精神分裂症:修订间差异

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[[進化心理學]]的一個問題就是為什麼增加患上精神障礙的機會的基因會廣泛散佈。此問題是基於此一假設:從[[演化]]的角度而言,增加患上精神分裂症的機會的基因對擁有者而言本身已是一種適應不良的特徵。其中一個關於此問題的猜想就是那些基因參與了語言和人性的進化,但直至目前為止,這些猜想在本質上仍只是一種假設<ref name="pmid18502103">{{cite journal |author=Crow TJ |title=The 'big bang' theory of the origin of psychosis and the faculty of language |journal=Schizophrenia Research |volume=102 |issue=1–3 |pages=31–52 |date=2008-07 |pmid=18502103 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2008.03.010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Clinical Handbook of Schizophrenia|year=2008|isbn=1-59385-652-0|pages=22–23|author1=Mueser KT |author2=Jeste DV |publisher=Guilford Press|location=New York}}</ref>。
[[進化心理學]]的一個問題就是為什麼增加患上精神障礙的機會的基因會廣泛散佈。此問題是基於此一假設:從[[演化]]的角度而言,增加患上精神分裂症的機會的基因對擁有者而言本身已是一種適應不良的特徵。其中一個關於此問題的猜想就是那些基因參與了語言和人性的進化,但直至目前為止,這些猜想在本質上仍只是一種假設<ref name="pmid18502103">{{cite journal |author=Crow TJ |title=The 'big bang' theory of the origin of psychosis and the faculty of language |journal=Schizophrenia Research |volume=102 |issue=1–3 |pages=31–52 |date=2008-07 |pmid=18502103 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2008.03.010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Clinical Handbook of Schizophrenia|year=2008|isbn=1-59385-652-0|pages=22–23|author1=Mueser KT |author2=Jeste DV |publisher=Guilford Press|location=New York}}</ref>。

2018年六月,[[科學 (期刊)|《科學》]]期刊發表一篇統合分析初步發現,思覺失調症和[[躁鬱症]]、[[重性抑郁障碍|憂鬱症]]、和[[注意力不足過動症]]有許多共同的可能致病基因。<ref name="The Brainstorm Consortium Anttila Bulik-Sullivan Finucane 2018 p. 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last538=Schwab | first538=Sibylle G. | last539=Sim | first539=Kang | last540=So | first540=Hon-Cheong | last541=Stögmann | first541=Elisabeth | last542=Subramaniam | first542=Mythily | last543=Toncheva | first543=Draga | last544=Waddington | first544=John | last545=Walters | first545=James | last546=Weiser | first546=Mark | last547=Cheng | first547=Wei | last548=Cloninger | first548=Robert | last549=Curtis | first549=David | last550=Gejman | first550=Pablo V. | last551=Henskens | first551=Frans | last552=Mattingsdal | first552=Morten | last553=Oh | first553=Sang-Yun | last554=Scott | first554=Rodney | last555=Webb | first555=Bradley | last556=Breen | first556=Gerome | last557=Churchhouse | first557=Claire | last558=Bulik | first558=Cynthia M. | last559=Daly | first559=Mark | last560=Dichgans | first560=Martin | last561=Faraone | first561=Stephen V. | last562=Guerreiro | first562=Rita | last563=Holmans | first563=Peter | last564=Kendler | first564=Kenneth S. | last565=Koeleman | first565=Bobby | last566=Mathews | first566=Carol A. | last567=Price | first567=Alkes | last568=Scharf | first568=Jeremiah | last569=Sklar | first569=Pamela | last570=Williams | first570=Julie | last571=Wood | first571=Nicholas W. | last572=Cotsapas | first572=Chris | last573=Palotie | first573=Aarno | last574=Smoller | first574=Jordan W. | last575=Sullivan | first575=Patrick | last576=Rosand | first576=Jonathan | last577=Corvin | first577=Aiden | last578=Neale | first578=Benjamin M. | title=Analysis of shared heritability in common disorders of the brain | journal=Science | volume=360 | issue=6395 | date=2018-06-22 | issn=0036-8075 | pmid=29930110 | doi=10.1126/science.aap8757 | url=http://science.sciencemag.org/content/360/6395/eaap8757 | access-date=2018-07-28 | page= | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703004653/http://science.sciencemag.org/content/360/6395/eaap8757 | archive-date=2018-07-03 | dead-url=no }}</ref>


===環境因子===
===環境因子===

2018年7月28日 (六) 21:19的版本

思覺失調症
schizophrenia
File:Artistic view of how the world feels like with schizophrenia - journal.pmed.0020146.g001.jpg
思覺失調症患者的自畫像,表達個人對疾病所引起的現實扭曲經歷的看法。
读音
症状錯誤信念(false beliefs)、思維紊亂聽到其他人聽不見的聲音[2][3]
常見始發於成年早期[3]
病程持續一段長時間[3]
类型psychotic disorder[*]精神分裂症谱系障碍[*]疾病
肇因環境及遺傳因子[4]
风险因子吸毒、於胎內發展時出現問題、在城市中長大、較大年紀的父親、非乳糜瀉的麩質敏感[4][5]
診斷方法基於觀察求診者所表現出來的行為及其所主訴的個人經歷[6]
相似疾病或共病物質濫用情感障礙亨丁頓舞蹈症自閉症[7]
治療辅导、职业培训[4][2]
藥物抗精神病藥[4]
预后鑑於患者自殺以及患上心脏病等文明病的風險增加[8],所以其預期壽命下降了18-20年[9][8]
盛行率~0.5%[10]
死亡數~17,000(2015)[11]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科精神科
ICD-116A20
ICD-10F20
ICD-9-CM295.9、​295.90、​295
OMIM181500
DiseasesDB11890
MedlinePlus000928
eMedicine288259、​805988
[编辑此条目的维基数据]

