. 1965: 514. Where the compulsive urge reaches beyond female vestments, and becomes an urge for gender ("sex") change, transvestism becomes "transsexualism." The term is misleading; actually, "transgenderism" is what is meant, because sexuality is not a major factor in primary transvestism. Psychologically, the transsexual often differs from the simple cross-dresser; he is conscious at all times of a strong desire to be a woman, and the urge can be truly consuming. 
  21. ^ Rawson, K. J.; Williams, Cristan. Transgender: The Rhetorical Landscape of a term. Present Tense: A Journal of Rhetoric in Society. 2014, 3 (2) [2017-05-18]. (原始内容存档于2017-05-15). 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Thomas E. Bevan, The Psychobiology of Transsexualism and Transgenderism (2014, ISBN 1-4408-3127-0), page 42: "The term transsexual was introduced by Cauldwell (1949) and popularized by Harry Benjamin (1966) [...]. The term transgender was coined by John Oliven (1965) and popularized by various transgender people who pioneered the concept and practice of transgenderism. It is sometimes said that Virginia Prince (1976) popularized the term, but history shows that many transgender people adovcated the use of this term much more than Prince."
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 Elkins, Richard; King, Dave. The Transgender Phenomenon. Sage. 2006: 13–14. ISBN 978-0-7619-7163-4. (原始内容存档于2015-09-26). 
  24. ^ Stryker, S. (2004), "... lived full-time in a social role not typically associated with their natal sex, but who did not resort to genital surgery as a means of supporting their gender presentation ..." in Transgender 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2006-03-21. from the GLBTQ: an encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and queer culture. Retrieved 2007-04-10.
  25. ^ The Radio Times (1979: 2 June)
  26. ^ Peo, TV-TS Tapestry Board of Advisors, Roger E. The ‘Origins’ and ‘Cures’ for Transgender Behavior. The TV-TS Tapestry (2). 1984 [28 May 2012]. (原始内容存档于7 April 2012). 
  27. ^ First International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy (1992). organizational pamphlet. ICTLEP/. 1992 [28 May 2012]. (原始内容存档于30 March 2012). Transgendered persons include transsexuals, transgenderists, and other crossdressers of both sexes, transitioning in either direction (male to female or female to male), of any sexual orientation, and of all races, creeds, religions, ages, and degrees of physical impediment. 
  28. ^ Stryker, Susan. "Transgender History, Homonormativity, and Disciplinarity". Radical History Review, Vol. 2008, No. 100. (Winter 2008), pp. 145–157
  29. ^ Glicksman, Eve. Transgender terminology: It's complicated. Vol 44, No. 4: American Psychological Association: 39. April 2013 [2013-09-17]. (原始内容存档于2013-09-25). Use whatever name and gender pronoun the person prefers 
  30. ^ Sponsored by the American Medical Association and The Fenway Health with unrestricted support from Fenway Health and Pfizer. Meeting the Health Care Needs of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) People: The End to LGBT Invisibility (PowerPoint Presentation). The Fenway Institute: 24. [2013-09-17]. Use the pronoun that matches the person's gender identity 
  31. ^ Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. "GLAAD's Transgender Resource Page" 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2012-10-06., "GLAAD", USA. Retrieved 2011-02-24. "Problematic: "transgendered". Preferred: transgender. The adjective transgender should never have an extraneous "-ed" tacked onto the end. An "-ed" suffix adds unnecessary length to the word and can cause tense confusion and grammatical errors. It also brings transgender into alignment with lesbian, gay, and bisexual. You would not say that Elton John is "gayed" or Ellen DeGeneres is "lesbianed," therefore you would not say Chaz Bono is "transgendered."
  32. ^ Dan Savage, Savage Love: Gayed, Blacked, Transgendered (Creative Loafing, 11 January 2014) 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期25 January 2016.
  33. ^ Guardian and Observer style guide 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2017-07-09.: use transgender [...] only as an adjective: transgender person, trans person; never "transgendered person" or "a transgender"
  34. ^ Martin, Katherine. New words notes June 2015. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. [2 August 2015]. (原始内容存档于14 August 2015). 
  35. ^ Transgender Rights (2006, ISBN 0-8166-4312-1), edited by Paisley Currah, Richard M. Juang, Shannon Minter
