注意力不足過動症的治療:修订间差异

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=== 中樞神經刺激劑 ===
=== 中樞神經刺激劑 ===
{{see also|苯丙胺#醫療}}
{{see also|苯丙胺#醫療}}
{{trans H}}
[[兴奋剂|Stimulant]] medications are the pharmaceutical treatment of choice.<ref name=CNS09>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wigal SB | title = Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults | journal = CNS Drugs | volume = 23 Suppl 1 | pages = 21–31 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19621975 | doi = 10.2165/00023210-200923000-00004 }}</ref><ref name="Cochrane Amphetamines ADHD">{{cite journal | vauthors = Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Casas M | title = Amphetamines for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = | issue = 6 | pages = CD007813 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21678370 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub2 | editor = Castells X }}</ref>{{Update inline|reason=Updated version https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30091808|date = November 2018}} They have at least some effect on symptoms, in the short term, in about&nbsp;80% of people<ref name=May2008 /><ref name="Long-term 36" /><ref name="Cochrane Amphetamines ADHD" /> [[哌甲酯|Methylphenidate]] appears to improve symptoms as reported by teachers and parents.<ref name="Long-term 36" /><ref name=May2008 /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Storebø OJ, Ramstad E, Krogh HB, Nilausen TD, Skoog M, Holmskov M, Rosendal S, Groth C, Magnusson FL, Moreira-Maia CR, Gillies D, Buch Rasmussen K, Gauci D, Zwi M, Kirubakaran R, Forsbøl B, Simonsen E, Gluud C | display-authors = 6 | title = Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 11 | issue = 11 | pages = CD009885 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26599576 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009885.pub2 }}</ref> Stimulants may also reduce the risk of unintentional injuries in children with ADHD.<ref name=Ruiz2017>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruiz-Goikoetxea M, Cortese S, Aznarez-Sanado M, Magallón S, Alvarez Zallo N, Luis EO, de Castro-Manglano P, Soutullo C, Arrondo G | title = Risk of unintentional injuries in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact of ADHD medications: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 63–71 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 29162520 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.11.007 }}</ref>


[[核磁共振成像|Magnetic resonance imaging]] studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD.<ref name="Neuroplasticity 1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K | title = Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects | journal = JAMA Psychiatry | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–98 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23247506 | doi = 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277 }}</ref><ref name="Neuroplasticity 2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, Faraone SV, Biederman J | title = Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies | journal = The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume = 74 | issue = 9 | pages = 902–17 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24107764 | pmc = 3801446 | doi = 10.4088/JCP.12r08287 }}</ref><ref name="Neuroplasticity 3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Frodl T, Skokauskas N | title = Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects | journal = Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume = 125 | issue = 2 | pages = 114–26 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22118249 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x | quote = Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure. }}</ref> A 2018 review found the greatest short term benefit with methylphenidate in children and amphetamines in adults.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cortese |first1=Samuele |last2=Adamo |first2=Nicoletta |last3=Del Giovane |first3=Cinzia |last4=Mohr-Jensen |first4=Christina |last5=Hayes |first5=Adrian J |last6=Carucci |first6=Sara |last7=Atkinson |first7=Lauren Z |last8=Tessari |first8=Luca |last9=Banaschewski |first9=Tobias |last10=Coghill |first10=David |last11=Hollis |first11=Chris |last12=Simonoff |first12=Emily |last13=Zuddas |first13=Alessandro |last14=Barbui |first14=Corrado |last15=Purgato |first15=Marianna |last16=Steinhausen |first16=Hans-Christoph |last17=Shokraneh |first17=Farhad |last18=Xia |first18=Jun |last19=Cipriani |first19=Andrea |title=Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis |journal=The Lancet Psychiatry |date=September 2018 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=727–738 |doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30269-4}}</ref>
Stimulant therapy should be stopped periodically to assess continuing need for medication, decrease possible growth delay, and reduce tolerance.<ref name="pmid21530185">{{cite journal | vauthors = van de Loo-Neus GH, Rommelse N, Buitelaar JK | title = To stop or not to stop? How long should medication treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder be extended? | journal = European Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 21 | issue = 8 | pages = 584–99 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21530185 | doi = 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.03.008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ibrahim K, Donyai P | title = Drug Holidays From ADHD Medication: International Experience Over the Past Four Decades | journal = Journal of Attention Disorders | volume = 19 | issue = 7 | pages = 551–68 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 25253684 | doi = 10.1177/1087054714548035 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266151922 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160630122316/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kinda_Ibrahim2/publication/266151922_Drug_Holidays_From_ADHD_Medication_International_Experience_Over_the_Past_Four_Decades/links/56a5ec7408ae1b651134629a.pdf | df = dmy-all | deadurl = no | archive-date = 30 June 2016 }}</ref>
Long-term misuse of stimulant medications at doses above the therapeutic range for ADHD treatment is associated with [[成瘾|addiction]] and [[物質依賴|dependence]].<ref name="NHM therapeutic stim addiction liability" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK47127/|title=Black box warnings of ADHD drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration|year=2009|author=Oregon Health & Science University|location=Portland, Oregon|publisher=United States National Library of Medicine|access-date=17 January 2014|deadurl=no|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908135126/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK47127/|archive-date=8 September 2017}}</ref> Untreated ADHD, however, is also associated with elevated risk of substance use disorders and conduct disorders.<ref name="NHM therapeutic stim addiction liability" /> The use of stimulants appears to either reduce this risk or have no effect on it.<ref name="Kooij-2010"/><ref name="ADHD 2015 review" /><ref name="NHM therapeutic stim addiction liability">{{cite book | vauthors = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE | veditors = Sydor A, Brown RY | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2009 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-148127-4 | pages = 323, 368 | edition = 2nd |quote = supervised use of stimulants at therapeutic doses may decrease risk of experimentation with drugs to self-medicate symptoms. Second, untreated ADHD may lead to school failure, peer rejection, and subsequent association with deviant peer groups that encourage drug misuse.&nbsp;... amphetamines and methylphenidate are used in low doses to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in higher doses to treat narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Despite their clinical uses, these drugs are strongly reinforcing, and their long-term use at high doses is linked with potential addiction}}</ref>
{{trans F}}


[[兴奋剂|中樞神經刺激劑]]藥物是治療ADHD的藥物選擇之一。<ref name="CNS09"/><ref name="Castells Blanco-Silvente Cunill p=CD007813">{{cite journal | last=Castells | first=X | last2=Blanco-Silvente | first2=L | last3=Cunill | first3=R | title=Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. | journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews | volume=8 | date=2018-08-09 | issn=1469-493X | pmid=30091808 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub3 | page=CD007813}}</ref> 中樞神經刺激劑至少能在14個月能改善部分ADHD的症狀。<ref name=May2008 /><ref name="Long-term 36" /><ref name="Cochrane Amphetamines ADHD" />

一些家長和老師回報[[哌甲酯]]似乎能改善ADHD的症狀。<ref name="Long-term 36" /><ref name=May2008 /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Storebø OJ, Ramstad E, Krogh HB, Nilausen TD, Skoog M, Holmskov M, Rosendal S, Groth C, Magnusson FL, Moreira-Maia CR, Gillies D, Buch Rasmussen K, Gauci D, Zwi M, Kirubakaran R, Forsbøl B, Simonsen E, Gluud C | display-authors = 6 | title = Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 11 | issue = 11 | pages = CD009885 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26599576 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009885.pub2 }}</ref> 中樞神經刺激劑似乎也能降低ADHD遭遇意外事故傷害的風險。<ref name=Ruiz2017>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruiz-Goikoetxea M, Cortese S, Aznarez-Sanado M, Magallón S, Alvarez Zallo N, Luis EO, de Castro-Manglano P, Soutullo C, Arrondo G | title = Risk of unintentional injuries in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact of ADHD medications: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 63–71 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 29162520 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.11.007 }}</ref>[[核磁共振成像|核磁共振成像]]學研究表明長期以安非他命或哌甲酯能降低ADHD患者腦部中的結構和功能的異常。<ref name="Neuroplasticity 1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K | title = Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects | journal = JAMA Psychiatry | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–98 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23247506 | doi = 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277 }}</ref><ref name="Neuroplasticity 2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, Faraone SV, Biederman J | title = Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies | journal = The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume = 74 | issue = 9 | pages = 902–17 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24107764 | pmc = 3801446 | doi = 10.4088/JCP.12r08287 }}</ref><ref name="Neuroplasticity 3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Frodl T, Skokauskas N | title = Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects | journal = Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume = 125 | issue = 2 | pages = 114–26 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22118249 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x | quote = Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure. }}</ref> 一篇2018年的系統性回顧發現以哌甲酯治療兒童、以安非他命治療成人能帶給他們最大的短期療效。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cortese |first1=Samuele |last2=Adamo |first2=Nicoletta |last3=Del Giovane |first3=Cinzia |last4=Mohr-Jensen |first4=Christina |last5=Hayes |first5=Adrian J |last6=Carucci |first6=Sara |last7=Atkinson |first7=Lauren Z |last8=Tessari |first8=Luca |last9=Banaschewski |first9=Tobias |last10=Coghill |first10=David |last11=Hollis |first11=Chris |last12=Simonoff |first12=Emily |last13=Zuddas |first13=Alessandro |last14=Barbui |first14=Corrado |last15=Purgato |first15=Marianna |last16=Steinhausen |first16=Hans-Christoph |last17=Shokraneh |first17=Farhad |last18=Xia |first18=Jun |last19=Cipriani |first19=Andrea |title=Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis |journal=The Lancet Psychiatry |date=September 2018 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=727–738 |doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30269-4}}</ref> 中樞神經刺激劑必須定期暫停使用或降低藥劑量以評估ADHD患者是否還需要繼續用藥、即便ADHD患者仍需要繼續用藥,定期暫停使用或降低藥劑量的作法能降低患者可能身高發展延遲和腦部神經開始習慣藥劑量(耐受性)的風險。<ref name="pmid21530185">{{cite journal | vauthors = van de Loo-Neus GH, Rommelse N, Buitelaar JK | title = To stop or not to stop? How long should medication treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder be extended? | journal = European Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 21 | issue = 8 | pages = 584–99 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21530185 | doi = 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.03.008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ibrahim K, Donyai P | title = Drug Holidays From ADHD Medication: International Experience Over the Past Four Decades | journal = Journal of Attention Disorders | volume = 19 | issue = 7 | pages = 551–68 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 25253684 | doi = 10.1177/1087054714548035 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266151922 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160630122316/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kinda_Ibrahim2/publication/266151922_Drug_Holidays_From_ADHD_Medication_International_Experience_Over_the_Past_Four_Decades/links/56a5ec7408ae1b651134629a.pdf | df = dmy-all | deadurl = no | archive-date = 30 June 2016 }}</ref> 長期以「遠高於治療用劑量」的中樞神經刺激劑治療ADHD,可能會導致[[成癮]]和[[物質依賴]]。<ref name="NHM therapeutic stim addiction liability" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK47127/|title=Black box warnings of ADHD drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration|year=2009|author=Oregon Health & Science University|location=Portland, Oregon|publisher=United States National Library of Medicine|access-date=17 January 2014|deadurl=no|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908135126/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK47127/|archive-date=8 September 2017}}</ref> 然而,若ADHD未被妥善治療,患者在往後出現[[物質濫用]]和行為問題(conduct disorders)的風險。<ref name="NHM therapeutic stim addiction liability" /> 使用中樞神經刺激劑治療ADHD,至少能不同程度的降低這些風險。<ref name="Kooij-2010"/><ref name="ADHD 2015 review" /><ref name="NHM therapeutic stim addiction liability">{{cite book | vauthors = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE | veditors = Sydor A, Brown RY | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2009 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-148127-4 | pages = 323, 368 | edition = 2nd |quote = supervised use of stimulants at therapeutic doses may decrease risk of experimentation with drugs to self-medicate symptoms. Second, untreated ADHD may lead to school failure, peer rejection, and subsequent association with deviant peer groups that encourage drug misuse.&nbsp;... amphetamines and methylphenidate are used in low doses to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in higher doses to treat narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Despite their clinical uses, these drugs are strongly reinforcing, and their long-term use at high doses is linked with potential addiction}}</ref>