思覺失調症Schizophrenia)是精神疾病的一種[2]。其特徵為患者出現異常的社會行為和不能理解什麼是真實的[2]。台灣、中國大陸和香港以往皆譯作精神分裂症,乃直譯拉丁文名稱「Schizophrenia」而來[12],台灣後來則改譯為「思觉失调症」[13]。常見的症狀包括錯誤信念(false beliefs),不易瞭解或混亂的思維,聽到其他人聽不見的聲音,妄想幻覺幻聽、社會參與和情緒表達的程度減少,以及缺乏動機[2][3]。思覺失調症患者通常伴有其他心理上的健康問題,例如焦慮症重性抑郁障碍藥物濫用障碍[14]。症狀通常逐漸地出現,且一般在成年早期開始,並持續一段長時間[3][6]

精神分裂症的成因包括環境因子及遺傳因子[4]。可能的環境因子包括在城市中長大、濫用娛樂性藥物、某些传染病、父母年齡,和自身在母體內時營養攝取不足[4][15]。遺傳因子則包括各種常見和罕見的遺傳變異[16]。精神分裂症的診斷是基於觀察求診者所表現出來的行為及其所主訴的個人經歷[6]。在診斷時,還必須把求診者的文化背景納入考慮範圍之內[6]。截至2013年為止,此病並沒有任何客观的測試予供作診斷[6]。精神分裂症並不等同「多重人格」或「多重人格障礙」——這種混淆的想法常在公眾的認知中出現[17]

治療的重心是為患者處方抗精神病藥,以及安排諮詢、工作培訓和社會康復[2][4]。目前尚不清楚典型抗精神病藥非典型抗精神病藥兩者間哪種的效果會較佳[18]。在其他抗精神病藥物都無法改善病情的情況下,就可能會使用氯氮平。必要時,可能會強制患者住院治療,如患者可能會對自身或他人構成傷害这一種情況,但現在的住院時間比以往更為短暫,且強制住院治療的總次數亦較为少[19]

世界人口中約0.3-0.7%在其一生中受精神分裂症所影響[10] 。2016年,全球估計有超過2100萬名精神分裂症患者[20]。男性比女性更常受到精神分裂症的影響[2]。大約20%的人康復得很好,一些人亦能完全康復[6]。患者常伴有一定的社會問題,例如長期失業、貧窮和無家可歸[6][21]。患有精神分裂症的人的平均預期壽命比平均值少10年至25年[9]。其背後原因是患者的身體健康問題增加和自殺率較高(約5%)[10][22]。在2015年,全球估計有17,000人死於與精神分裂症有關或由其引起的行為[11]

症狀

由德國藝術家兼精神分裂症患者奥古斯特·納特爾英语August Natterer所繪畫的「我處於幻覺時的眼睛」(My Eyes at the Moment of the Apparitions)
經診斷患有精神分裂症的人所刺繡的布匹

精神分裂症患者可能會出现的症狀包括幻覺(大多數是以幻聽的形式出現)、妄想(性質通常是較为不合理的,或感到逼害),以及思維和言語紊亂。思維和言語紊亂的程度可從較輕微的思維不清晰,以至較嚴重的胡言亂語。患者亦普遍出現社交退縮、對穿衣和衛生不感興趣,以及失去動力和判斷力的情況[23],亦常見出現自我體驗異常英语Distortions of self-experience的症狀,例如認為一些想法或感覺不是真正屬於自己的,而是他者所植入的英语Thought insertion,這種症狀有時稱為「被動體驗」[24]。常在患者身上觀察出情感障碍,例如缺乏积极的情緒反应[25]社會認知英语Social cognition障礙也與精神分裂症有關[26],例如患者所表現出來的多疑症狀。患者亦常面臨社會孤立。普遍患者還在以下範疇出現困難:工作记忆长期记忆和学习、管控功能注意力[10]。在一種罕見的亞型中,患者會經常保持緘默、在異常姿勢中保持不動,或者表現出亳無理由的兴奋狀態——都是緊張性抑鬱障礙的症狀[27]。大約30%至50%的精神分裂症患者不能接受自己患病的事實,或遵從推薦予他們的治療[28]。精神分裂症的治療可能會對患者的洞察力産生一些影響[29]。患者亦會發現自己對面部表情的感知存有一定困難[30]

精神分裂症患者可能比一般人有較高的比率患上大腸激躁症,但除非特別提及此一問題,否則他們通常不会特別指出[31]

陽性及陰性症狀

精神分裂症通常以陽性及陰性症狀來描述[32]。陽性症狀是大多數人通常不會遇到的症狀,但存在於精神分裂症患者中。包括妄想、思維和言語紊亂,以及在五感上存有幻覺——這些通常被認為是精神病的表現[33]。幻覺通常與妄想的主題內容有關[34]。藥物對治療患者的陽性症狀十分有效[34]

陰性症狀是指正常情緒反應或其他思維過程中所存有的一些缺陷,藥物對治療陰性症狀的效果較差[23]。包括缺乏情感或情緒淡然英语Reduced affect display(Reduced affect display)、貧語症英语Alogia(Alogia)、享樂不能(Anhedonia,快樂不起來)、社交能力貧乏英语Asociality(Asociality)和動機缺乏英语Avolition(Avolition)。與陽性症狀相比,陰性症狀對他人的負擔、患者的生活質量以及工作能力的影響較大[35]。擁有較為嚴重的陰性症狀的患者在發病之前通常具有適應不良的生活史,並且藥物對其治療效果通常亦是十分有限[23][36]

認知功能障礙

一般認為認知能力的缺陷是精神分裂症的核心特徵[37][38][39]。患者的認知缺陷程度是個體功能、工作表現的質量,以及维持治疗效度的預測因素[40]。認知功能障礙的存在及其程度是一項比起陽性或陰性症狀更為良好的指標去評估個體功能[37]。受認知功能缺陷所影響的範疇十分广泛,其中包括工作记忆长期记忆[41][42]口語敘述記憶[43]語意處理過程英语Semantic processing[44]情节记忆[40]注意力、學習能力(特別是語言學習)[41]。在精神分裂症患者中最明顯的是言語記憶的缺陷,並且不是由注意力不足所致。言語記憶障礙與患者的語意編碼能力(處理與意義有關的信息)下降有關,其被視為長期記憶缺陷的另一已知原因。[41]當給予受試者上面寫有一列單詞的列表時,健康的人會較常記住一些意思積極的詞語(此現像稱為波麗安娜效應);然而,精神分裂症患者傾向於不管其涵意如何,一概記住所有詞語,這表明失去愉悦感會使患者對詞語的語義編碼能力受損[41]。這些缺陷在患者的病情發展至某種程度前就能發現[37][39][45]。精神分裂症患者的一等親和其他高危群體亦表現出一定程度的認知能力缺陷,特別是在工作記憶上[45]。關於精神分裂症患者的認知缺陷的文獻綜述顯示,該缺陷可能在青春期早期,或早至兒童期时就已經存在[37] 。即使隨著時間的推移,認知缺陷在大多數患者中仍傾向保持原来的樣子,少部分患者或因基於環境变数的可識別原因而改變[37][41]

