伊斯兰恐惧症

伊斯兰恐惧症（英语：Islamophobia）是指对伊斯兰教与穆斯林的偏见、反对、仇恨以及非理性的恐惧等负面心态。^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]

定义

在1997年，英国拉尼米德信托将“伊斯兰恐惧症”定义为：“对伊斯兰教的恐惧或仇恨，因此对所有的穆斯林恐惧和厌恶”，说明它也指借由将他们从全国的经济、社会和公共生活中排除来歧视穆斯林。这一概念也包括认为伊斯兰教与其他文化没有共同的价值观，不如西方，是一种暴力政治意识形态，而不是宗教等。^[12]

伊斯兰恐惧症在瑞典斯德哥尔摩“打击不容忍国际论坛”被认定为宗教不容忍和仇外心理的形式。^[13]在此次发布会上，出席会议的联合国秘书长科菲·安南、联合国人权事务高级专员玛丽·罗宾逊、欧安组织秘书长扬·库比什（英语：Ján Kubiš）和欧洲理事会代表，通过了一项打击种族灭绝、种族清洗、种族主义、反犹太主义、伊斯兰恐惧症和仇外心理，并打击一切形式的种族歧视和相关的不容忍的宣言。^[14]一些社会学者认为伊斯兰恐惧症是一种种族主义，但是依然有争议。^[15]

21世纪初，伊斯兰恐惧症和仇视伊斯兰教事件的增加被归因于911事件及之后连串涉及穆斯林发动的恐怖袭击，也有人归因于穆斯林人口此后在西方国家上升。在2002年5月，欧盟的欧洲种族主义和仇外心理监测中心（EUMC）公布了一份报告《911后的欧盟中的伊斯兰恐惧症总结报告》，描述911事件后欧盟成员国伊斯兰恐惧症相关事件上升。

异议

Ali Sina（英语：Ali Sina (activist)）认为对伊斯兰教的恐惧不是一种恐惧症，是真实的恐惧和有理由的。他在《Islamophobia? An Open Letter to Muslims》中提及，《古兰经》第8章12节说过：“当时，你的主启示众天神：‘我是与你们同在的，故你们当使信道者坚定。我要把恐怖投在不信道的人的心中。’故你们当斩他们的首级，断他们的指头。”他指出，在伊斯兰教传播到伊朗、埃及、西班牙和印度的过程中，数以百万计的人为了抵抗穆斯林入侵自己国家而丧命。^[16]

维克托·戴维斯·汉森（英语：Victor Davis Hanson）认为没有一个类似“伊斯兰恐惧症”的现象真正存在，即使存在也不会比憎恨希特勒的“德国恐惧症”或憎恶斯大林主义的“俄罗斯恐惧症”严重。^[17]

2016年7月，法国尼斯遭遇恐怖袭击后，汉森批评美国的奥巴马政府上台以来，为了避免触怒及歧视穆斯林，刻意不提激进伊斯兰教与恐怖袭击的关连（即伊斯兰恐怖主义，因提及此词会被批评指伊斯兰教与恐怖主义有关），此种风气导致美国的情报和执法部门关注避免“伊斯兰恐惧症”指控多于制止致命恐怖袭击，在恐袭发生前放走恐怖分子或是对他们事前在社交媒体上公然发出的威吓置之不理。^[18]