  36. ^ A. C. Alegria, Transgender identity and health care: Implications for psychosocial and physical evaluation, in the Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, volume 23, issue 4 (2011), pages 175–182: "Transgender, Umbrella term for persons who do not conform to gender norms in their identity and/or behavior (Meyerowitz, 2002). Transsexual, Subset of transgenderism; persons who feel discordance between natal sex and identity (Meyerowitz, 2002)."
  37. ^ For example, Virginia Prince used transgender to distinguish cross-dressers from transsexual people (glbtq > social sciences >> Prince, Virginia Charles. glbtq.com. (原始内容存档于2015-02-11). ), writing in Men Who Choose to Be Women (in Sexology, February 1969) that "I, at least, know the difference between sex and gender and have simply elected to change the latter and not the former."
  38. ^ Sex -- Medical Definition. medilexicon.com. (原始内容存档于2014-02-22). : defines sex as a biological or physiological quality, while gender is a (psychological) "category to which an individual is assigned by self or others...".
  39. ^ UNCW: Developing and Implementing a Scale to Assess Attitudes Regarding Transsexuality 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2014-02-21.
  40. ^ R Polly, J Nicole, Understanding the transsexual patient: culturally sensitive care in emergency nursing practice, in the Advanced Emergency Nursing Journal (2011): "The use of terminology by transsexual individuals to self-identify varies. As aforementioned, many transsexual individuals prefer the term transgender, or simply trans, as it is more inclusive and carries fewer stigmas. There are some transsexual individuals[,] however, who reject the term transgender; these individuals view transsexualism as a treatable congenital condition. Following medical and/or surgical transition, they live within the binary as either a man or a woman and may not disclose their transition history."
  41. ^ A Swenson, Medical Care of the Transgender Patient, in Family Medicine (2014): "While some transsexual people still prefer to use the term to describe themselves, many transgender people prefer the term transgender to transsexual."
  42. ^ GLAAD Media Reference Guide. [2013-12-27]. (原始内容存档于2012-06-03). 
  43. ^ Parker, Jerry. Christine Recalls Life as Boy from the Bronx. Newsday/Winnipeg Free Press. October 18, 1979 [28 May 2012]. (原始内容存档于25 April 2012). If you understand trans-genders," she says, (the word she prefers to transsexuals), "then you understand that gender doesn’t have to do with bed partners, it has to do with identity. 
  44. ^ News From California: 'Transgender'. Appeal-Democrat/Associate Press. May 11, 1982: A–10 [28 May 2012]. (原始内容存档于12 April 2012). she describes people who have had such operations’ "transgender" rather than transsexual. "Sexuality is who you sleep with, but gender is who you are," she explained 
  45. ^ 45.0 45.1 Fenway Health Glossary of Gender and Transgender Terms (PDF). January 2010 [2013-12-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-10-19). 
  46. ^ 46.0 46.1 Valentine, David. Imagining Transgender: An Ethnography of a Category, Duke University, 2007
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 Stryker, Susan. Introduction. In Stryker and S. Whittle (Eds.), The Transgender Studies Reader, New York: Routledge, 2006. 1–17
  48. ^ Kelley Winters, "Gender Madness in American Psychiatry, essays from the struggle for dignity, 2008, p. 198. "Some Transsexual individuals also identify with the broader transgender community; others do not."
  49. ^ Boyd, Hellen. The Umbrella. enGender. [28 June 2012]. (原始内容存档于22 July 2012). the only part of the gender binary we *necessarily* challenge is the notion that people are always assigned to the right side of the binary at birth, and don’t need sympathy or help if the assignment goes wrong. 
  50. ^ 50.0 50.1 Benjamin, H. (1966). The transsexual phenomenon. New York: Julian Press, page 23.
  51. ^ Conway, Lynn. The Strange Saga of Gregory Hemingway. 2003. (原始内容存档于2003-12-04).  Template:Inconsistent citations
  52. ^ Schoenberg, Nara. The Son Also Falls From elephant hunter to bejeweled exhibitionist, the tortured life of Gregory Hemingway. CHICAGO TRIBUNE. 2001-11-19. (原始内容存档于2001-11-20).  Template:Inconsistent citations
  53. ^ Amy McCrea, Under the Transgender Umbrella: Improving ENDA's Protections, in the Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law (2013): "This article will begin by providing a background on transgender people, highlighting the experience of a subset of non-binary individuals, bigender people, ..."