雖然「隨著時間的推移,認知缺陷仍傾向保持原来的樣子」的證據是可靠和充分的[40][41],但在這個領域的大部分研究都集中於提高注意力和工作記憶的方法[41][42]。研究人員曾利用「設立較高或較低的奖赏」以及「提供教育與否」等環境變數去嘗試改善患者的學習能力,結果顯示:較高的奖赏會使患者的表現更差,而提供教育則能改善患者的表現,這顯示可能存在一些改善認知表現的治療[41]。可通過口語表達訓練,改善患者的思維、注意力和語言行為;亦可通過認知複誦(cognitive rehearsal),給予患者自我教導(self-instructions),其能使患者在處理困擾的處境時有一套應對表现,以及令在患者在成功時自我強化(self-reinforcement):這都能顯著提高回憶任務(recall tasks)的表現[41]。 這種類型的訓練稱為「自我教導訓練」(self-instructional training),它所產生的好處包括能使患者毫無意義的言語減少,以及改善患者的回憶能力和注意力[41]

發病

青春期晚期至成年人早期是精神分裂症發病的高峰[10],這亦是青壯年人社會和職業發展的關鍵年齡[46]。經診斷患有精神分裂症的人中,分別有40%和23%的男性及女性在19歲之前就表現出該病的症狀[47]。為了讓與精神分裂症相關的發展障礙的程度減至最低,研究人員已經進行了許多用以鑑定和治療該病的前驅期英语Prodrome的研究,使精神分裂症在早至發病前30個月就能发现[46]。在前驅期期間,病情持續發展的人可能會經歷可以自我控制或短暫的精神病症狀[48],和社交退縮、易怒、煩躁不安、動作笨拙這些非特異性症狀[49][50]

病因

遺傳和環境因素的配合在精神分裂症的病情發展中扮演了一個關鍵的角色[17][10]。若急性短暫性精神病患者擁有與精神分裂症有關的家族病患史,其在一年後診斷為精神分裂症的機率約有20%-40%[51]

遺傳因子

遺傳因子對精神分裂症發病的影響估計差异很大,因為難以把遺傳因子和環境因子的影響区分[52];平均值為0.80[53]。發病的最大單一危險因子是一等親英语first-degree relative(包括父母、子女和手足)中有人患有精神分裂症(風險為6.5%);若同卵雙胞胎中其中一方是精神分裂症患者,另一方則有超過40%的機會也受到精神分裂症的影響[17]。如果雙親中其中一位患有精神分裂症,其子女患上精神分裂症的風險約為13%;如果雙親分別都患有精神分裂症,風險則將近50%[53]

許多基因被認為與精神分裂症有關,每組都對精神分裂症有少許的影響,以及人類現時尚末完全了解每組基因的傳遞和表達[16][17]。研究員已指出許多可能的目標,包括拷貝數變異英语Copy-number variationNotch4基因英语Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 4、組蛋白位點[54]。許多全基因組關聯也與精神分裂症有關,如锌指蛋白804A英语Zinc finger protein 804A[55]。與精神分裂症有關的基因和與躁鬱症有關的基因之間存有一定程度的重疊[56]。有證據顯示,精神分裂症患者的遺傳結構中包括各種常見和罕見的風險變異[57]

進化心理學的一個問題就是為什麼增加患上精神障礙的機會的基因會廣泛散佈。此問題是基於此一假設:從演化的角度而言,增加患上精神分裂症的機會的基因對擁有者而言本身已是一種適應不良的特徵。其中一個關於此問題的猜想就是那些基因參與了語言和人性的進化,但直至目前為止,這些猜想在本質上仍只是一種假設[58][59]

2018年六月,《科學》期刊發表一篇統合分析初步發現,思覺失調症和躁鬱症憂鬱症、和注意力不足過動症有許多共同的可能致病基因。[60]

環境因子

與精神分裂症的病發相關的環境因子包括生活環境、使用藥物,以及產前壓力[10]

雖然養育方式對精神分裂症的病發並沒有任何重大的影響,但擁有鼓勵型的父母的人,在與擁有批評型或敵對型的父母的人相比之下,他日後的病發機會更低[17]。在兒時心靈受創、父母死亡、成為欺凌或辱罵對象的人,其日後罹患精神病的風險会增加[61]。即使考慮到吸毒種族社會群體的規模這些因素[62],在城市環境中渡過童年生活的人或住在城市的成年人,罹患精神分裂症的風險仍會增加至原本的兩倍[17][10]。其他重要因素包括社會孤立、社會逆境相關的移民、種族歧視、家庭困難、失業,和居住條件惡劣[17][63]

已有假設指出,在一些人當中,精神分裂症的病發與腸道功能障礙英语Gastrointestinal tract有關,例如非乳糜瀉的麩質敏感英语Non-celiac gluten sensitivity腸道菌群異常[64]。精神分裂症患者亞組對麩質的免疫反應不同於乳糜瀉患者,麸质过敏症患者的某些血清生物標誌物會升高,例如抗麥醇溶蛋白IgG英语Anti-gliadin_antibodies#Anti-gliadin_IgG抗麥醇溶蛋白IgA英语Anti-gliadin_antibodies#Anti-gliadin_IgA這些抗體[5]