治療注意力不足過動症的第一线药物为[[中樞神經刺激劑]](又名為中樞神經興奮劑,簡稱為兴奋剂),其中包括:
治療注意力不足過動症的第一线药物为[[中樞神經刺激劑]](又名為中樞神經興奮劑,簡稱為兴奋剂),其中包括:

2019年1月3日 (四) 05:07的版本

注意力不足過動症的治療是指在注意力不足過動症(ADHD)治療上,以醫學實證為基礎,已確認有一定程度治療效果的治療方式。注意力不足過動症的治療包括心理治療行為治療及藥物,也有可能是用心理治療配合藥物進行治療。治療對病症會有長期的改善,但是無法完全根除病症的影響[1]美國兒科學會針對病患的年齡不同,有建議不同的治療方式。若是四歲至五歲的兒童,學會會建議有實證基礎,且由家長或/和老師監督的行為治療,只有在有中度到重度,持續性的功能紊亂時,才加上哌甲酯的藥物治療。若是六歲至十一歲的兒童,會建議使用藥物以及行為治療;而「中樞神經刺激劑」的藥效會比「非中樞神經刺激劑」的藥效要明顯一些,雖然「中樞神經刺激劑」和「非中樞神經刺激劑」都能讓孩子核心症狀減少的程度在統計學上達到明顯意義[2]。若是十二歲至十八歲的患者,強烈建議使用藥物治療,但用藥仍需取得患者的同意;藥物治療之餘也建議能搭配行為治療[2][3]。有其他研究指出若能合併藥物治療及行為治療、認知行為治療等心理治療,將可帶來更樂觀的預後[3]。適度且規律的運動,特別是有氧運動有助於改善許多中樞神經系統疾患的症狀,已經證實為注意力不足過動症的有效附加療法英语add-on treatment[a][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

注意力不足過動症患者甚至其家屬可能對自身或患者的問題存有否認心理,包括:高估自己的能力及低估自己的困難、並因此做出不合理的決定(為反對而反對地否認診斷,即便確實有需要仍拒絕接受學習及醫療上的協助、排斥旁人包括醫師、老師、父母與家人的幫忙等)。鼓勵患者甚至其家屬勇於面對注意力不足過動症將使注意力不足過動症的長期預後變得更為樂觀。[11][12][13][14]對於那些難以著眼於長遠報酬(報償、酬賞)的注意力不足過動症患者(傾向著眼於眼前立即回饋、追逐新奇感英语novelty seeking的注意力不足過動症患者),大量且持續的正向激勵可以增進患者的任務表現,注意力不足過動症的用藥亦有相同的功效。[15][16][17][18] 許多文獻及指引都表示,ADHD的治療(包含藥物治療)並非是要將患者們標準化(一致化)或是控制患者,而是一本教育的初衷,協助每一位患者發掘、發揚自己的優點、並避免缺點。[19][5][6]

臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會發文指出,對於ADHD患者而言,應注意所接受的療法是否受到政府的密切監督以確保符合嚴謹的研究設計及是否奠基於嚴謹實證醫學科學證據、充分研究證據支持療效且符合台灣現行的法律規範;對於政府衛生醫療相關單位而言:應給予足夠資源,強化對弱勢家庭的支持,包括提升親職功能以及家族治療等,以便提供患者更完整有效的醫療模式[20][21]


1999年美國衛生署(NIH)所做的研究:MTA(多重治療模式研究)為期14個月的臨床研究結果[22][23]
治療模式 整體進步(單位:%百分比)
ADHD藥物+ADHD行為治療 (MTA模式)
68
ADHD藥物治療 (MTA模式)
56
ADHD行為治療 (MTA模式)
34
ADHD藥物治療
25
  • 【ADHD藥物治療 (MTA模式)】、【ADHD行為治療 (MTA模式)】與【ADHD藥物治療】,這三組治療模式對患者在許多領域應對能力的缺陷,例如:社交技巧、親子關係、情緒管理、課業表現等的改善程度幾乎一致。【ADHD藥物治療 (MTA模式)】+【ADHD行為治療 (MTA模式)】的改善效果則高於其他實驗組或其他實驗組的排列組合[24]
  • 【ADHD藥物治療 (MTA模式)】+【ADHD行為治療 (MTA模式)】所需的藥物劑量少於【ADHD藥物治療】或【ADHD藥物治療 (MTA模式)】。[24]
  • 藥物顯著壓抑用藥者的身高和體重的發展。[24]
  • 88%的ADHD完成了這項為期十四個月的臨床實驗、有4%的ADHD受制於藥物的副作用而離開[24]
  • 統計呈現出的平均進步分數無法反映每位受試者的真實情況。事實上,即便是【ADHD藥物治療 (MTA模式)】、【ADHD行為治療 (MTA模式)】中的受試者,每個受試者之間的進步幅度都不同。另外,有一些受試者無論是在四個組別的任意一組,其ADHD的症狀都獲得顯著改善。[24]
  • 上述四種治療型式都不是最佳的治療方案,依據患者的情況下判斷才是最好的選擇。[24]
  • 實驗僅表明了各治療模式持續14個月的效果。[24] 受試者在14個月後的自由意志不再受制於實驗的規定。因此這些人雖然在往後數十年仍定期接受MTA評估(非治療),但考量到他們之中有一些人即便在其他地方持續以藥物治療,但其藥物治療的方式不一定符合MTA的實驗規範,是故已經無法從定期長期追蹤評估的結果精準判斷上述四種模式的長期治療效果[24]。不過該定期長期追蹤評估的結果可用來判斷注意力不足過動症本身的病程和帶給患者的人生境遇。[24]
  • 【ADHD行為治療 (MTA模式)】包含27堂團體父母管理訓練課程、8堂個別父母管理訓練課程、為期八周的暑期ADHD治療課程、為期十二周的課堂ADHD行為治療課程與半互動的學習模式和十位ADHD專門教師的諮商課程。[25]
  • 【ADHD藥物治療】:普通的精神科門診型式[26][24]


多管齊下

ADHD的多元介入治療包含藥物治療、親職諮商訓練、學校資源教育及社交技巧訓練等各種模式,這些治療模式的效果都有嚴謹而完整的科學研究加以證實[20]。藥物包括中樞神經刺激劑、阿托莫西汀α2腎上腺素受體英语alpha-2 adrenergic receptor刺激劑,有時也會使用抗憂鬱藥物[27][28]。治療用的中樞神經刺激劑可以提昇ADHD兒童的持續力以及任務表現[16][29]

國立臺灣大學醫學院醫師高淑芬強調及早發現並接受治療,絕對是最佳策略。[30][4] 本身也是注意力不足過動症患者的愛德華·哈洛威爾醫師則建議治療的策略應把握發揚優點、避免缺點的原則。[5] 藥物治療合併行為治療認知行為治療[31])已證實為當前最有效的注意力不足過動症治療方式。[32][11][33][34][35][35][36][37]

台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會指出:「治療ADHD核心症狀時,藥物是絕對不能忽略的治療選項。[33]」台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會另指出,對於18歲後才獲得第一次ADHD診斷的患者,台灣健保僅給付短效中樞神經刺激劑(利他能),但患者若認為有使用其他長效中樞神經刺激劑或者長效型非中樞神經刺激劑藥物的需求,應勇於跟醫生討論,不要因而忌諱就醫,延誤治療時機。[38][4]:105

研究顯示,ADHD的藥物治療能顯著降低患者發生交通事故的機率。[39] 研究也顯示,ADHD的治療可能大幅降低ADHD患者被霸凌或霸凌他人的機率[40][41][42][43](包含遭受網路霸凌或在網路上霸凌別人[44][45])。[46][47]

非藥物治療

行為治療

父母管理訓練前(before)後(after)的效果对比[48][49]

行為治療被認為是對注意力不足過動症孩子進行行為介入具有實證性效果的方法。透過系統化的行為分析,了解孩子犯錯的模式,並且配合後果增強與削弱的方法,以及教導他正確的行為模式,例如:懂得等待、輪流等觀念,減少他衝動、過動而引起的人際衝突、人際互動的情緒調節英语interpersonal emotion regulation情緒管理英语Emotional_self-regulation

專攻注意力不足過動症的認知行為治療,對於治療年紀接近或已經是成人的注意力不足過動症患者來說是有效的。(例如:憤怒管理時間管理、改善包括記憶力、計畫及執行能力、自我啟發能力、自我體察英语Self-monitoring在內的執行功能等。)[6][50][51]

許多ADHD支持團體的存在得以作為許多家庭的正確治療資訊來源而且能協助家庭一起管理ADHD。[52]

對於那些學齡前且僅有些微注意力不足過動症症狀的孩童,已建議「行為治療」為治療該族群的第一線療法。[53] [54] [55]

在行为治疗期间,專長於「注意力不足過動症」的心理治療師會定期與家庭成員會晤以觀察進度並提供持續的支持。在會晤中,家長現場實習從治療師那學來的技巧,即便療程結束,家庭成員仍能持續感受到行為的改善以及壓力的減輕。[56]家長能在父母教育訓練中學到三種核心能力:正向溝通、正向激勵/強化英语Reinforcement#Positive_reinforcement、結構與一致的紀律/規範/規則[56]