参见

参考文献

^ The Multicultural State We're In: Muslims,'Multiculture'and the 'Civic Re‐balancing'of British Multiculturalism （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Political Studies: 2009 Vol 57, 473–497
^ Remaking multiculturalism after 7/7, Tariq Modood, 29 September 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "The most important such form of cultural racism today is anti-Muslim racism, sometimes called Islamophobia."
^ A sociological comparison of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in Britain, Nasar Meer, Tehseen Noorani The Sociological Review, Volume 56, Issue 2, pages 195–219, May 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "Across Europe activists and certain academics are struggling to get across an understanding in their governments and their countries at large that anti-Muslim racism/Islamophobia is now one of the most pernicious forms of contemporary racism and that steps should be taken to combat it."
^ “GET OFF YOUR KNEES”, Journalism Studies, Volume 7, Issue 1, 2006, pages 35-59. [2013-08-14]. （原始内容存档于2019-05-15）.
^ Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia - new enemies, old patterns. [2013-08-14]. （原始内容存档于2016-09-01）.
^ Fighting anti-Muslim racism: an interview with A. Sivanandan （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "Thus, Islamophobia is characterized as neologism for racism"
^
- Fredman, Sandra. Discrimination and human rights: the case of racism. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. 2001: 121. ISBN 0-19-924603-3.
- Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck. Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. 2002: 19. ISBN 0-19-514806-1.
- Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, Runnymede Trust, 1997, p. 1, cited in Quraishi, Muzammil. Muslims and crime: a comparative study. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. 2005: 60. ISBN 0-7546-4233-X. . Early in 1997, the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, at that time part of the Runnymede Trust, issued a consultative document on Islamophobia under the chairmanship of Professor Gordon Conway, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sussex. The final report, Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, was launched in November 1997 by Home Secretary Jack Straw
^ Holden, Cathie; Hicks, David V. Teaching the global dimension: key principles and effective practice. New York: Routledge. 2007: 140. ISBN 0-415-40448-7.
^ Islamofobi - en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimers utsatthet （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, published by Forum för levande historia
^ The rise of anti-Muslim racism in Australia: who benefits?
^ Poynting & Mason: "Tolerance, Freedom, Justice and Peace?: Britain, Australia and Anti-Muslim Racism since 11 September 2001", Journal of Intercultural Studies, Vol. 27, No. 4 (2006), pp.365-391
^ Runnymede 1997, p. 5, cited in Quraishi 2005, p. 60.
^ Roald, Anne Sophie. New Muslims in the European Context: The Experience of Scandinavian Converts. Brill. 2004: 53. ISBN 9004136797.
^ Conference Two: Combating Intolerance. Chancellery of the Government of Sweden. [19 November 2011]. （原始内容存档于2010年9月23日）.
^
Reviewed in: Ayhan Kaya. Fryklund, Björn; Righard, Erica , 编. Islamophobia as a form of governmentality: Unbearable weightiness of the politics of fear. Malmö: Malmö University, Malmö Institute for Studies of Migration, Diversity and Welfare (MIM). 2011 [August 15, 2012]. （原始内容存档于2017-02-02）. See also:
- Sabine Schiffer, Constantin Wagner. Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia - new enemies, old patterns. Race & Class: 77–84. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1177/0306396810389927. （原始内容存档于2019-05-17）.
- Fred Halliday. 'Islamophobia' reconsidered. Ethnic and Racial Studies: 892–902. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/014198799329305. （原始内容存档于2019-05-15）.
- Mehdi Semati. ISLAMOPHOBIA, CULTURE AND RACE IN THE AGE OF EMPIRE. Cultural Studies: 256–275. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/09502380903541696. （原始内容存档于2019-05-14）.
- Esther Webman. DISCOURSES ON ANTISEMITISM AND ISLAMOPHOBIA IN ARAB MEDIA. European Societies: 222–239. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/14616696.2012.676455. （原始内容存档于2019-05-16）.
^ Beyond Jihad: Critical Voices from Inside Islam p.189 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, ISBN 9781933146195.
^ Robert Spencer. The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (And the Crusades). Regnery Publishing. 2005: 200 [2014-10-25]. ISBN 9781596980334. （原始内容存档于2014-10-25）.
^ Victor Davis Hanson. The nightmarish results of Muslim outreach. Washington Times. 2016-07-20. ... Intelligence and law enforcement agencies got the message and worried more about charges of “Islamophobia” than preempting deadly terrorist attacks. ...

延伸阅读

Robert Spencer. The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (And the Crusades). Chapter 16: "Islamophobia" and Today's Ideological Jihad. Regnery Publishing, 2005. ISBN 9781596980334.

[1] The Multicultural State We're In: Muslims,'Multiculture'and the 'Civic Re‐balancing'of British Multiculturalism （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Political Studies: 2009 Vol 57, 473–497

[2] Remaking multiculturalism after 7/7, Tariq Modood, 29 September 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "The most important such form of cultural racism today is anti-Muslim racism, sometimes called Islamophobia."

[3] A sociological comparison of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in Britain, Nasar Meer, Tehseen Noorani The Sociological Review, Volume 56, Issue 2, pages 195–219, May 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "Across Europe activists and certain academics are struggling to get across an understanding in their governments and their countries at large that anti-Muslim racism/Islamophobia is now one of the most pernicious forms of contemporary racism and that steps should be taken to combat it."

[4] “GET OFF YOUR KNEES”, Journalism Studies, Volume 7, Issue 1, 2006, pages 35-59. [2013-08-14]. （原始内容存档于2019-05-15）.

[5] Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia - new enemies, old patterns. [2013-08-14]. （原始内容存档于2016-09-01）.

[6] Fighting anti-Muslim racism: an interview with A. Sivanandan （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "Thus, Islamophobia is characterized as neologism for racism"

[7] 
Fredman, Sandra. Discrimination and human rights: the case of racism. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. 2001: 121. ISBN 0-19-924603-3.

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck. Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. 2002: 19. ISBN 0-19-514806-1.

Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, Runnymede Trust, 1997, p. 1, cited in Quraishi, Muzammil. Muslims and crime: a comparative study. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. 2005: 60. ISBN 0-7546-4233-X. . Early in 1997, the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, at that time part of the Runnymede Trust, issued a consultative document on Islamophobia under the chairmanship of Professor Gordon Conway, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sussex. The final report, Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, was launched in November 1997 by Home Secretary Jack Straw

[8] Fredman, Sandra. Discrimination and human rights: the case of racism. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. 2001: 121. ISBN 0-19-924603-3.

[9] Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck. Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. 2002: 19. ISBN 0-19-514806-1.

[10] Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, Runnymede Trust, 1997, p. 1, cited in Quraishi, Muzammil. Muslims and crime: a comparative study. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. 2005: 60. ISBN 0-7546-4233-X. . Early in 1997, the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, at that time part of the Runnymede Trust, issued a consultative document on Islamophobia under the chairmanship of Professor Gordon Conway, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sussex. The final report, Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, was launched in November 1997 by Home Secretary Jack Straw

[HoldenHicks-8] Holden, Cathie; Hicks, David V. Teaching the global dimension: key principles and effective practice. New York: Routledge. 2007: 140. ISBN 0-415-40448-7.

[levandehistoria-9] Islamofobi - en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimers utsatthet （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, published by Forum för levande historia

[10] The rise of anti-Muslim racism in Australia: who benefits?

[11] Poynting & Mason: "Tolerance, Freedom, Justice and Peace?: Britain, Australia and Anti-Muslim Racism since 11 September 2001", Journal of Intercultural Studies, Vol. 27, No. 4 (2006), pp.365-391

[Runnymede5-12] Runnymede 1997, p. 5, cited in Quraishi 2005, p. 60.

[13] Roald, Anne Sophie. New Muslims in the European Context: The Experience of Scandinavian Converts. Brill. 2004: 53. ISBN 9004136797.

[humanrights.gov.se-14] Conference Two: Combating Intolerance. Chancellery of the Government of Sweden. [19 November 2011]. （原始内容存档于2010年9月23日）.

[racism-15] Reviewed in: Ayhan Kaya. Fryklund, Björn; Righard, Erica , 编. Islamophobia as a form of governmentality: Unbearable weightiness of the politics of fear. Malmö: Malmö University, Malmö Institute for Studies of Migration, Diversity and Welfare (MIM). 2011 [August 15, 2012]. （原始内容存档于2017-02-02）. See also:
Sabine Schiffer, Constantin Wagner. Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia - new enemies, old patterns. Race & Class: 77–84. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1177/0306396810389927. （原始内容存档于2019-05-17）.

Fred Halliday. 'Islamophobia' reconsidered. Ethnic and Racial Studies: 892–902. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/014198799329305. （原始内容存档于2019-05-15）.

Mehdi Semati. ISLAMOPHOBIA, CULTURE AND RACE IN THE AGE OF EMPIRE. Cultural Studies: 256–275. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/09502380903541696. （原始内容存档于2019-05-14）.

Esther Webman. DISCOURSES ON ANTISEMITISM AND ISLAMOPHOBIA IN ARAB MEDIA. European Societies: 222–239. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/14616696.2012.676455. （原始内容存档于2019-05-16）.

[19] Sabine Schiffer, Constantin Wagner. Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia - new enemies, old patterns. Race & Class: 77–84. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1177/0306396810389927. （原始内容存档于2019-05-17）.

[20] Fred Halliday. 'Islamophobia' reconsidered. Ethnic and Racial Studies: 892–902. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/014198799329305. （原始内容存档于2019-05-15）.

[21] Mehdi Semati. ISLAMOPHOBIA, CULTURE AND RACE IN THE AGE OF EMPIRE. Cultural Studies: 256–275. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/09502380903541696. （原始内容存档于2019-05-14）.

[22] Esther Webman. DISCOURSES ON ANTISEMITISM AND ISLAMOPHOBIA IN ARAB MEDIA. European Societies: 222–239. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1080/14616696.2012.676455. （原始内容存档于2019-05-16）.

[16] Beyond Jihad: Critical Voices from Inside Islam p.189 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, ISBN 9781933146195.

[17] Robert Spencer. The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (And the Crusades). Regnery Publishing. 2005: 200 [2014-10-25]. ISBN 9781596980334. （原始内容存档于2014-10-25）.

[18] Victor Davis Hanson. The nightmarish results of Muslim outreach. Washington Times. 2016-07-20. ... Intelligence and law enforcement agencies got the message and worried more about charges of “Islamophobia” than preempting deadly terrorist attacks. ...

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