吸食毒品

大約一半的精神分裂症患者吸毒、濫藥或攝取過多的酒精[65]。安非他命、可卡因和較小程度的酒精可導致短暫的刺激性精神障礙英语Stimulant psychosis與酒精相關的精神障礙英语Alcoholic hallucinosis,其與精神分裂症十分類似[17][66]。精神分裂症患者使用尼古丁的速度比普通人群高出許多,雖然這通常不認定為病因[67]

酒精濫用可能會通過誘發機制,引起活性物質所致的慢性精神障礙[68]。 但使用酒精與早年發病的精神障礙並不相關[69]

大麻可能是精神分裂症的其中一個誘發因素英语Cannabis and psychosis[15][70][71]。其可能会令高危人士患上精神分裂症[71]。患病風險可能在配合某些基因的情況下才會增加[71],或可能與先前存在的精神病理有關[15]。早年接触大麻與患病風險的增加密切相關[15]。所增加的程度仍是末知[72],但患上精神障礙的風險估計是增加了2-3倍[70]。吸食較高劑量的大麻以及吸食頻率較高这兩項因素與患上慢性精神障礙的風險增加有關[70]

患者亦有可能為了消除抑鬱、焦慮、無聊和孤獨這一些負面情緒,而濫用其他藥物[65][73]

發育因素

若胎兒在母體内發育期間經受缺氧不良因素影響,則可能會增加患上精神分裂症的風險[10]。經診斷確實患上精神分裂症的人更可能在冬季或春季出生(至少在北半球情況如是),其可能是胎兒接触病毒所致[17]。患病風險因此會增加約5%-8%[74]。若懷孕期間或出生時胎兒受到諸如弓形體等病原體所感染,其日後的患病機會增加[75]

病理機制

研究人員已經進行了許多嘗試去解釋大脑功能改變和精神分裂症之間的關係[10]。當中最常見的是多巴胺假說英语Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia,該假説把精神病中所出現的心智缺陷解釋成是因多巴胺能神經元英语Dopaminergic pathways(dopaminergic neurons)異常所致[10]

心理學

精神分裂症的發病和維持過程中涉及到了很多心理機制。認知偏誤常在高危人士或那些经診斷患上精神分裂症的人中发现,尤其是在有壓力或令人困惑的情況下[76]。一些認知特徵可能反映出整體性神經認知缺陷英语Neurocognitive(global neurocognitive deficits),如記憶力減退;而其他認知特徵則可能與特定的問題和體驗有關[77][78]。患者在避免或制止假想中的威脅时,所採取的「防御或攻击性行為」,實際上可能會使妄想持續化[79]

儘管已證實患者受到情緒遲鈍的影響,但研究結果表示許多經診斷患有精神分裂症的人是具有情緒感受性的,特別是在緊張或負面刺激的情況下,而且這種感受性可能會加深症狀或疾病本身的嚴重程度[80][81]。一些證據表明妄想的內容和在精神病中患者所體驗到的個人經歷,可以反映出該病背後的情緒性原因,患者如何解釋所體驗到的經歷亦会對症狀有所影響[82][83][84]心理治療對症狀的影響被視為一種證據,能更進一步支持心理機制在精神分裂症中所生的作用[85]

神經科學

利用功能性磁振造影(fMRI)比對兩組大腦後的結果;與用以對照的健康人士的大腦相比,患有精神分裂症並以藥物治療的人的大腦橙色區域較少(即激活脑区較少)。
精神分裂症患者的用药依从性英语Compliance (medicine)側腦室的擴大程度有關[86]

精神分裂症與大脑结构上的異常有關,其能在40%-50%的病例下發現;及在處於急性精神病發作的患者中,能發現其大腦的化學物質失調[10]。使用神经心理测试英语Neuropsychological test神经成像技術(如功能性磁共振成像(fMRI)和正电子发射计算机断层扫描(PET))檢查大腦活動功能差異的研究顯示,大脑结构上的異常最常發生於額葉海马体以及颞叶這些大腦區域上[87]。患者的額葉皮層和顳葉區域的體積減少至少於在阿兹海默病患者中所發現的。目前尚不了解這些體積變化是持續進行的,还是在發病之前就已經存在。[49]這些「異常」已與精神分裂症相關的神经认知损害英语Neurocognitive聯繫起來[88]。因為神經迴路的改變,所以有一些替代性的建議認為精神分裂症應視為一種神經發展疾患[89]。已有爭論圍繞着「使用抗精神病藥治療本身會否引起腦容量減少」這一項問題上[90]

許多神经學上的病理研究都著重於中腦邊緣系統路徑英语Mesolimbic pathway的多巴胺活性。這一聚焦主要是基於一項偶然的發現:阻斷多巴胺活性的藥物——吩噻嗪,可以減少精神病所引致的症狀。此一發現亦為另一項事實所支持:刺激神經細胞釋放多巴胺安非他命,可能会加劇精神分裂症的症狀[91]。多巴胺假說亦指出,多巴胺受體D2的過度激活是精神分裂症的病因,或/和是出現陽性症狀原因。儘管所有近20年內常見的抗精神病藥都是基於D2阻斷效應,但在二十世紀九十年代中期正电子发射计算机断层扫描單光子發射電腦斷層掃描攝影術英语Single-photon emission computed tomography(SPECT)能提供相關證據支持以前,情況尚不如此。現代的研究人員傾向認为多巴胺假說过於简单,部分原因在於較新的抗精神病藥物(非典型抗精神病藥物)可以跟較舊的抗精神病藥物(典型抗精神病藥物)一樣有效,但都會影響5-羥色胺的活性,及可能具有较低的多巴胺阻斷作用[92]

研究亦聚焦於谷氨酸這一種神經遞質,以及NMDA受體功能低下在精神分裂症中所扮演的角色,主要原因有兩個:其中一個就是在患者的屍檢中,發現其大腦的谷氨酸受體英语Glutamate receptor水平異常地低[93];另一個則是發現谷氨酸阻斷藥物,如苯環利定英语Phencyclidine氯胺酮,可以引起類似精神分裂症的症狀和認知問題[94]。谷氨酸功能低下與在需用到額葉和海馬功能的測試的表現較差有關。谷氨酸亦影響多巴胺的功能,兩者皆與精神分裂症有關;這些都已顯示谷氨酸神經迴路在精神分裂症中的重要調節作用(和可能的因果關係)[95]。但谷氨酸藥物對陽性症狀沒有效果[96]

