脑
脑是由稱為神經元的神經細胞所组成的神经系统控制中心。它控制和协调行动、体内穩態(身体功能,例如心跳、血压、体温等)以及精神活动(例如认知、情感、记忆和学习)。
在很多动物中,脑是位于头部。在脊椎动物中,脑由颅骨保护。脑与脊髓构成中枢神经系统。中枢神经系统的细胞依靠复杂的联系来处理传递信息。脑是感情、思考、生命得以维持的中枢。
目录 |
[编辑] 管状神经系统以外的神经系统
按生物学系统树分析,比腔腸動物更为高等的生物原口動物、後口動物都拥有集中神经系统,也就是存在神经集中的部位(通常位于頭部)。扁形動物的筐状神经系统以及节肢动物的梯状神经系统,它们頭部的神经节都还不能称为脑。其机能的分化水平低,不是能够支配全身的中枢。
[编辑] 管狀神經系統
擁有管狀神經系統的脊索動物(脊椎動物,頭索動物,尾索動物的總稱),從神經管分化出的中樞神經與神經索完全分離,但還是不能稱之為腦。所以可以認為擁有腦的動物只有脊椎動物。
[编辑] 大腦比例
比較系統樹就可以發現、相對腦全體大腦所佔比例越是高等的生物呈現越大的傾向。尤其是人的腦中的大腦不但體積大,而且大腦皮層存在的大小溝壑(腦溝)使其還具有非常大的面積。
[编辑] 高等生物與有迴腦
腦溝與腦溝之間的部位稱作腦迴,擁有腦溝與腦迴的大腦(稱有迴腦),僅僅在哺乳類中靈長目等極少數一部分生物才有。此常用以來說明之所以越是高等的生物呈現出的活動越複雜是在於大腦皮層是思考的中樞。
[编辑] 人脑
[编辑] 脑的解剖学结构
脑可以在形态学上分成下列结构:
成人脑通常重达1~1.5千克,体积平均为1,600立方厘米。个人的智商与脑的重量间没有必然的联系,而与细胞间连接的数目和有效性有关。
[编辑] 解剖
脑占头盖内腔的大部分。约占成年人体重的2%即1.2~1.6公斤。脑的重量男性比女性稍大,并与体重无关。脑含有約140億個神经细胞约占脑细胞十分之一,剩余的九成称为胶质细胞。胶质细胞有为神经细胞提供营养,形成髓鞘增进传导速度,等多种功能。人们常传的“人脑有效使用的部分仅仅占十分之一左右”的说法,即有可能是来自对胶质细胞機能没有完全理解的时代的误解,认为在脑中仅有神经细胞在起作用。
脑可大体分为大脑、小脑和脑干。大脑又分为端脑与间脑,脑干又分为中脑、脑桥和延髓。这种区分法基于肉眼所见形态。实际上按照胚发生来讲小脑是由脑干分化而来,另外还有人建议,将关系生命維持的間脑划归脑干。
脑由三層结缔组织膜,即软膜、蛛网膜、硬膜覆盖。軟膜与脑实体表面紧密附着,并与蛛网膜隔开较大的腔隙,称为蛛网膜下隙(subarachnoid space)。蛛网膜下隙被脑脊液(cerebrospinal fluid, CSF)填充。硬膜与蛛网膜之间存在少许间隙,称为硬膜下隙(subdural space),内含少量液体。
[编辑] 大脑
大脑严密意义上指端脑与间脑,但是在神经解剖学以外的领域,通常多用大脑一词指代端脑。故在此若无特别注明,也将大脑指代端脑。
端脑有左右两个大脑半球(端脑半球)。将两个半球隔开的是称为大脑纵隔的沟壑,两个半球除了脑梁与透明中隔相连以外完全左右分开。半球表面布满脑沟,沟与沟之间所夹细长的部分称为脑回。脑沟并非是在脑的成长过程中随意形成,什么形态出现在何处都完全有规律(其深度和弯曲度因人稍有差异)。每一条脑沟在解剖学上都有专有名称(nomina anatomica)。脑沟与脑回的形态基本左右半球对称,是对脑进行分叶和定位的重要标志。比较重要的脑沟有外侧沟 (lateral sulcus)起于半球下面,行向后上方,至上外侧面;中央沟 (central sulcus)起于半球上绿中点稍后方,斜向前下方,下端与外侧沟隔一脑回,上端延伸至半球内侧面;顶枕沟(parietooccipital sulcus)位于半球内侧面后部,自下向上。在外侧沟上方和中央沟以前的部分为额叶;外侧沟以下的部分为颞叶;枕叶位于半球后部,其前界在内侧面为顶枕沟,在上外侧面的界限是自顶枕沟至枕前切迹(在枕叶后端前方约4cm处)的连线;顶叶为外侧沟上方、中央沟后方、枕叶以前的部分;岛叶呈三角形岛状,位于外侧沟深面,被额、顶、颞叶所掩盖,与其他部分不同布满细小的浅沟(非脑沟)。