行為方面的治療 簡介
心理教育 醫學實證為根據的療法,用以協助患者以及他的愛人了解疾病的資訊並提供支持,以便讓他們能更有效地面對一個疾病。[57][58]
行為治療 行为治疗家主张心理障碍中表现的异常行为如同正常行为一样是可以习得的,可以通过基本的条件作用原理英语Behaviorism#Operant conditioning学习原理而使心理障碍得到矫正的。[59][60]

此外,對於兒童來說,行為治療將協助孩子與其家長學習一些技巧:

  • 維持每天固定的行程與時間表。
  • 減少環境中可能的分心源。
  • 在特定的地方或符合邏輯的地方做相對應的事情,例如:在書房或自習室讀書、在遊戲間放置玩耍的玩具等。
  • 把大目標切成許多微小但較容易達成的小目標,分階段實行。
  • 獎勵正向的行為。(例如:使用累計點數的方法英语Token_economy,累積到一定的點數就能獲得獎勵。)
  • 分析看看有哪些可能平常不被注意到,但是卻暗中導致自己做出不適當行為的因素。
  • 利用統計圖表打勾勾列表清單英语checklist來幫助孩子把心神維持在一件事情上。
  • 不要給予太多選項供孩子選擇 (limiting choices)。
  • 與孩子一起發掘孩子的天賦所在。
  • 善用冷靜紀律(calm discipline),例如:時間暫停英语Time-out_(parenting)、將孩子抽離事發現場、轉移孩子的注意力(distraction)。

[51]

認知行為治療 改變認知的方式,讓孩子們學會以不同的、新的正向想法,來取代原先錯誤的、舊有的負面想法。[19]

對於成人來說,認知行為治療將協助他們改善ADHD的核心症狀—執行功能不足:[註 1]

[50]

人際取向心理治療 人際取向的心理治療的中心思想是「既然人際關係和生活中的大小事能影響心情;那麼反過來,心情也能影響人際關係和生活中的大小事」。[64]
家庭治療英语Family therapy(也稱:家族治療) 當前的證據表明家族治療的療效類似社區照護且優於完全不治療ADHD。[65]
學校資源介入英语school-based interventions
-
社交技巧訓練 學習與「非正涉入違法行為的年輕人和同儕」交朋友對於ADHD孩子來說十分重要,因為這能顯著降低往後人生可能出現的問題,例如:憂鬱症犯罪、在學過程遇到的各種挫折和物質濫用的機率[66][67]
運用同儕的行為干預英语behavioral peer intervention
-
組織規劃能力與技巧的培養英语organization training
-
生活管理能力與技巧的培養英语Daily living skills training
-
父母管理訓練 父母管理訓練可能直接改善孩子的行為問題,例如:對立反抗的舉止或違抗指令的言行。 [68]環境的支持有利於注意力不足過動症的治療[69][70][71][72][73]
團體心理治療 一群特定人們與治療師透過團體活動達成治療目標的一種心理治療。[74]
生理(神經、腦波)回饋英语Neurofeedback 當前腦波回饋是否具有療效仍然未知。[75]
行為改正英语Behavior modification 證據表明具有一定益處。[66]
語言治療 台灣的中央健保署自2014年起同意台灣的兒童青少年精神科醫師可以如同復健科醫師及「英语Otology、鼻、喉科醫師」一般開立「語言治療」的處方。[76]
應用行為分析 先釐清行為與環境之間的交互作用關係後再協助行為改變。[77][78]
正念療法

正念療法尚需更多研究來證明其有效性。[50]

婚姻諮商 [79]
職業諮商英语Career_counseling [79]
ADHD教練 [79]

目前對於精神疾患的治療方式是基於生物-心理-社會模式,良好的精神治療模式必須結合生物醫學、心理治療,以及社會復健計畫。

例如:思覺失調症患者在疾病急性發作住院期間,給予藥物協助緩解正性症狀。病房中也會由專業人員,例如:精神科醫師、精神科護理師、臨床心理師、諮商心理師、職能治療師、精神科社工師等,帶領團體治療,或者給予個別治療。而在急性症狀緩解後,患者、家屬和醫療團隊一同討論復健計畫,例如到復健病房、日間留院或者工作坊,透過復健計畫,有效增加病識感(患者對於自身英语self-concept以及自身疾病的認識英语self-consciousness程度[80][81])、學習獨立生活能力英语independent living、改善家庭社會關係英语social relation

藥物能幫助注意力不足過動症患者從生理上穩定情緒、增進專注力和組織規劃能力,降低不適當言行的出現。[4]

青少年及成年

《找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊》一書中指出,對於年紀稍長的注意力不足過動症患者來說,要習得正向的情緒表達方法和社交技巧並養成良好規律且有秩序的生活習慣則有賴患者身體力行,善用認知行為治療的原理。「認知行為治療」分為「認知治療」和「行為治療」兩部分。[4]

認知治療包含:心理建設、正面回饋、衛教、和思考練習來建立正確的觀念和健康的態度、激發改變的動機、鼓舞自信和提升勇氣,遠離負面思考。 行為治療是運用「刺激-反應」的原理,把一個大目標切成許多小目標,並加上正面的酬賞作為鼓勵,幫助患者一步一步的接近小目標,一次又一次的完成小目標,整個大目標即隨之而成。 成功完成某階段的目標後,便可適度提高挑戰性,例如:從「持續做一件事達15分鐘」變成「持續做一件事達30分鐘」以此類推,逐步建立起良好的習慣。最後就可以順利達成連續做一件事情達一個小時的願景[4]。除此之外增加「環境結構」[註 2]、學習分辨事情的緩急輕重[5]、學習「改善ADHD症狀的實用技巧與策略」[註 3]也是行為治療的主軸,然後再輔以其他行為治療的方式。(其他的行為治療方式並非不重要)

兒童

《家有過動兒:幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長》一書中指出,對於年紀輕輕的小孩來說,由於自我能力有限,因此行為治療以「課堂上的行為治療」及「家中的行為治療」為主,其他的行為治療方式為輔。(其他的行為治療方式並非不重要) [19][82] 書中並建議「讓孩子承擔適度的責任」,孩子表現出來的態度往往令人驚喜。[19]:133-134

學校

《家有過動兒:幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長》一書中指出,學校老師可以多提供「正向動機」,包含:課前提醒和課堂中的鼓勵。而在孩子的座位安排上盡可能減少能讓他/她分心的誘因。允許孩子把作業分批次寫完並在課堂上保留小組討論的時間、與孩子共同討論規範與自由。[19]

課堂外的策略:

  1. 協助孩子找出在特定情境下出現的問題。[19]
  2. 找出孩子正確的行為。譬如說:需要排隊時,他可以乖乖地待在隊伍中;或者先讓孩子在一旁做別的事,等到快輪到孩子時,再來排隊。[19]
  3. 在教師訓練中選擇有教授ADHD相關知識和行為訓練的技巧的課程。[19]
  4. 靈活應用「獎勵制度」及「正增強」來鼓勵、鼓舞孩子的正向行為。[19]
  5. 與孩子一起找出問題是什麼、該怎麼解決、有哪些好方法、這些好方法中哪個方法「可能」是最好的、實際做做看、實驗結果分析探討。[19]
家庭

《家有過動兒:幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長》一書中指出,ADHD的孩子無論在校內或校外常屬於弱勢的一群,容易被誤會。回家後又容易因為粗心大意挨罵[83]。ADHD孩子與一般孩子一樣努力,想要有好表現,得到讚美;但卻事與願違,他們常常失敗,長期缺乏肯定與成就感。因此容易因情緒壓力而衍生出其他共病。[19] 父母與孩子溝通,彼此交換想法的過程,當如平時一般,心平氣和。憤怒會阻礙親子之間的溝通。[19][84]

在台灣,有兒童心智科醫師在從事注意力不足過動症(ADHD)的臨床醫療過程中發現,照護ADHD的核心困難之一乃ADHD孩子的照護需要其照顧者投注長期的心力,然而通常作為ADHD孩子照護者的孩子父母又往往因為孩子的ADHD症狀對其家庭生活及學校生活所造成的負面影響而有長期負擔,此情形下,不容易長期提供有ADHD的孩子完善的照顧。醫療團隊於是建立以醫療專業、家庭兩者為互動主體,互相灌注支持能量並攜手成長的長期照護模式,並稱之為「共同行動模式[85][86]

認知行為治療

著重在「常在成人患者身上觀察到的執行功能缺失」的認知行為治療,主要協助患者治療以下問題[87][88]

  • 難以持續掌握任務和活動、難以對任務或活動抱持恆心。
  • 拖延。
  • 有分辨事情緩急輕重的困難。
  • 缺乏管理能力。
  • 做短期和長期計畫的能力不及格。[89]

美國國家心理健康機構英语NIMH建議成人注意力不足過動症患者:

  • 依照事情的類別建立各自的行事曆。例如:家庭行事曆、工作行事曆、醫療行事曆等。[90]

家中的行為治療

*治療師會定期與家庭成員會晤以觀察進度並提供持續的支持(左對話框)。
  • 在會晤中,家長現場實習從治療師那學來的技巧(右對話框)。
  • 即便療程結束,家庭成員仍能持續感受到行為的改善以及壓力的減輕(下方橫幅)。[56]
家長能在行為治療中學到的三種核心能力
家長能在行為治療中學到三種核心能力:正向溝通、正向激勵/強化英语Reinforcement#Positive_reinforcement、結構與一致的紀律/規範/規則[56]

在行为治疗期间,治療師會定期與家庭成員會晤以觀察進度並提供持續的支持[註 4]。在會晤中,家長現場實習從治療師那學來的技巧,即便療程結束,家庭成員仍能持續感受到行為的改善以及壓力的減輕。[56]家長能在父母教育訓練中學到三種核心能力:正向溝通、正向激勵/強化英语Reinforcement#Positive_reinforcement、結構與一致的紀律/規範/規則[56]

  • 用「愛」來溝通
  • 傾聽與陪伴[94]
「父母教育方式與ADHD孩子說謊」之間的關係

任職於奇美醫院的獎斐忠政醫師表示,大人常給了ADHD孩子不切實際的要求,例如:受到注意力不足干擾的孩子,本來寫作業就可能需要較多的時間,此時大人如果沒有考慮到小朋友能力上的限制,不從根本去做調整,只是要求結果,命令孩子在半小時後上床躺平,否則就要處罰。在這樣不合理要求的情況下,要小朋友不說謊,就非常困難。[95]

獎斐忠政表示,了解ADHD孩子每次說謊背後的需求、ADHD對他所造成的困難、以及孩子說謊背後的動機,並且撇開道德個性的審判,從根本的方面去思考探討,下次就可以用更好的方式解決問題。[95]