  54. ^ Wilchins, Riki Anne (2002) 'It's Your Gender, Stupid’, pp.23–32 in Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Wilchins (eds.) Genderqueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Los Angeles:Alyson Publications, 2002.
  55. ^ Nestle, J. (2002) "...pluralistic challenges to the male/female, woman/man, gay/straight, butch/femme constructions and identities..." from Genders on My Mind, pp.3–10 in Genderqueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary, edited by Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Wilchins, published by Los Angeles:Alyson Publications, 2002:9. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
  56. ^ Androgyne – Define Androgyne at Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com. (原始内容存档于2008-04-13). 
  57. ^ E. D. Hirsch, Jr., E.D., Kett, J.F., Trefil, J. (2002) "Transvestite: Someone who dresses in the clothes usually worn by the opposite sex." in Definition of the word "transvestite" from The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期August 18, 2007,.. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
  58. ^ various (2006) "trans·ves·tite... (plural trans·ves·tites), noun. Definition: somebody who dresses like opposite sex:" in Definition of the word "transvestite" 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2007-11-09. from the Encarta World English Dictionary (North American Edition) WebCite存檔,存档日期2009-10-31. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
  59. ^ Raj, R (2002) "transvestite (TV): n. Synonym: crossdresser (CD):" in Towards a Transpositive Therapeutic Model: Developing Clinical Sensitivity and Cultural Competence in the Effective Support of Transsexual and Transgendered Clients from the International Journal of Transgenderism 6,2. Retrieved 2007-08-13. 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,.
  60. ^ 60.0 60.1 Hall, B. et al. (2007) "...Many say this term (crossdresser) is preferable to transvestite, which means the same thing..." and "...transvestite (TV) – same as cross-dresser. Most feel cross-dresser is the preferred term..." in Discussion Paper: Toward a Commission Policy on Gender Identity 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2007-09-27. from the Ontario Human Rights Commission 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2007-08-13.. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
  61. ^ Green, E., Peterson, E.N. (2006) "...The preferred term is 'cross-dresser', but the term 'transvestite' is still used in a positive sense in England..." in LGBTTSQI Terminology 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2013-09-05. from Trans-Academics.org 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2007-04-24.. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
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  63. ^ Gilbert, Michael ‘Miqqi Alicia’ (2000) "The Transgendered Philosopher" in Special Issue on What is Transgender? 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2007-10-11. from The International Journal of Transgenderism, Special Issue July 2000. Retrieved 2007-10-09. 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期October 11, 2007,.
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  69. ^ 國際奧委會建議降低變性人參賽門檻
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  71. ^ 於香港安排接受性別重置手術(變性手術)概要及細節
  72. ^ 點止酷刑聲請咁簡單?《禁止酷刑公約》如何保障-3
  73. ^ 性別承認議題公眾諮詢展開
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  79. ^ 立陶宛考慮通過五條反同性戀、反跨性別的法案
  80. ^ 俄罗斯禁止跨性别和变性者驾车
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  82. ^ 美國男童軍破百年慣例 准跨性別男童加入
  83. ^ 日百年歷史女子大學 擬破例收跨性別學生
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  85. ^ 點止酷刑聲請咁簡單?《禁止酷刑公約》如何保障-3
  86. ^ 性別認同障礙患者一站式跟進 威院跨專科診所10月啟用
  87. ^ 印度地鐵公司打破傳統 聘23名跨性別員工 籲商界仿效促消除歧視
  88. ^ 「我在這裡」:首位跨性別男性進入日本政壇
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  90. ^ C奶嫩模劉薰愛被爆是男的? 網友:利菁輸了啦!. NOWnews. 2010年1月15日 [2010-01-15]. 
  91. ^ 醫生說是陰莖 其實是一條肉 — 專訪雙性人 細細老師 2015/4/24
  92. ^ 人物X概念.跨性別人士梁詠恩:改變源於站出來 2015-01-15 明報
  93. ^ 研究調查統計:變性路苦不堪言 心理困頓 易有輕生念頭
  94. ^ 變性人是男是女?
  95. ^ 著名社会批评家称变性宣传中存在太多谎言
  96. ^ 「逆向歧視」不是甚麼——回應法政匯思
  97. ^ 「逆向歧視」不是甚麼——回應法政匯思
  98. ^ 同運中的跨性別議程
  99. ^ 性別主觀化 毀共善框架
  100. ^ 性別認同法的潘朵拉盒子
  101. ^ 3歲男孩傑克變身潔姬 醫學教授稱這是心理障礙
  102. ^ 跨性別和教會:基督徒諮詢師反對變性主義
  103. ^ Gender Ideology Harms Children

外部連結

參考文章

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醫學組織

政府

LGBT組織

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