左右大脑半球有各自的称为侧脑室的腔隙。侧脑室与间脑的第三脑室,以及小脑和延脑及脑桥之间的第四脑室之间有孔道连通。脑室中的脉络丛产生脑的液体称为脑脊液。脑脊液在各脑室与蛛网膜下腔之间循环,如果脑室的通道阻塞,脑室中的脑脊液积多,将形成脑积水。广义的大脑的脑神经有,端脑出发的嗅神经,间脑出发的视神经。
大脑的断面分为白质与灰白质。端脑的灰白质是指表层的数厘米厚的称为大脑皮质的一层,大脑皮质是神经细胞聚集的部分,具有六层的构造,含有复杂的回路是思考等活动的中枢。相对大脑皮质白质又称为大脑髓质。
间脑由丘脑与下丘脑构成。丘脑与大脑皮质,脑干,小脑,脊髓等联络,负责感觉的中继,控制运动等。下丘脑与保持身体恒常性,控制自律神经系统,感情等相关。
[编辑] 海马结构
海马结构包括海马和齿状回。在大脑半球的底面中脑两侧,可见海马回。海马回的内侧为海马沟。而沟的上方即为锯齿状的齿状回。从中脑往颞外侧看,可见侧脑室下角底壁有一弓形结构,则为海马。
海马目前被认为是学习记忆和遗忘的重要结构。本达·米勒有一位病人,被称为H.M.。其海马结构受损,导致病人出现前向健忘。即是病人能回忆受伤前的往事,却记不住新学到的知识,而且这种遗忘的本身,也被病人所不知。
[编辑] 小脑
小脑位于脑干的背侧。通过上小脑脚・中小脑脚・下小脑脚等粗纤维束与脑干相连。这三个部位紧密结合要将各自的纤维完全分开十分困难。小脑可分为的正中小脑蟲部、左右的小脑半球、尾側的小脑扁桃。小脑半球的表面同大脑半球存在脑沟和脑回一样拥有小脑沟和小脑回,不过这较脑沟・脑回纤细,变异也很多。小脑半球的截面和大脑半球同样,皮質是灰白質,髄質是白質。因为皮質较厚、髄質看似树枝、所以小脑半球截面被称作Aobor vitae(生命之树、小脑活樹)。
[编辑] 脑干
脑干(brain stem)上接大脑、背靠小脑、尾側与脊髓相连、前側依次分为中脑、脑桥、延髓。小脑和脑干所夹空間称为第四脑室。
- 中脑分布着上丘(参与視覚處理)、下丘(参与听觉处理)、血清胺、多巴胺、正腎上腺素等神经核。中脑存在参与眼球运动以及视觉相关的各种神经核、發出视神经、动眼神经、滑车神经等脑神经。另外背側有贯通第三脑室和第四脑室的中脑水道。
[编辑] 循环
脑質量仅占体重2%左右,但血液循環量占心拍出量的20%,氧气消費量占全身的20%,葡萄糖的消耗量占全身的25%。这是由于脑中发生的复杂而活跃的电信号的往来而引起的。这些需求由内颈动脉和椎骨动脉的血流提供。
[编辑] 脑的形成
脑来源于胚胎的外胚层(ectoderm)。
[编辑] 性别差
男性脑比女性更大更重。出生時由性別引发的有意差几乎没有,男女皆为370~400克。成人男性约为1350~1500克、女性1200~1250克、约为体重的2%。另外,脑的大小不能成为智能指标,与智能高低没有關係。有学者称男性身体大故而脑也较大。
女性存在如月经这样的身体周期性变动。也有人指出与此同时存在精神的周期性変動。支配这样的周期的是从下垂体分泌出的卵胞刺激荷尔蒙和黄体形成荷尔蒙。
男性的脑不存在这样的周期性。这被认为是胎生期从睾丸分泌的睾酮影响所造成的。
[编辑] 脑的研究
现在由神经学、信息工程学、控制论、医学影像学和精神病学来研究脑部的功能,我们已经得知脑部是一个产生意识、思想和情感的器官。
对在事故中受损的大脑的研究可以为不同区域的不同功能进行定义,例如视觉和听觉的产生和加工处理。而脑部成像技术的出现使得科学家可以在不损害脑部的情况下对脑部进行研究。
[编辑] 中医学
中医上脑属奇恒之府之一;由精髓汇集而成,又称髓海;脊椎中的髓与脑相通,“故上至脑,下至尾骶,皆精髓升降之道路”(明李梴《医学入门》);《灵枢·海论》已记载髓海的充盈与不足,对肢体运动、听力、视力和精神活动等都能发生影响;公元12世纪金医家张洁古指出人的视觉、听觉、嗅觉、感觉等都是脑的功能活动;此后明李时珍说:“脑为元神之府”(《本草纲目》辛夷条);进一步阐明脑具有精神意识、思维活动等功能。
[编辑] 相關條目
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- van Hemmen, JL; Sejnowski TJ. 23 Problems in Systems Neuroscience. Oxford University Press. 2005. ISBN 9780195148220.