充足的睡眠

充足的睡眠能提升學習力與專注力,也能讓身體得到足夠的休養。正常的生長激素分泌有賴規律及足夠的睡眠[96][97]。研究指出,台灣孩子的睡眠時數相較其他國家,少了大約一個半小時[19][98][99]。足夠的睡眠能讓有ADHD的孩子更專注、更能自我控制 [100]。相形之下,睡眠不足連帶使得身體與精神狀況不佳,情緒較容易低落,形成惡性循環。[101][102][103] 注意力不足過動症往往直接導致患者「難以入睡」、「即便入睡,也難以持續多久」,這與注意力不足過動症所導致的「內在和外在的不安寧」[註 5]有關。[104][105]

治療ADHD或許能改善患者因ADHD之「內在和外在的不安寧」等症狀所引起的睡眠問題[106][107][108];同理,改善睡眠品質或許能改善ADHD的症狀。[108] [109][104] 研究指出,「規律」的睡眠有助於提升睡眠品質,良好的睡眠品質會有較好的精神且能改善注意力不足過動症的症狀[104][110] [111]

運動

適度且規律的運動,特別是有氧運動有助於改善許多中樞神經系統疾患的症狀,也證實為注意力不足過動症的有效附加療法英语add-on treatment[註 6][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][112]

長期規律的運動合併正規治療,將有更樂觀的預後(治療效果)-較好的行為以及運動協調性、大腦執行功能的提升(包含大腦認知領域中的:注意力、衝動克制力、和計畫組織的能力)、更快速的資訊處理速度、和更棒的記憶力[4][5][6][7][9][10][113]

統計由父母及教師填答的《孩子行為和社交情緒評量表》,結果顯示長期規律的有氧運動帶給孩子的效果是:身體所有功能的提升、ADHD的症狀減緩、焦慮和憂鬱的程度下降、身體症狀減少、較佳的課業及課堂中的表現、社交技巧進步。[7]

藥物治療合併規律的運動能放大中樞神經刺激劑作用於執行功能上的效果。[7]運動帶來的效果被認為是因為運動增加了腦中神經突觸間多巴胺和正腎上腺素的濃度。[7]

飲食

健康及營養均衡的飲食(食物飲用水飲料)是保持身心健康的基礎。補充維生素礦物質(例如:維他命B群維他命C等)對於改善ADHD病情的功效,尚有待更多的實驗證明。[114][115][116][註 7]

飲食的調整可能對少部份的ADHD兒童有幫助[120],一份2013年的統合分析針對有ADHD症狀,而且有補充游離脂肪酸或是減少食用有人工色素食品的兒童的相關研究發現,只有不到三分之一的兒童在症狀上有改善[121],這方面的助益有可能只是對有食物敏感的兒童有幫助,也有可能是這些兒童同時也在接受ADHD的治療[121],這些已發表的文獻也發現目前已有的證據無法支持減少食用特定食物來治療ADHD的療法[121]。2014年發表的文獻也發現排除饮食在治療ADHD上的成效有限[122],另一篇在2016年發表的文獻指出,根據研究結果,「无麸质饮食在未來成為ADHD的標準療法」之機率是微乎其微[123]

鐵、鎂及碘等礦物質的攝取可能可以改善ADHD的症狀[124],有一些證據指出身體組織內的成份過低和其ADHD症狀有關[125],不過一般不建議用補充鋅礦物質的方式來治療ADHD,只有在有鋅缺乏的地區(幾乎只會在開發中國家)才建議補充鋅礦物質[126]。不過若鋅礦物質和苯丙胺類藥物同時使用的話,會減低苯丙胺藥物的最小有效劑量,也就是可以服用較少的藥物而達到相同的效果[127]。另有證據指出Omega3-脂肪酸能提供對於病情些許的改善[128][129],不過也有證據指出其功效非常有限[130][131],因此不建議用Omega3-脂肪酸來取代醫學治療[21][132] [133]

一些研究發現,人工食用色素防腐剂可能與少部分兒童出現類似ADHD的症狀,或者是與ADHD的流行率增加有關。[134][135]但是這些研究的證據力薄弱而且可能只適用於有食物不耐症的孩子。[135][121][136]

針對這樣的疑慮,英国欧洲联盟已經發布相關食品管理措施。[137]

對於某些食物的食物過敏食物不耐症,可能會惡化少數孩子既有的ADHD症狀。[122]


精緻糖

有些人認為攝取糖分、甜食、人工香料英语artificial flavors(包含:阿斯巴甜)等會導致過動[138],不過一旦回顧那些曾經比較學齡兒童英语school-aged children學齡前兒童英语preschooler對照實驗會發現,受試者即便將糖分攝取至遠高於正常範圍的程度,對受試者的「注意力」及「行為」並沒有產生影響[139],如果將實驗組成員(受試者)換成是「其父母對糖分敏感的兒童試驗者」,得到的結果也相同。[140]

除此之外,美國小兒科醫學會舉出一個研究顯示,數名被其父母認為對糖分有反應的(reactive)的男孩子,當攝取較多量的糖分時,反而會變得較不活躍。[141] 美國小兒科醫學會另表示,不同研究人員通過數項比對血糖的研究,都得到ADHD患者與非ADHD患者在生活中的糖分攝取量並無不同的結論[141][142]。據此,「美國小兒科醫學會」決定不建議患者透過任何「特別飲食」來治療ADHD。[141]

MedlinePlus則表示,精緻糖可能對孩子的活動量有些許 影響,MedlinePlus認為精緻糖英语refined sugar碳水化合物能快速進入血管中,使血糖迅速升高,這可能使得孩子變得較為活躍。[138]雖然MedlinePlus不認為攝取精緻糖與ADHD有直接關係,仍建議不要過量甚至建議節制精緻糖的攝取,並且以更健康的飲食型態取而代之。[138]

截至2018年11月,沒有任何科學證據顯示、或甜食(包括:糖分含量遠高於一般菜餚的食物)會影響人類的行為或導致ADHD[143] [141][138][144][145]

音樂

北美放射醫學會英语Radiological_Society_of_North_America和有限的研究結果表示,音樂治療似乎有可能改善ADHD孩子在課堂上的表現[146]、增加注意力不足過動症及自閉症亞斯伯格症(ASD)患者的腦部特定神經連結並使得預後更加樂觀[147],然而音樂治療的有效性尚需更多相關論文支持[148][149]

台灣精神科醫師高淑芬則表示,根據經驗,讓ADHD患者聽音樂較能持續工作,也能增加效率,但高淑芬也說,若患者是聽有歌詞的歌曲或新歌可能就比較不適合,因為患者可能把注意力集中到音樂的歌詞上,沉浸在音樂中。[4]:117-118

教育疗法

Eric (2001)所做的一项对老师进行的调查,該調查研究了「有『哪些课堂方法』正在被实施」,并能帮助提高注意力困难儿童上课时的注意力。教师们发现活动是最有效的方法。在坐的过程中提供活动可以提供持续的活动输入,而不用频繁的离开座位。 [150]

特殊教育

針對注意力不足過動症的學生,可以用「前事後因」方法進行教育,可在個案某個不恰當的行為出現前就調整改變外在因素(前因英语Antecedent_(behavioral_psychology)),或是透過獎懲後果的方式,引導個案改變行為[151]

善用「前事後因」方法:
  1. 前因英语Antecedent_(behavioral_psychology):在個案某個不恰當的行為出現前就調整改變外在因素。
  2. 透過教育,針對個案某個不恰當的行為進行改變。
  3. 後果英语operant conditioning:透過獎懲的方式,引導個案改變行為。
介入反應評估 (RTI)

學習障礙、情緒行為障礙個案的介入反應評估英语Response_to_intervention一般來說分為三個層次:從「一般預防」到「特殊預防」。依據行為改變術的第一、二、三層原則,給予個案所需的導引:

第一層:基本介入。基本介入的策略對其他沒有ADHD的孩子也有用。

  • 提供結構:建立班級常規。
  • 傳授技巧:遇到A的時候就要做B。以及諸如:建立生活結構的技巧、增進或彌補工作記憶的技巧、做功課的技巧。
  • 團體回饋:設計有趣的課程並在學生參與課程的過程中提供充分的酬賞,如:讚美等正增強。

第二層:加強介入。對於接受基本介入後,反應效果有限的個案,提供小團體式加強。

  • 調整作業份量、延後作業繳交期限、調整學生的階段性作業進度目標。
  • 設立小志工團體,例如:引介志工、安親媽媽協助。
  • 強化家庭與學校之間的連結(聯繫),例如:家庭訪視、指派家長協助事項等、提供每週進度給家長。
  • 課後輔導加強、課後留下來自習。

第三層: 第一層、第二層介入無效,通常是比較嚴重,問題較多的個案。

  • 運用個別化教育計畫(IEP)建構個人化的學習。
  • 針對個案之特定、重要問題處理、研究個案的成功標準,例如:不是作業都要交,而是有繳交作業就好,一旦能持續做到繳交作業,再慢慢調整標準。安排ADHD教練、提供個別差異化、客製化的視覺提示等。
  • 善用《增強檢核表》,尋找特定的獎勵。

[152][153][154][155]

多元智能理論

多元智能理論認為,對於普通教育無明顯效果的小朋友,特殊教育老師會去發掘小朋友的長處、調整環境的限制、透過小組討論、作中學英语Hands-on learning等方式來讓學生發光發熱,重新拾獲信心。當孩子注意力改善,建立安全的學習環境後,基於事物的好奇的本性,孩子能重新選擇自己的擅長的地方,當他的優點能被看到,孩子就能自動繼續前進學習。[156][157][158][159][160]

奇美醫院獎斐忠政認為,一些家長把特教老師當做免費的補習老師,要求老師全力訓練ADHD兒童跟一般孩子一樣,並不合適。[161]

職能治療

職能治療方面的文献建议,在教室中采用动态座位系统英语Active_sitting(參見彈性座位的教室英语flexible seating_classrooms)是可以改善学生感觉调节和注意力的一种方法。[162][163][164]

職能治療師能協助患者運用職能治療技巧讓生活變得更有組織、規律、計畫、對於時間有更有效的管理[165]

正念療法

2018年4月出爐的最新文獻顯示,「認知行為治療+藥物治療+正念療法的策略比「認知行為治療+藥物治療」帶給患者更大的進步,因此有成為未來正式治療策略的潛力。[166] 然而單獨就「認知行為治療」和「正念療法」相比,未服藥且單獨接受「認知行為治療」或「正念療法」的ADHD患者經過訓練後,並未發現「認知行為治療」和「正念療法」的療效有何差異。[167] 有鑑於前述不一致的實驗結果,正念療法尚需更多研究來證明其有效性。 [50]


ADHD的治療方式圖解:

  1. 遊戲治療 [來源請求]
  2. 藥物治療
  3. 生物反饋 [來源請求]
  4. 箱庭療法 [來源請求]
  5. 利用行事曆軟體(例如:Windwos CalendarGoogle Calendar)協助患者有效管理時間和生活事務。

藥物治療

      參見:ADHD的治療藥物、藥品一覽表

2011年,全美「有ADHD診斷的兒童與青少年(4-17歲)且被診斷數年後至少仍符合ADHD診斷最低標準的患者」之用藥比例。 [168][169][註 8]

  正在接受藥物治療者(69.3%)
  沒有正在接受藥物治療者(30.7%)

2016年,全台灣「有ADHD的兒童與青少年(4-17歲)」之用藥比例。 [170][171][172][173][174]

  正在接受藥物治療者(4.8%)
  沒有正在接受藥物治療者(95.2%)

藥物可以減少過動、衝動、分心等核心症狀,提升孩子的自制力,讓他們有足夠的能力追尋自己的夢想。另外一方面,藥物並非控制過動症狀,而是治療腦部先天性功能缺陷。在醫療用途上,ADHD藥物的副作用均輕微,副作用透過調整藥物配方(停藥、減少劑量、加入Clonidine等緩心悸藥物)即可改善。在醫學藥學藥理學藥劑學)知識的把關下,中樞神經刺激劑等藥物都是安全的。[references 1] [references 2]

ADHD有時可能出現忘記吃藥的情形[註 9],且短效藥物在血漿內的濃度變化很快,故不易維持穩定的療效,所以中長效型的藥物,對於患者來說是較為適合的。[190][191] 除此之外,中樞神經刺激劑的劑量如果不足,會導致「治療ADHD的療效打折」或「藥效只出現一下下(later loss of effectiveness)」[192]。中樞神經刺激劑的劑量不足的情況曾經發生在成人及青少年患者身上且未來也有可能發生,因為美國食品藥物管理局批准的劑量主要是適用於學齡兒童。為此,有些臨床醫師選擇改以體重或臨床療效英语clinical judgement作為處方藥物的劑量的基準。[193][194][195][196]

中樞神經刺激劑[註 10]被列為第三級別『管制藥品』的原因在於避免民眾尚未經醫師處方就錯誤地使用[183][197]

雖然個案可能常看似已興奮過頭,且治療藥物被歸納為興奮劑類[註 11],但是興奮劑類藥物確實有幫助患者們保持平靜的效果。[198][183] 每個人或多或少都會有分心、過動或衝動等症狀,但這些症狀在ADHD患者上會更為頻繁的出現、症狀的嚴重度更高且影響生活、學業、工作等。一個現象是否達到疾病等級,必須考量到頻率及程度。[199]

有些家長或孩童會以為使用藥物即可解決相關問題,因此對於藥物過度依賴,卻忽略需配合藥物使用的時期,讓孩子學習與接受指導,建立起人際互動、行為管理等技巧。這也讓孩子有機會可以不靠藥物自我管理。[200][201]

一般來說,以藥物治療ADHD的效果相當顯著。 [32] [34] 使用此類藥品的患者,長期治療的預後,幾乎都可以改善其注意力不集中、衝動與人際衝突的症狀;而且患者的社會性互動及人際關係乃至閱讀能力英语reading comprehension也都會有改善。[32][202] 文獻另指出,針對ADHD的個人化醫療可能包含較新的ADHD藥物配方、組合。[203]醫師藉由藥劑量滴定英语Dosing協助病人找到對病人來說最適合、最有效的藥物劑量英语Dose (biochemistry)[204],而不同的ADHD子類型所適用的最小有效劑量英语Effective_dose_(pharmacology)可能不同[205]

近年來,多項國際大型研究表明適當的注意力不足過動症藥物治療可以減少未來意外傷害交通事故的機會、降低頭部外傷的風險並且減少物質使用和濫用的機率。[33] [206] [207] [208] [209] [210] [211] [212][213][214][39]

PloS One期刊中一篇文獻指出,對臨床醫師而言,應向患者及家屬傳達「持續藥物治療對於減少身體傷害有其重要性」。研究發現,相較於從未接受藥物治療的患者,接受藥物治療超過180天的ADHD族群,其骨折風險顯著較低,低了將近23%。有接受藥物治療,但總期間不超過180天的患者,其骨折風險與未接受藥物的族群比較起來並無明顯差異,凸顯了藥物治療持續時間的影響。[206]

台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會指出:「治療ADHD核心症狀時,藥物是絕對不能忽略的治療選項。[33]」台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會理事長高淑芬另指出,對於18歲後才獲得第一次ADHD診斷的患者,台灣健保僅給付短效利他能,但患者若認為有使用其他藥物需求,應勇於跟醫生討論,不要因而忌諱就醫。[215][4]

ADHD藥物治療能減少ADHD患者(無論是否被診斷出來)身體受傷的發生率[216]

中樞神經刺激劑


中樞神經刺激劑藥物是治療ADHD的藥物選擇之一。[217][218] 中樞神經刺激劑至少能在14個月能改善部分ADHD的症狀。[219][220][221]

一些家長和老師回報哌甲酯似乎能改善ADHD的症狀。[220][219][222] 中樞神經刺激劑似乎也能降低ADHD遭遇意外事故傷害的風險。[223]核磁共振成像學研究表明長期以安非他命或哌甲酯能降低ADHD患者腦部中的結構和功能的異常。[224][225][226] 一篇2018年的系統性回顧發現以哌甲酯治療兒童、以安非他命治療成人能帶給他們最大的短期療效。[227] 中樞神經刺激劑必須定期暫停使用或降低藥劑量以評估ADHD患者是否還需要繼續用藥、即便ADHD患者仍需要繼續用藥,定期暫停使用或降低藥劑量的作法能降低患者可能身高發展延遲和腦部神經開始習慣藥劑量(耐受性)的風險。[228][229] 長期以「遠高於治療用劑量」的中樞神經刺激劑治療ADHD,可能會導致成癮物質依賴[230][231] 然而,若ADHD未被妥善治療,患者在往後出現物質濫用和行為問題(conduct disorders)的風險。[230] 使用中樞神經刺激劑治療ADHD,至少能不同程度的降低這些風險。[232][233][230]

治療注意力不足過動症的第一线药物为中樞神經刺激劑(又名為中樞神經興奮劑,簡稱為兴奋剂),其中包括:

藥物名 藥物(主成分/有效成分)學名 作用時間 生效時間 備註
利他能(Ritalin) 哌甲酯[註 12] 短:3.5小時左右 約服用後30分鐘
Adderall 右旋苯丙胺左旋苯丙胺
  • 短效型:4-5小時[237]
  • 長效型:10-12小時[237]
  • 短效型:30-60分鐘[237]
  • 長效型:60-90分鐘或更短[237]
Desoxyn 甲基苯丙胺 N/A N/A
Tyvense 甲磺酸赖氨酸安非他命 12小時 2 小時
Dexedrine 右旋安非他命
  • 立即釋放型:3-7小時
  • 長效型:12小時
  • 立即釋放型:0.5-1.5小時
  • 長效型:1.5-2小時
利他(長)能LA
(Ritalin LA/利長能)
哌甲酯 中:8小時左右 約服用後30分鐘
專思達/專注達 哌甲酯 長:12小時左右 約服用後30分鐘

[4] [242] [243] [244] [245]

  • 必須避免於藥物作用期間攝取乙醇,因為這兩種物質很可能會導致血漿中的methylphenidate濃度急速升高[234]

利他能[245]、利長能[242]、專思達[244]、安保美喜錠[246] ,所含之有效成分皆為哌甲酯,各自在藥效動力學上具有相同屬性;在藥物代謝動力學上的作用則有些微差異。[247][248][249]醫師可依患者的需求,視各種藥品之藥物動力學的特性,調整處方藥物,實現個人化醫療[250][sources 1][sources 2][sources 3][sources 4][sources 5][sources 6] 。 常見的專思達,其12歲以下的使用者每日最大劑量上限為54毫克;13到17歲的使用者之每日最大劑量上限為72毫克[283][284]。若患者早上服用的中長效劑型藥物之藥效在傍晚開始消退,患者可視需要再服用短效劑型藥物,彌補隨著長效型藥物藥效退去後產生的療效落差。[19][285]

雖中樞神經刺激劑藥效約於服用後半小時左右開始,並不表示症狀會在服用後半小時就消失,如同其他疾病的治療一樣,病情的改善需要一定(段)時間的持續治療(時間長度因人而異)。藥物(包含:中樞神經刺激劑、非中樞神經刺激劑、......)會在這些患者的背後推他們一把,助他們一臂之力[11]。然而,即便如此,患者本身仍需認真努力地改變自己。藥物是注意力不足過動症整體治療的其中一環。[4][5][286]

根據世界反運動禁藥組織,中樞神經刺激劑在未事先申請醫療許可及非醫療所需的情況下服用都將被視同違規行為。[287]

部分用來治療注意力不足過動症的藥品(例如:中樞神經刺激劑)在美国食品藥物管理局划分为二级管制藥品(Schedule II,即指有滥用可能性的药品),在台灣則列為第三級管制藥品。[207][288][289][290]

中樞神經刺激劑即便正確依照藥物動力學及藥效動力學知識下使用,仍強烈 建議用藥者應定期追蹤自己的體重、心跳與血壓等[291][292][293],研究顯示中樞神經刺激劑造成的心血管作用與其攝取劑量多寡有關[293][294](中樞神經刺激劑可能產生的副作用有:食慾降低心跳血壓上升等;高血壓可能不會被人覺察到,然而血壓長期超越正常範圍可能會導致許多健康問題;食慾降低可能不自覺地引起低血糖,導致心悸等副作用[295][296];食欲降低也可能讓服藥者在空腹的時候卻不覺得,使得其三餐未定時定量,再者,中樞神經刺激劑本身會刺激胃酸分泌,多重因素交織,長期下來,容易引起腸道不適英语Abdominal_distension胃潰瘍[297])。[298][291][299][300][301][302][303][304][305][306]

患者第一次用藥前必須先進行全面的心血管功能檢查,以確保患者沒有重度的先天性心臟病或存有任何嚴重的心血管問題。[291][291][307]有研究指出ADHD用藥可能會引起血管硬化,然而尚需更多研究確認,並且也要再確認此現象是否有到臨床上界定需要治療的程度[308][309]