診斷

精神分裂症是根據美國精神醫學學會精神疾病診斷與統計手冊第五版(DSM-5)或世界衛生組織國際疾病和相關健康問題統計分類(ICD-10)中的標準而作診斷。這些標準是基於求診者所主訴的個人經歷和他人對求診者的異常行為描述,隨後由精神衛生專業人員進行臨床評估。與精神分裂症相關的症狀在患者中不斷發生,並且在進行診斷之前必須達到一定嚴重性。[17]截至2013年為止,此病並沒有任何客觀的測試予供作診斷[6]

標準

2013年,美國精神醫學學會發布了精神疾病診斷與統計手冊第五版英语DSM-5。必須在至少一個月的大部分時間內滿足兩項診斷標準,以及至少六個月對社會或職業功能有顯著影響,才能診斷求診者患有精神分裂症。若要診斷成患有精神分裂症,必須具有以下症狀中的其中一項:妄想、幻覺或言语散乱。其他用以作診斷的症狀包括陰性症狀、緊張性行為或行為紊亂[97]。定義基本上與2000年的精神疾病診斷與統計手冊(DSM-IV-TR)相同,但是第五版做出了許多改變。

  • 亞型分類——如偏執型或緊張型精神分裂症等,都遭到去除。這些在以前的修訂中得以保留的原因是基於慣例,但後來經事實證明,亞型在疾病的治療上是沒有價值的。[98]
  • 僵直症不再與精神分裂症密切相關[99]
  • 在對精神分裂症患者的病程進行描述時,建議更好地區分病症的當前狀態及其過去發展,令整體描述更為清楚[98]
  • 不再建議對施耐德主要症狀英语Schneider's first-rank symptoms(Schneider's first-rank symptoms)進行特殊治療[98]
  • 為了更明確地把分裂情感性障礙與精神分裂症劃分,故完善了分裂情感性障礙的定義[98]
  • 一項涵蓋精神病理學八個領域的評估——例如是否出現幻覺或躁狂症狀——用以幫助臨床決策[100]

在歐洲國家,ICD-10的診斷標準較為常用;在美國和世界各地,DSM的診斷標準則較ICD-10的常用,並廣泛應用於研究中。ICD-10的診斷標準更為重視施耐德主要症狀。在醫學實踐中,兩套系統之間的一致性很高。[101]目前正在草擬中的ICD-11,提倡在關於精神分裂症的診斷標準中添加「自體疾患」(self-disorder)這一種症狀[24]

如果困擾患者的症狀存在超過一個月,但少於六個月,則應診斷為類精神分裂症英语Schizophreniform disorder。若精神症狀持續不到一個月,則可能診斷為短暫精神病,患者所擁有的各種症狀則可歸類為未特指的精神分裂症。如果情感性症狀與分裂症狀併存,則會診斷為分裂情感性障礙。如果精神上的症狀是一般醫學病症或物質所直接導致的,則診斷為繼發性精神障礙。[97]如果求診者出現廣泛性發展障礙的症狀,則不能診斷為精神分裂症,除非求診者還明顯地出現了妄想或幻覺等症狀[97]

亚型

DSM-5已删去DSM-IV中提出的所有亚型[102]。DSM-IV-TR中所包含的五個亚型如下[103][104]

  • 偏執型:又稱妄想型,患者出現妄想和幻覺,但是沒有出現思維障礙、行為紊亂或是情感淡漠。妄想的主題是也許是把事物誇張化,亦有可能令患者感到受迫害。(DSM代碼:295.3/ICD代碼:F20.0)
  • 紊乱型英语Disorganized schizophrenia:在ICD中称作青春型,症狀既有思维障碍,亦有情感淡漠,嚴重時可出現無法閱讀文章,觀看電影電視的情況。認知能力雖然在服藥後會得到改善,但與患病前不可同日而語。認知能力損害是對患者影響最大的症狀。(DSM代碼:295.1/ICD代碼:F20.1)
  • 紧张型:患者几乎僵直不动或者过于兴奋,漫無目的地行动,以及脸部表情和躯体动作异常,症状还包括紧张型木僵或蠟狀屈曲(waxy flexibility)、模仿别人说话及动作等。(DSM代碼:295.2/ICD代碼:F20.2)
  • 未分型:存在精神症状,但是不符合上面几种分类(DSM代碼:295.9/ICD代碼:F20.3)
  • 残余型:陽性症狀僅以輕度的形式存在(DSM代碼:295.6/ICD代碼:F20.5)

ICD-10中所包含的亚型[103]

  • 精神分裂症後抑鬱症:精神分裂症發病以後所出現的抑鬱發作,當中仍存有輕度精神分裂症的症狀。(ICD代碼:F20.4)
  • 单纯型:陰性症狀隐匿地持續發展,在此以前沒有精神病發作史。(ICD代碼:F20.6)

俄羅斯版的ICD-10中亦包含了呆滞型精神分裂症英语Sluggish schizophrenia,而其屬於ICD-10第5章F21節——「分裂型」障礙這一索引欄目中[105]

鑑別診斷

幾種不同的精神障礙的患者之中亦有可能出現跟精神分裂症患者類似的心理症狀,包括边缘性人格障碍[106]躁鬱症[107]物質誘發的精神病性疾患英语Substance-induced psychosis、藥物中毒。妄想症迴避性人格障礙類精神分裂型人格違常社交恐懼症的社會退縮等,亦會令該病的患者出現「妄想」這一種症狀(非怪异妄想)。類精神分裂型人格違常的症狀與精神分裂症類似,但相對而言不太嚴重[6]。雖然精神分裂症患者伴發強迫症的常見程度遠高於可用「巧合」來解釋,但難以區分強迫症中所出現的強迫觀念和精神分裂症中所出現的妄想[108]。一些人不再服用苯二氮卓類藥物後,會出現可持續一段長時間的嚴重戒斷症狀。戒斷症狀類似於精神分裂症,故有可能因此而誤診[109]