- van Praag, H; Kempermann, G; Gage, FH. Neural consequences of environmental enrichment. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2000, 1 (3): 191–8. PMID 11257907.
- von Neumann, J; Churchland PM, Churchland PS. The computer and the brain. Yale Univ. Press. 2000. ISBN 0-300-08473-0.
- Wiesel, T. Postnatal development of the visual cortex and the influence of environment (PDF). Nature. 1982, 299 (5884): 583–91. doi:10.1038/299583a0. PMID 6811951.
- White, JG; Southgate, E.; Thomson, J. N.; Brenner, S.. The Structure of the Nervous System of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Phil Trans Roy Soc London (Biol). 1986, 314: 1–340. doi:10.1098/rstb.1986.0056.
- Willmer P. Invertebrate Relationships: Patterns in Animal Evolution. Cambridge University Press. 1990. ISBN 9780521337120.
- Wong, R. Retinal waves and visual system development.. Ann Rev Neurosci. 1999, 22: 29–47. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.29. PMID 10202531.
- Wyllie, E; Gupta A, Lachhwani DK. The Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2005. ISBN 9780781749954.
- Flybrain: An online atlas and database of the drosophila nervous system.
- WormBook: The online review of c. elegans biology.
[编辑] 延伸閱讀
- Bear, Mark F.; Barry W. Connors, Michael A. Paradiso. Neuroscience. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2006. ISBN 9780781760034. OCLC 62509134.
- Blackmore, Susan M.. Conversations on Consciousness. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 9780195179583. OCLC 62555307.
- Buzsaki, Gyorgy. Rhythms of the Brain. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 9780195301069. OCLC 63279497.
- Calvin, William H.. The River That Flows Uphill: A Journey from the Big Bang to the Big Brain. Lincoln, Nebraska: Iuniverse.com. 2001. ISBN 9780595167005. OCLC 48962546.
- Della Sala, Sergio. Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain. Chichester England; New York: J. Wiley & Sons. 1999. ISBN 0471983039. OCLC 39700332.
- Restak, Richard. The Secret Life of the Brain. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. 2001. ISBN 9780309074353. OCLC 47863192.
- Shepherd, Gordon M.. The Synaptic Organization of the Brain. Fifth. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 2004. ISBN 9780195159561. OCLC 51769076.
Written for children 8 and older:
- Simon, Seymour. The Brain. New York: Morrow Junior. 2000. ISBN 9780688170608. OCLC 35686089.
[编辑] 外部連結
- The Society for Neuroscience
- IBRO (International Brain Research Organization)
- The HOPES Brain Tutorial at hopes.stanford.edu
- Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection
- Brain Research News from ScienceDaily
- BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy
- Neuroscience for kids
- BrainMaps.org, interactive high-resolution digital brain atlas based on scanned images of serial sections of both primate and non-primate brains
- The Brain from Top to Bottom
- The Department of Neuroscience at Wikiversity
- The Secret Life of the Brain : History of the Brain from PBS
- University of Washington 3D animations of brain regions - click through from "Click for copyright"
- 7 circuits of the Brain
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