中樞神經刺激劑藥物可能的副作用包含口乾失眠急躁/急性子/靜不下來煩躁食慾降低、基礎代謝率增加[註 13]體重下降頭痛抖動抽动综合症尿液滯留[註 14][310][311][312][313][314][註 15][315] [316][317];而在不超量使用中樞神經刺激劑藥物的情況下,其引發幻覺偏執心血管問題等嚴重副作用的機率極低,大約千分之一到萬分之一,而且發生的機率和沒有服用藥物的人沒有差異。[291][318][319][320][318][319][321] 因此期刊整理過去 185個研究(達一萬兩千多人),得到的研究結論是:注意力不足過動症的治療藥物並未增加嚴重副作用風險的機會。相對而言,常被忽略的是未經治療的注意力不足過動症所衍生出的嚴重風險[213](發生意外藥物成癮酒精成癮風險約達到50%)[174][註 16][323]不過考科藍協作組織於2015年發表的系統性文獻回顧指出,使用中樞神經刺激劑後,像失眠食慾不振等較不嚴重的副作用常出現在服用者身上,並衍生出長期預後的不確定因素[324]

所有用來治療注意力不足過動症的藥物只要依照醫師基於藥物動力學及藥效動力學所做成的醫囑用藥,都是相當安全的。[207][288] [325] 而藥物成分為哌甲酯的中樞神經刺激劑,例如:利他能與專思達,可能導致:心悸、頭痛、胃痛、喪失食慾、失眠、因相對專注而變得冷淡(面無表情)等副作用,因此6歲以下的兒童不適宜將藥物當成第一線療法服用。(副作用產生與否因人而異) [326]

隨著時間推進與各方的努力,中樞神經刺激劑的相關副作用[註 17][註 18]已可藉由包括但不限於劑量調整、服藥時間、飯前飯後服用、服藥頻率等服藥模式之改變以及改變藥物組合等方式獲得相當程度的減少。[207] [327] [328] [329] [330] [331][332][333]

UpToDate指出,使用者於中斷使用中樞神經刺激劑後恢復使用之,可能需要重新從較低的劑量開始逐步增加至理想劑量。[334][335]

近年來美國正值可受孕期的女性(15-44歲)服用中樞神經刺激劑治療成人注意力不足過動症的人數大幅增加,截至2015年此類女性已佔全美國女性的4%[336]。然而研究初步發現,胎兒子宮接觸到哌甲酯,有相對控制組來說,較高的風險在出生後帶有先天性心臟病,而安非他命則無此風險。[235]因此當醫生處方哌甲酯給孕婦(包含不知自己已經懷孕的女性)前,應該權衡此舉對患者的利弊得失。[235]

食物可能延遲Adderal XR的生效時間並增加安非他命在血漿中的最高濃度;Concerta 則無此特性[337]

右旋安非他命
禮來公司思銳60毫克膠囊(Lilly Strattera 60mg Capsule)
思銳(Strattera)外盒

第一線中樞神經刺激劑

專思達(Concerta)仿單(說明書)上的建議劑量
患者年紀 建議起始劑量 建議劑量範圍
6-12歲 18 毫克/每天 (mg/Kg) 18 - 54 毫克/每天 (mg/Kg)
13-17歲 18 毫克/每天 18 - 72 毫克/每天 每天每公斤不可超過2毫克。[註 19]
18-65歲 18 或 36 毫克/每天 18 - 72 毫克/每天 (藥物臨床試驗英语clinical studies中記載的安全英语Therapeutic_index#Maximum_tolerated_dose有效的劑量範圍英语Effective_dose_(pharmacology)為:36 - 108 毫克/每天 [338]

[339] 註解:

  1. 在專思達的藥物試驗過程中發現,13-17歲的青年試驗組中,專思達的最低有效劑量為: 每天每公斤1.4毫克 (1.4 mg/kg/day)。[339]
  2. 18歲以上的兩個成人試驗組中,發現每天18-72毫克的劑量皆可達到在統計學上具顯著意義的療效。(然而以每天36毫克以上進而達到統計學上具顯著意義的療效的臨床試驗者為大多數。)[340]

非中樞神經刺激劑

數種非中樞神經刺激劑,例如:阿托莫西汀可樂定安非他酮胍法辛,可與中樞神經刺激劑一起使用,也可以作為中樞神經刺激劑的替代方案。[217][221][345]

禮來公司(Eli Lilly)的思銳(Strattera),有效成份為阿托莫西汀[346],與中樞神經刺激劑同樣為治療ADHD的第一線藥物。思銳為非中樞神經刺激藥物(非興奮劑),且歸類於選擇性正腎上腺素再回收抑制劑。思銳有六種劑量型,分別為:18MG、25MG、40MG、60MG、80MG和100MG。[346] 「對於年齡小於18歲且體重小於70公斤」的使用者來說「總計每天服用劑量的上限為每公斤1.4 毫克(mg/day)」;對於「年齡大於或等於18歲或年齡小於18歲且體重大於70公斤」的使用者來說「總計每天服用劑量的上限為每天100毫克(mg/day)」。[347]

思銳的副作用相較於中樞神經刺激劑來得輕微許多。思銳主要的副作用有:疲倦、口乾(唾液分泌減少)等[346]。(副作用產生與否因人而異)[346]患者如果對中樞神經刺激劑沒有反應、反應不佳或過敏,可考慮使用阿托莫西汀。患者可向醫生詢問,共同制定一個漸進的劑量法。

思銳的藥效可以持續24小時[348]。思銳從第一天服用開始約需持續服用28至56天(4週到8週)才會完全生效。[349][350] 然而患者或患者周遭的人在這期間便可能逐漸感受到藥效 [351] [352][353][354]。服用者建議定期追蹤監測心律血壓肝功能英语liver function[355],患者第一次用藥前建議先進行全面的心血管功能檢查,以確保患者沒有先天性心臟病或存有任何嚴重的心血管問題[355]

縱然阿托莫西汀與中樞神經刺激劑同樣為治療ADHD的第一線藥物,然而其對特定症狀改善的程度可能與中樞神經刺激劑不同(兩類藥物各有其長處)。阿托莫西汀在改善「過動-衝動」的症狀上,略優於派甲酯;派甲酯則在改善「分心」的症狀上,略優於阿托莫西汀。[356][357] [358] [359] [360]

而阿托莫西汀與哌甲酯併服的處方尚未經美國食品藥物管理局核可,但醫師會視個案的情況(如共病、預後等)以開仿單標示外使用的方式處方之。[361][362][363][364]在臨床試驗中,並未發現兩者併服後產生加乘的心血管副作用。換言之,兩者併服之心血管作用,與單獨服用哌甲酯所產生的心血管作用相同。[365][366]

可樂定胍法新英语guanfacine皆為非中樞神經刺激劑、α2腎上腺素受體英语alpha-2 adrenergic receptor刺激劑/促進劑/活化劑 的一員;與哌甲酯併用或單獨服用都有顯著療效,其中兩藥物併服:可樂定或胍法新與哌甲酯或安非他命合併使用的療效優於單獨服用任意一者。[註 20] [327] [367] [368] [369] [370] [371]

請注意:

  1. 美國食品藥物管理局已證明數起曾因為併服:可樂定、胍法新、哌甲酯或安非他命而致命的個案群與四种药物本身並無關聯。[372]
  2. 美國兒童青少年精神醫學會期刊英语Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry》所刊登之論文,「可樂定或胍法新與哌甲酯或安非他命合併使用的療效優於單獨服用任意一者」的結論是立基於使用「長效可樂定或胍法新」作為臨床實驗過程中的試驗物。[327][367][369][370]
藥品學名 藥物類別(屬性) 作用時間 備註
阿托莫西汀 (思銳)[註 21] 選擇性正腎上腺素再回收抑制劑、非中樞神經刺激劑(非興奮劑) 5.2小時 [354][374][375][376]
  • 美國食品藥物管理局已經批准用於治療兒童、青少年及成人患者[201]
可樂定 [註 22] alpha 2 腎上腺素受體刺激劑/促進劑/激動劑/激活劑/活化劑、非中樞神經刺激劑(非興奮劑) 2-4 小時 [378][379][380][381][382]
胍法新英语guanfacine alpha 2 腎上腺素受體刺激劑/促進劑/激動劑/激活劑/活化劑、非中樞神經刺激劑(非興奮劑) 4-8 小時[378][385]
  • 已經可在中國大陸取得。[386]

選擇性血清素再回收抑制劑、選擇性血清素及正腎上腺素再回收抑制劑(SSNRI, Selective Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor)等俗稱抗憂鬱劑的介入可能對於某些個案病情的改善亦有幫助。[27] [387][388]

安非他酮國際非專利藥品名稱Bupropion[註 23])是菸鹼拮抗劑和較微弱的去甲腎上腺素-多巴胺再吸收抑制劑:一种主要作为抗抑郁药和戒烟药使用的药物、也可用作治療注意力不足過動症的第二線藥品與中樞神經刺激劑合併使用,或作為中樞神經刺激劑的替代方案。[217] [389] [390] [391] [392]

第一線非中樞神經刺激劑

思銳(Strattera)仿單上的建議劑量[346]
體重 每天服用的起始劑量 總計每天服用的目標劑量 總計每天服用劑量的安全上限
年齡小於18歲且體重小於70公斤 0.5 毫克/每公斤(mg/Kg) 1.2 毫克/每公斤 1.4 毫克/每公斤
年齡大於或等於18歲或年齡小於18歲且體重大於70公斤 40 毫克/天(mg/day) 80 毫克/天 100 毫克/天
(臨床試驗的劑量範圍為60 mg/day 到 120 mg/day[393]
  • 備註:
  1. 建議劑量與種族無關。[346]
  2. 肝腎功能不全的患者的服用劑量應低於建議劑量[346](詳見:阿托莫西汀#劑量
  3. 總計每天服用劑量的上限 = 無論分幾次服用,一天之內最多可攝取的劑量。
  4. 每天的起始劑量應服用至少三天,使身體適應後,才可開始服用每天的目標劑量。[346]
  5. 若每天目標劑量效果不符預期,則可逐漸增加劑量至每天服用劑量的上限[347]

中醫

中華民國中醫師公會全國聯合會曾在2018年8月於臺灣召開記者會指出,「長久以來,傳統中醫在改善(ADHD)這類慢性長期精神生理疾病症狀方面,具有顯著的療效」[394]。然而記者會中提供的新聞稿並未對此敘述提出文獻證明。[394](參見:WP:可供查證

中華民國中醫師公會全國聯合會另表示,2010 年發表於《醫學中的替代醫學療法英语Complementary Therapies in Medicine[註 24](一個專門紀載替代醫學[註 25]的期刊)的一個隨機雙盲對照試驗顯示,「電針加上行為療法對於注意力不足過動症小朋友有顯著的療效,且能減少復發率英语relapse。研究中針對頭部(百會四神聰神庭本神太陽印堂)、背部膀胱經肝俞脾俞腎俞)、足部腎經太溪)、足部肝經太衝)進行針刺治療,達到改善注意力不足與過動的症狀,同時改善情緒障礙與提升腦部發育。」[395][不可靠的邊緣學說來源][需要可靠醫學來源]