可能需要進行更全面的醫學和神經學檢查,以排除求診者患上跟精神分裂症的臨床表現差異不大的疾病,如代謝疾病全身性感染英语Systemic disease梅毒人類免疫缺陷病毒感染、癫痫邊緣性腦炎英语Limbic encephalitis、大腦損傷。中風多发性硬化症甲状腺功能亢进症甲狀腺機能低下症失智症阿兹海默病亨丁頓舞蹈症額顳癡呆英语Frontotemporal dementia路易氏體型失智症這一些疾病的臨床表現也有可能與精神分裂症的相似。[110]可能有必要排除求診者出現譫妄,其可通過幻視、急性發作以及知覺水平波動這些特點與精神分裂症區分,亦能把它視為求診者患上其他潛在性疾病的跡象。除非精神分裂症患者有特殊的醫學徵兆或可能對抗精神病藥物存有不良反應,否則通常不會復發。對處於兒童階段的求診者而言,專業人員必須把典型的童年幻想跟幻覺分開看待。[6]

預防

精神分裂症是難以預防的,因為沒有可靠的跡象可用於鑑定病發的後期階段[111] 。已有初步證據指出早期介入對預防精神分裂症是有效果的[112]。雖然有一些證據指出,對精神性發作患者實施早期介入可能會有短期的影響,但五年後這些介入幾乎沒有對患者産生任何益處[10]。試圖在前驅期就嘗試預防精神分裂症的益處並不確定,因此截至2009年為止也不推薦施行[113]。實施认知行为疗法一年後,可能會降低高風險人士患上精神病的風險[114],故此英國國家健康與照顧卓越研究院英语National Institute for Health and Care Excellence推薦在高風險人士中實施該種療法[115]。另一項預防措施是避免接觸與發病相關的藥物,包括大麻可卡因安非他命[17]

病情管理

精神分裂症的治療重心是為患者處方抗精神病藥物,一般会在此基礎上配合心理及社會支援輔導[10]。當患者嚴重發作時,可能會自願地英语Voluntary commitment強制性地住院(如果當地的精神衛生相關法律條文允許強制住院)。長期住院在現在而言是十分罕見的,因為醫療體系從50年代開始去機構化英语Deinstitutionalisation(Deinstitutionalisation),但長期住院的情況現今仍會發生[19]。社區支援服務包括入住康復中心、社區心理健康團隊英语Community mental health service的成員訪問、就業能力復康訓練[116] 。一些證據表明,定期運動對精神分裂症患者的身體和精神健康有一定幫助[117]

藥物治療

維思通是一種常見的抗精神病藥物

精神分裂症的一線治療是為患者處方抗精神病藥物[118],其可在約7至14天內把陽性症狀的程度減輕[118]。然而,抗精神病藥物對陰性症狀和認知功能障礙的改善效果並不顯著[36][119]。若患者持續实行藥物治療,便可降低復發的風險[120][121]。極少證據顯示他們实行藥物治療超過兩三年後的效果会怎樣[121]

選用抗精神病藥物时應考慮它的成效、風險和成本[10]。典型和非典型抗精神病藥物之間那種的效果較佳這點至今仍有爭議[18][122]氨磺必利(Amisulpride)、奥氮平(Olanzapine)、維思通(Risperidone)、氯氮平的效果可能會較佳,但這些藥物也與較大的副作用相關[123]。當以低至中等的劑量使用典型抗精神病藥物時,其症狀復發率和中途放弃率會與非典型抗精神病藥物相同[124]。40-50%的個案對藥物治療的反應良好,30-40%的個案在藥物治療後症狀部分緩解,治療抵抗的則有20%(在服用2-3種不同的抗精神病藥六週後症狀仍没得到令人滿意的改善)[36]。氯氮平能有效治療對其他藥物反應差的個案(治療抵抗性精神分裂症或难治性精神分裂症)[125]。但它在不到4%的人中會導致一種嚴重的可能副作用——粒細胞缺乏症英语Agranulocytosis(低白细胞计数)[17][10][126]

大多數接受藥物治療的患者都會受到藥物的副作用所影響。服用典型抗精神病藥物的患者擁有更高的比率出現一種由藥物引發的副作用——錐體外症候群,而一些非典型抗精神病藥物與體重大幅增加,患上糖尿病及代謝症候群的風險上升相關;這在服用奧氮平的情況下最為明顯,利培酮和喹硫平則與體重增加相關[123]。利培酮與氟哌啶醇這兩種藥物引起錐體外症候群的比率類似[123]。目前尚不清楚新一代的抗精神病藥物能否降低誘發抗精神藥物惡性症候群英语Neuroleptic malignant syndrome遲發性運動障礙(罕見但嚴重的神經性障礙)的機會[127]

針對不願意或不能定期服用藥物的患者,可以使用長效抗精神病藥物控制病情[128]。與口服藥物相比,長效抗精神病藥物能以更大的程度去降低復發的風險[120]。當與心理社會一同介入時,它們可能會改善患者對治療的長期依從性[128]美國精神醫學學會建議,若患者一年以上没出現任何與精神分裂症有關的症狀,則可考慮停藥[121]

社會心理治療

許多社會心理介入手段可能有助於治療精神分裂症,包括家庭治療英语Family therapy[129]積極性社區治療英语Assertive community treatment、就業協助、認知矯正治療英语Cognitive remediation therapy[130]、技能培訓、 代幣制治療,以及針對物質使用和體重管理的社會心理介入[131]。家庭治療或教育能解決患者的家庭問題,這樣可能會減少患者復發和住院的機會[129]。极少證據顯示認知行為治療(CBT)在預防復發或減輕復發的症狀這方面是有效的[132][133]。沒有較佳質量的研究支持藝術或戲劇治療的有效性[134][135]。當與正常治療配合時,音樂療法能改善精神狀態和社會功能[136]

預後

失能調整生命年估量全球各國因精神分裂症造成的負擔(2004年,數值以每100,000居民為單位)