對於治療方式的不同論點

中華民國(台灣)有社會學學者從新聞媒體資料庫-聯合知識庫蒐集2001年起有關注意力不足過動症的新聞報導,並從記者的報導中,利用內容分析方法分析出「兒童的過動問題一開始就以生物醫學模式來解釋,在處遇建議上則呈現從行為治療轉向藥物治療的明確趨勢」的結論[396][397]

美國有社會學家認為注意力不足過動症(ADHD)的治療是一個把「不常見且不被廣泛接受的行為」(deviant behavior)醫療化的例子。抱持這種想法的社會學家認為ADHD的治療是把早期不屬於醫療範疇的學生在學表現的問題給醫療化(另有一說是指這是「特教醫療化」)。[398][399]在中華民國,也有兩位學者附和這樣的論點。[400]

在美國,絕大多數的醫療人員相信ADHD是一個真實存在的「症」(genuine disorder)[399],至少在症狀較明顯的人身上是這樣沒錯。[401][402]美國醫療人員之間的爭議主要是圍繞在那些症狀輕微的病患的診斷及治療方式[401][402][399][403][404][401][402][399]。(美國的ADHD流行率高於世界平均,詳見:注意力不足過動症 § 流行病學

英國官方機構-英國傑出國家健康照護機構英语National Institute for Health and Care Excellence(NICE)在2009年發表聲明,聲明中有提及目前存在的爭議,但表示:當前的治療策略與診斷方法都是基於大量學術文獻所形成的學術界共識而得。 [405]

中華民國一位中央研究院歷史語言研究所的學者分析指出,台灣關於「西藥」的文化信念或成見在注意力不足過動症治療方式的爭議之中,扮演著催化劑的角色。[406]

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    • In some cases, a special diet of foods without artificial flavors or colors works for a child, because the family and the child interact in a different way when the child eliminates these foods. These changes, not the diet itself, may improve the behavior and activity level.
    • Refined (processed) sugars may have some effect on children's activity. Refined sugars and carbohydrates enter the bloodstream quickly. Therefore, they cause rapid changes in blood sugar levels. This may make a child become more active.
    • Several studies have shown a link between artificial colorings and hyperactivity. On the other hand, other studies do not show any effect. This issue is yet to be decided.  参数|quote=值左起第7位存在換行符 (帮助)
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  145. ^ Hyperactivity and sugar: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. MedlinePlus. 2018-07-09 [2018-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-23). Recommendations There are many reasons to limit the sugar a child has other than the effect on activity level.
    • A diet high in sugar is a major cause of tooth decay.
    • High-sugar foods tend to have fewer vitamins and minerals. These foods may replace foods with more nutrition. High-sugar foods also have extra calories that can lead to obesity.
    • Some people have allergies to dyes and flavors. If a child has a diagnosed allergy, talk to a dietitian.
    • Add fiber to your child's diet to keep blood sugar levels more even. For breakfast, fiber is found in oatmeal, shredded wheat, berries, bananas, whole-grain pancakes. For lunch, fiber is found in whole-grain breads, peaches, grapes, and other fresh fruits.
    • Provide "quiet time" so that children can learn to calm themselves at home.
    • Talk to your health care provider if your child cannot sit still when other children of his or her age can, or cannot control impulses.  参数|quote=值左起第16位存在換行符 (帮助)
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  166. ^ Janssen, Lotte; Kan, Cornelis C.; Carpentier, Pieter J.; Sizoo, Bram; Hepark, Sevket; Schellekens, Melanie P.J.; Donders, A. Rogier T.; Buitelaar, Jan K.; Speckens, Anne E.M. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy v. treatment as usual in adults with ADHD: a multicentre, single-blind, randomised controlled trial. Psychological medicine (Cambridge University Press (CUP)). 2018-02-28: 1–11. ISSN 0033-2917. PMID 29486807. doi:10.1017/s0033291718000429. 
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  171. ^ Susan Gau. 兒童青少年精神醫學通訊-主題:拒學行為 (PDF). Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Newsletter. 2016-06, 15 (2). 
  172. ^ 陳錦宏; 高淑芬. ADHD注意力不足過動症家長手冊 A parenting guide for ADHD. Taipei City: 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. 2016-08. ISBN 978-986-93509-1-4. OCLC 982650259 (中文(臺灣)). 
  173. ^ 家有頑童? 屏東醫院籲把握ADHD黃金治療期. 自由時報電子報 (中華民國台灣 屏東縣屏東市). 2016: 生活. (原始内容存档于2017-01-08) (中文(臺灣)). 
  174. ^ 174.0 174.1 陳鈞凱. 【有影】從白目衝動變拿文學、美術獎 台灣醫師靠這招解除過動兒「封印」. 匯流新聞網. 2018-08-17 [2018-12-15]. (原始内容存档于2018-12-16) (中文). 根據統計,台灣ADHD盛行率約為7.5至9%,但健保資料研究顯示,只有近2%的孩子尋求診斷,更只有1%接受完整治療。超過7成的ADHD青少年有其他合併症狀,陳錦宏說,包括5成有學習障礙、4成感到焦慮、3成發生物質濫用行為、2成有憂鬱情形,且在學業、工作、身體意外傷害、家庭關係、車禍、藥酒癮的負面影響機率全都是一般人的2到3倍,而專業治療可以降低這些意外及藥酒癮50%的風險。治療非常的重要,陳錦宏強調,因ADHD是一種腦生理功能發展延遲的問題,大腦一半區域發展速度明顯較慢,美國國家衛生研究院花了10年追蹤更發現,ADHD兒童大腦皮質發展比正常兒童慢3年,部分更會持續到青春期或成年之後。 
  175. ^ Arnold, L. Eugene; Hodgkins, Paul; Caci, Hervé; Kahle, Jennifer; Young, Susan. Effect of Treatment Modality on Long-Term Outcomes in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE. [2017-05-15]. PMID 25714373. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. 
  176. ^ Millichap JG. Chapter 9: Medications for ADHD. Millichap JG (编). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. New York, USA: Springer. 2010: 112. ISBN 9781441913968.
    Table 9.2 Dextroamphetamine formulations of stimulant medication
    Dexedrine [Peak:2–3 h] [Duration:5–6 h] ...
    Adderall [Peak:2–3 h] [Duration:5–7 h]
    Dexedrine spansules [Peak:7–8 h] [Duration:12 h] ...
    Adderall XR [Peak:7–8 h] [Duration:12 h]
    Vyvanse [Peak:3–4 h] [Duration:12 h]
     
  177. ^ Huang YS, Tsai MH. Long-term outcomes with medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current status of knowledge. CNS Drugs. 2011-07, 25 (7): 539–554. PMID 21699268. doi:10.2165/11589380-000000000-00000. 
  178. ^ Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, Young S. Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. PLoS ONE. 2015-02, 10 (2): e0116407. PMC 4340791可免费查阅. PMID 25714373. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. The highest proportion of improved outcomes was reported with combination treatment (83% of outcomes). Among significantly improved outcomes, the largest effect sizes were found for combination treatment. The greatest improvements were associated with academic, self-esteem, or social function outcomes. 
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  183. ^ 183.0 183.1 183.2 NIMH » Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. NIMH » Home. [2018-07-21]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-25). Stimulants. The most common type of medication used for treating ADHD is called a “stimulant.” Although it may seem unusual to treat ADHD with a medication that is considered a stimulant, it works because it increases the brain chemicals dopamine and norepinephrine, which play essential roles in thinking and attention. Under medical supervision, stimulant medications are considered safe. However, there are risks and side effects, especially when misused or taken in excess of the prescribed dose.For example, stimulants can raise blood pressure and heart rate and increase anxiety. Therefore, a person with other health problems, including high blood pressure, seizures, heart disease, glaucoma, liver or kidney disease, or an anxiety disorder should tell their doctor before taking a stimulant.  |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助)
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  187. ^ Pharmacology of drugs used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. UpToDate. [2018-09-12]. Clonidine may be useful in overaroused, easily frustrated, highly active, or aggressive individuals [3]. Although there are few randomized controlled trials with multiple drugs, the addition of clonidine to stimulant therapy may help offset some of the common stimulant side effects. 
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  189. ^ Medscape Log In. Medscape Education. 2010-01-01 [2018-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-14). Short-acting stimulants have been available for decades, but their use as first-line treatment is not advised. These agents require 3-4 daily doses to sustain effectiveness throughout the day. This is a tall order for patients with preexisting struggles with time management and organization. Furthermore, because behavioral response is linked to drug metabolism and these agents have a therapeutic effect that wanes within hours of administration, it is difficult for a clinician to assess efficacy in patients with rapidly shifting blood levels. For these reasons, the use of short-acting stimulants delays significant and consistent improvements in symptoms.[12] 
  190. ^ Medscape Log In. Medscape Education. 2010-01-01 [2018-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-14). Using pharmacy data of 60,010 patients taking ADHD medications (41.6% adults), researchers found that adherence and persistence were best with long-acting stimulants, with long-acting amphetamines having the advantage over long-acting methylphenidate.[21]A long-acting drug and a higher therapeutic dose may make a marked difference. If the patient is resistant to one agent, then trying a different medication might be more effective and elicit better adherence. In most cases, long-acting ADHD medications are best because they can provide a more rapid response, which further increases the likelihood of medication adherence. 
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  194. ^ Biederman, Joseph. New-Generation Long-Acting Stimulants for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Medscape. 2003 [2016-06-19]. (原始内容存档于2003-12-07). As most treatment guidelines and prescribing information for stimulant medications relate to experience in school-aged children, prescribed doses for older patients are lacking. Emerging evidence for both methylphenidate and Adderall indicate that when weight-corrected daily doses, equipotent with those used in the treatment of younger patients, are used to treat adults with ADHD, these patients show a very robust clinical response consistent with that observed in pediatric studies. These data suggest that older patients may require a more aggressive approach in terms of dosing, based on the same target dosage ranges that have already been established – for methylphenidate, 1–1.5–2 mg/kg/day, and for D,L-amphetamine, 0.5–0.75–1 mg/kg/day....
    In particular, adolescents and adults are vulnerable to underdosing, and are thus at potential risk of failing to receive adequate dosage levels. As with all therapeutic agents, the efficacy and safety of stimulant medications should always guide prescribing behavior: careful dosage titration of the selected stimulant product should help to ensure that each patient with ADHD receives an adequate dose, so that the clinical benefits of therapy can be fully attained.
     