精神分裂症花費了龐大的人力和經濟成本[10]。它會使患者的預期壽命降低10-25年[9]。這主要是因為它與肥胖、飲食不良、坐式生活型態以及吸煙有關,自殺率的增加亦起了較小的作用[10][9][137] 。抗精神病藥物也可能增加預期壽命降低的風險[9]。患者的預期壽命在20世紀70年代至90年代間增加[138]

精神分裂症是身心障礙的主要原因之一,精神病是排在四肢癱瘓英语Tetraplegia失智症之後第三常見的身心障礙,並比截癱英语Paraplegia失明常見[139]。大約四分之三的精神分裂症患者伴有其他持續性復發的身心障礙[36]。全球有1670萬名患者被認為患有中度或重度的身心障礙[140]。有些患者能完全康復及使其他社會功能維持良好狀態[141]。大多數精神分裂症患者在社區支持下獨立生活[10]。約85%的患者失業[4]。在第一次精神病發作的人中,42%的患者有良好的長期預後結果;預後結果一般的有35%;預後結果不佳的則有27%[142]。有研究顯示發展中國家的預後結果會比發達國家更好[143],但這項結論備受質疑[144][145]

精神分裂症患者的自殺率高於平均水平。據引證為10%,但是一項較以上引證新的分析將估計值修改成4.9%,自殺最常發生在發病或首次住院後的一段時間[22][146]。20%至40%的患者至少嘗試自殺一次[6][147]。有着各種各樣的自殺高危因子,包括患者是男性、伴發抑鬱症和擁有高智商這些特點[147]

全世界的研究都顯示,精神分裂症和吸煙之間擁有着強烈的關係[148][149]。在診斷出精神分裂症的人中,抽煙的比例較一般人口高:普通人群中只有20%是經常抽煙者,精神分裂症患者中則估計達80%至90%[149]。他們更傾向於大量地抽煙,以及抽具有高尼古丁含量的香煙[150]。一些證據表明偏執型精神分裂症患者在獨立生活和職業功能上,可能比患上其他類型的精神分裂症的人更為有展望[151]。精神分裂症患者使用大麻的情況亦頗為常見[65]

流行病學

各地區每百萬人中死於精神分裂症的人數(2012年)
  0-0
  1-1
  2-2
  3-3
  4-6
  7-20

全世界約有0.3-0.7%人口[10]——相當於2016年全世界超过2100万人[20]——在其一生中受精神分裂症所影響。男性的發生率比女性高1.4倍,亦通常較早病發[17](發病的高峰年齡男性25歲,女性27歲[152])。童年發病的患者較為罕見[153],罕見的程度和中年或老年發病者相當[154]

雖然以前認為精神分裂症在世界各地的發生率差不多,但事實上其發生率在世界各地[6][155]、各國家[156]以及各地區[157]都有不同。估計相差可達五倍[4]。全球失能調整生命年中的約1%是由它所導致[17],它亦在2010年令20,000人死亡[158]。對精神分裂症的定義不同這一點,可使其發生率相差達三倍[10]

2000年,世界衛生組織發現,受精神分裂症影響的人口百分比和每年的新病例數在全世界大致相同。經過年齡標準化後,每10萬男性的盛行率:最低為非洲(343人),最高為大洋洲和日本(544人);每10萬女性的盛行率:最低亦為非洲(378人),最高為東南歐(527人)[159]。在美國,大約1.1%的成年人患有精神分裂症[160]

历史

「schizophrenia」這一用語是由尤金·布魯勒提出,中文名稱「精神分裂症」是由此直譯而來。

在20世紀初,精神病學家庫爾特·施奈德英语Kurt Schneider把一些他認為能使精神分裂症與其他精神障礙區分的症狀列出。這些症狀後來稱為「首级症状」(first-rank symptoms)或「施耐德主要症狀」(Schneider's first-rank symptoms)。當中包括外源所控制的妄想、思想抽離、思想插入、思想廣播、聽見評論自己的思想或行為的幻聽,或能與幻聽溝通[161]。雖然施耐德主要症狀對當前的診斷標準有很大的貢獻,但其特異性仍受到質疑。一份對1970年至2005年間進行的診斷研究回顧發現,施耐德的聲稱應不需再確認或受到反對,並且建議在未來所修訂的診斷系統中應強調施耐德主要症狀[162]。缺少施耐德主要症狀的患者亦應懷疑其是否真的患上精神分裂症[24]

精神分裂症的歷史具有一定复杂性,且不容易利用線性敘事的方式展述[163]。雖然類精神分裂症在19世紀以前的歷史記錄中是較為罕見的,但不合理、不可理解或不受控制的行為記錄則較為常見。1797年關於詹姆斯·蒂利·馬修斯英语James Tilly Matthews的病例詳細報告,以及菲利普·皮內爾於1809年所發表的報告,一般認為是在醫學和精神病學文獻中最早的精神分裂症個案。[164]1886年,德國精神病學家海因里希·舒勒(Heinrich Schule)首次使用拉丁文用語「dementia praecox」(早發失智症)这一術語去稱呼現在的精神分裂症。其後阿諾德·皮克英语Arnold Pick於1891年在他的精神障礙病例報告中使用了它。1893年,埃米爾·克雷佩林借用了皮克和舒勒所使用的術語,並於1899年在精神疾病分類中区分了早發失智症和情緒障礙(躁狂抑鬱症,包括單相性和雙相性抑鬱症)。[165]他認為早發失智症可能是由長期系統性的疾病或全人疾病所引起的,其影響身體的許多器官和周圍神經,但其最終會於青春期後在一連串決定性的事件中影響大腦[166] 。他亦利用了「praecox」(早发的)这一術語去把其與其他形式的癡呆症如阿爾茨海默病作區分,阿爾茨海默病通常在年老的人身上發生[167]。有時大眾会認為1852年法國醫生班尼迪克·莫莱尔(Bénédict Morel)使用「démenceprécoce」這一術語可視同醫學上對精神分裂症的發現,然而,這項想法忽略了一個事實:在十九世紀末,沒有什麼可以把莫莱尔所使用的描述性術語跟早發失智症的獨立病發這一概念聯繫起來[168]

氯丙嗪的分子結構圖,其在20世紀50年代使精神分裂症的治療徹底改變。

「Schizophrenia」一词可以直譯作「分裂的心智」,它的希腊词根是schizein(撕裂)和phren(心智)[169],它在台灣以往的名稱[13],以及中國大陸和香港現在的名稱「精神分裂症」是直譯此而來[12]。尤金·布魯勒于1908第一次提出了这个概念,用来描述人格思想记忆知觉之间的功能分离。美國人和英國人把布魯勒的宣稱理解成他在形容精神分裂症的「4A」症狀:情緒淡然(flattened Affect)、自閉(Autism)、聯想障礙(impaired Association)、情感矛盾(Ambivalence)。[170][171]布魯勒意識到這一種疾病並不是癡呆症,因為他的一些患者的病情是在改善,而不是惡化,因此提議以「Schizophrenia」稱呼這一疾病。在50年代中期,因氯丙嗪的研發和引入,而使精神分裂症的治療徹底改變。[172]

在20世紀70年代初,精神分裂症的診斷標準出現了不少爭議,最終修訂成現今所使用的標準。1971年美英诊断学大会发现美国的思覺失調症患者要比欧洲多很多[173],部分是因為美国使用的DSM-II诊断标准比起欧洲的ICD-9更为宽松。大衛·羅森漢英语David Rosenhan於1972年進行並於《科學》期刊發表的著名研究——《精神病房里的正常人》(On being sane in insane places),指出美国的思覺失調症诊断标准往往过于主觀且不可靠[174]。這項研究不僅使精神分裂症的診斷标准得以修正,還令整本DSM手冊得以修訂,使得美國精神醫學學會於1980年时出版DSM-III[175]

「精神分裂症」這一用語通常誤解成受其影響的人擁有「多重的人格」。雖然一些診斷出精神分裂症的人可能會聽見不存在的聲音,並把其視為獨特的人格,但精神分裂症並不牽涉到在多個人格中轉換。這一種混淆的想法部分可歸因於布魯勒的用語「精神分裂症」的字面解釋(布魯勒最初將精神分裂症與解離症狀聯繫 起來,並且在他的精神分裂症分類中包含人格分裂)[176][177]。在DSM-II中,解離性人格疾患也常常誤診成精神分裂症,因為其標準診斷較為寬鬆[177][178]。第一位已知誤用該詞的人是一名叫托馬斯·斯特恩斯·艾略特的詩人,在他於1933年所寫的文章中誤用「人格分裂」一詞[179]。其他學者則追溯到更早的誤用根源[180]

社会和文化

约翰·福布斯·纳什是一名美國數學家兼1994年諾貝爾經濟學獎共同獲得者之一,他亦是一名精神分裂症患者。他的一生改編成一部獲得奧斯卡獎的電影——《美丽心灵》(另譯成《美麗境界》)

2002年,日本把這一種疾病的名稱由「精神分裂病 seishin-bunretsu-byō」改名为「統合失調症 tōgō-shitchō-shō」,以減少疾病名稱所帶來的社會污名[181],此一名字的靈感是來自生物-心理-社會模型的,且在實行三年內把接受診斷的人數從37%增加到70%[182]。2012年在韓國亦發生了類似的變化[183]。2014年,中華民國政府之衛生福利部宣佈將「精神分裂症」正式更名為「思覺失調症」[13],此一名稱是考慮到此疾病的核心表現性質——「思考」及「知覺」[184]。精神病學教授吉姆·范·奧斯英语Jim van Os則建議把英語的「Schizophrenia」(精神分裂症)改名為「psychosis spectrum syndrome」(精神病類群障礙症)[185]

在2002年的美國,精神分裂症的耗用成本估計為627億美元,當中計算了直接成本(門診、住院、藥物和長期護理)和非醫療保健成本(執法、生產率下降和失業)[186]。《美丽心灵》(「A Beautiful Mind」,另譯成《美麗境界》)是一部描写约翰·福布斯·纳什(John Forbes Nash Jr.)的生平电影以及書籍:他是一名诺贝尔經濟學奖得主兼精神分裂症患者[187]。有「中国的梵高」之稱的沙耆亦同樣是精神分裂症患者,但他在發病之後仍在藜斋不停画画,其後他的画作受畫壇賞識,在1980年代一幅画作的價格更高達數万人民幣[188]

暴力

患有嚴重精神疾病的人受到暴力或非暴力對待的風險會顯著增加,包括患有精神分裂症[189]。精神分裂症亦與較常使用暴力有關,但這主要是因為患者的吸毒率較高[190]。與精神病相關的兇殺率類似於與物質濫用相關的,且在一個地區內比例會差不多[191]。若把精神分裂症跟物質濫用分開看待後,其在使用暴力上扮演了什麽角色仍是具一定爭議性,但個人經歷或精神狀態的某些層面可能是使用暴力的其中一些因素[192]。約11%服刑中的兇殺者患有精神分裂症,21%的人則患有情緒障礙[193]。另一項研究發現,在研究進行的前一年內,約8-10%的精神分裂症患者對他人行使了暴力,而普通人口的比例則為2%[193]

與患者行使暴力相關的報導加強了公眾認知中精神分裂症與暴力的聯繫[190]。一項在1999年進行的大型調查顯示,12.8%的美國人認為精神分裂症患者「很有可能」對他人行使暴力,48.1%的人則表示他們「有一點可能」會這樣做。超過74%的人說患者「不太能」或「不能全部地」作出與治療有關的決定,70.2%的人說金錢管理上的決定亦如是。[194]根據一項薈萃分析顯示,自1950年代以來,行使暴力的精神病患者已經上升了不止兩倍[195]

研究方向

初步研究證實,米諾環素對患者病情的改善有一些效果[196]。亦有關於硝化療法及努力改善患者的生活環境的研究,用以改善他們能力上的缺陷;然而目前為止還沒有足夠的證據去對其有效性作出結論[197] 。研究人員已證實陰性症狀是會對治療産生挑戰,因為它們通常不能透過藥物治療改善。他們亦因此對各種藥劑進行了研究,以確定它們可能帶來的效果[198],並基於在病理學上,炎症可能對精神分裂症起了一定作用,所以已有針對擁有抗炎活性的藥物的研究[199]

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