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  198. ^ Medical Encyclopedia → Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. medlineplus.gov. 2017-01-05 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26). Psychostimulants (also known as stimulants) are the most commonly used medicines. Although these drugs are called stimulants, they actually have a calming effect in people with ADHD. 
  199. ^ Signs and symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, National Institute of Mental Health.. nimh.nih.gov. National Institute of mental health. 2013-03 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-29). It is normal to have some inattention, unfocused motor activity and impulsivity, but for people with ADHD, these behaviors/are more severe, occur more often, interfere with or reduce the quality of how they functions socially, at school, or in a job. 
  200. ^ 衛生福利部精神疾病衛教叢書 注意力不足過動症,第19至20頁「反之,有些家長或孩童會以為使用藥物就像吃了「聰明藥」一切都解決了,而對於藥物過度依賴。卻忽略藥物只是提供孩子學習與接受指導的最佳時機,藉由此時建立起學習策略、人際互動、行為管理的技巧,才是孩子一生受用的能力,也有機會不靠藥物自我管理。」
  201. ^ 201.0 201.1 Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder Information Page. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. 2018-06-15 [2018-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2018-04-23). The usual course of treatment may include medications such as methylphenidate (Ritalin) or dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), which are stimulants that decrease impulsivity and hyperactivity and increase attention. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved the generic versions of Strattera (atomoxetine) to treat ADHD in pediatric and adult individuals. Most experts agree that treatment for ADHD should address multiple aspects of the individual's functioning and should not be limited to the use of medications alone. Treatment should include structured classroom management, parent education (to address discipline and limit-setting), and tutoring and/or behavioral therapy for the child. 
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  316. ^ Pharmacotherapy-for-Adult-Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder. UpToDate. [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-27). An uncontrolled follow-up of 96 adults with ADHD who experienced improvement while taking extended release methylphenidate in a randomized trial found that improvement in ADHD symptoms was sustained at 30 weeks on the medication. Only 39 subjects (40.6 percent) completed the long-term follow-up period. Participants continued to experience decreased appetite, insomnia, and jitteriness 
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  323. ^ 陳錦宏. 心動家族協會理事長專文:問ADHD藥物有無風險,不如問「不治療和治療的風險哪一個高」. 心動家族協會. 2016-04-18 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-03).  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  324. ^ Storebø, Ole Jakob; Ramstad, Erica; Krogh, Helle B.; Nilausen, Trine Danvad; Skoog, Maria; Holmskov, Mathilde; Rosendal, Susanne; Groth, Camilla; Magnusson, Frederik L; Moreira-Maia, Carlos R; Gillies, Donna; Buch Rasmussen, Kirsten; Gauci, Dorothy; Zwi, Morris; Kirubakaran, Richard; Forsbøl, Bente; Simonsen, Erik; Gluud, Christian, Storebø, Ole Jakob , 编, Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (systematic review) (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd), 2015-11-25, (11), PMID 26599576, doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009885.pub2, Within the short follow-up periods typical of the included trials, there is some evidence that methylphenidate is associated with increased risk of non-serious adverse events, such as sleep problems and decreased appetite, but no evidence that it increases risk of serious adverse events.Better designed trials are needed to assess the benefits of methylphenidate. Given the frequency of non-serious adverse events associated with methylphenidate, the particular difficulties for blinding of participants and outcome assessors point to the advantage of large, 'nocebo tablet' controlled trials. 
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  327. ^ 327.0 327.1 327.2 Combining medications could offer better results for ADHD patients. Science News. Elsevier. 2016-08-01 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-02). "Three studies to be published in the August 2016 issue of the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (JAACAP) report that combining two standard medications could lead to greater clinical improvements for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than either ADHD therapy alone.", August, 2016  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
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  333. ^ NIMH » Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. NIMH » Home. [2018-07-21]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-25). Although not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) specifically for the treatment of ADHD, some antidepressants are sometimes used alone or in combination with a stimulant to treat ADHD. Antidepressants may help all of the symptoms of ADHD and can be prescribed if a patient has bothersome side effects from stimulants. Antidepressants can be helpful in combination with stimulants if a patient also has another condition, such as an anxiety disorder, depression, or another mood disorder.  |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  334. ^ Pharmacotherapy-for-Adult-Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder. UpToDate. [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-27). Progressive titration, as tolerated, to an optimally effective dose is an important means of minimizing side effects. Re-titration may be necessary after drug holidays. 
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  336. ^ Anderson, Kayla N.; Ailes, Elizabeth C.; Danielson, Melissa; Lind, Jennifer N.; Farr, Sherry L.; Broussard, Cheryl S.; Tinker, Sarah C. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Medication Prescription Claims Among Privately Insured Women Aged 15–44 Years — United States, 2003–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report (Centers for Disease Control MMWR Office). 2018-01-19, 67 (2): 66–70. ISSN 0149-2195. PMC 5772805可免费查阅. PMID 29346342. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6702a3. 
  337. ^ Auiler, J. F.; Liu, K.; Lynch, J. M.; Gelotte, C. K. Effect of Food on Early Drug Exposure from Extended-Release Stimulants: Results from the Concerta®, Adderall XR™ Food Evaluation (CAFÉ) Study. Current medical research and opinion (Informa Healthcare). 2002, 18 (5): 311–316. ISSN 0300-7995. PMID 12240794. doi:10.1185/030079902125000840. The food effect on early drug exposure and the pharmacokinetic profiles up to 8 h after dosing of the two extended-release stimulants were directly compared using partial area (AUC(p4h), AUC(p6h) and AUC(p8h)) fed/fasted ratios. Amphetamine concentrations were markedly lower when the subjects had eaten breakfast, resulting in lower early drug exposures (p < 0.0001). By contrast, methylphenidate concentrations over the same 8 h were unaffected by breakfast, providing consistent levels of early drug exposure. Therefore, as a child's or adult's eating pattern varies, methylphenidate exposure over the first 8 h would be expected to have less day-to-day variation compared with amphetamine exposure. The osmotic-controlled OROS tablet provides a reliable and consistent delivery of methylphenidate HCI, independent of food, for patients with ADHD. 
  338. ^ CONCERTA- methylphenidate hydrochloride tablet, extended release. DailyMed. 2018-10-09 [2018-10-18]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-26). 14.3 Adults
    Two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies were conducted in 627 adults aged 18 to 65 years. The controlled studies compared CONCERTA® administered once daily and placebo in a multicenter, parallel-group, 7-week dose-titration study (Study 5) (36 to 108 mg/day) and in a multicenter, parallel-group, 5-week, fixed-dose study (Study 6) (18, 36, and 72 mg/day).
    Study 5 demonstrated the effectiveness of CONCERTA® in the treatment of ADHD in adults aged 18 to 65 years at doses from 36 mg/day to 108 mg/day based on the change from baseline to final study visit on the Adult ADHD Investigator Rating Scale (AISRS). Of 226 patients who entered the 7-week trial, 110 were randomized to CONCERTA® and 116 were randomized to placebo. Treatment was initiated at 36 mg/day and patients continued with incremental increases of 18 mg/day (36 to 108 mg/day) based on meeting specific improvement criteria with acceptable tolerability. At the final study visit, mean change scores (LS Mean, SEM) for the investigator rating on the AISRS demonstrated that CONCERTA®was statistically significantly superior to placebo.
    Study 6 was a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, dose-response study (5-week duration) with 3 fixed-dose groups (18, 36, and 72 mg). Patients were randomized to receive CONCERTA® administered at doses of 18 mg (n=101), 36 mg (n=102), 72 mg/day (n=102), or placebo (n=96). All three doses of CONCERTA® were statistically significantly more effective than placebo in improving CAARS (Conners' Adult ADHD Rating Scale) total scores at double-blind end point in adult subjects with ADHD.
     
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  343. ^ Prasad V, Brogan E, Mulvaney C, Grainge M, Stanton W, Sayal K. How effective are drug treatments for children with ADHD at improving on-task behaviour and academic achievement in the school classroom? A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. April 2013, 22 (4): 203–16. PMID 23179416. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0346-x. 
  344. ^ Hazell P. The challenges to demonstrating long-term effects of psychostimulant treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. July 2011, 24 (4): 286–90. PMID 21519262. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32834742db. 
  345. ^ Childress, A. C.; Sallee, F. R. Revisiting clonidine: an innovative add-on option for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Drugs of Today (Barcelona, Spain: 1998). 2012, 48 (3): 207–217. ISSN 1699-3993. PMID 22462040. doi:10.1358/dot.2012.48.3.1750904. There are a number of non-stimulant medications, such as atomoxetine, bupropion, guanfacine, and clonidine that may be used as alternatives, or added to stimulant therapy. 
  346. ^ 346.0 346.1 346.2 346.3 346.4 346.5 346.6 346.7 DailyMed - STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride capsule STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride. DailyMed.com. Eli Lilly. 2015-06. (原始内容存档于2017-09-02). 
  347. ^ 347.0 347.1 Label of Strattera consisting of atomoxetine. DailyMed.gov. Eli Lilly Company. 2015-06 [2017-02]. DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION 2.1 Acute Treatment Dosing of children and adolescents up to 70 kg body weight......No additional benefit has been demonstrated for doses higher than 1.2 mg/kg/day [see Clinical Studies (14)]. 'The total daily dose in children and adolescents should not exceed 1.4 mg/kg or 100 mg, whichever is less'. Dosing of children and adolescents over 70 kg body weight and adults......The maximum recommended total daily dose in children and adolescents over 70 kg and adults is 100 mg. 
  348. ^ Atomoxetine: Drug information. UpToDate. 2017-12-28 [2017-12-28]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-28). Duration of action: Up to 24 hours (Jain 2017) 
  349. ^ Taylor, D; Paton, C; Shitij, K. The Maudsley prescribing guidelines in psychiatry. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. 2012. ISBN 978-0-470-97948-8. 
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  351. ^ How long for Strattera to start working? (PDF). Minnesota National Allianceof Mental Illness. [2017-02]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2015-12-24). It may take 4 - 8 weeks after an effective dose is reached for atomoxetine to reach maximum effectiveness. However, improvements in some symptoms may occur sooner. 
  352. ^ Frequently Asked Questions. Official website for Strattera. Strattera-Eli Lilly. 2016-09 [2017-02]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-09). Strattera works gradually, so improvements are seen over time. When your child starts treatment with Strattera, it's important to set some small goals. Remember to be patient—some people notice small changes within 2 weeks, and by 4 to 6 weeks at target dose you should see significant improvement in your child's symptoms. 
  353. ^ Atomoxetine in adults with ADHD: two randomized, placebo-controlled studies. Biological Psychiatry. 2003-01-15, 53 (2): 112–120 [2017-12-28]. ISSN 0006-3223. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01671-2. 
  354. ^ 354.0 354.1 atomoxetine (Rx) – Strattera. Medscape Reference. WebMD. [2013-11-10]. (原始内容存档于2013-11-10). 
  355. ^ 355.0 355.1 Drug information for atomoxetine. UpToDate. [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-28). 
  356. ^ Chi-Yung Shang, Yi-Lei Pan, Hsiang-Yuan Lin, Lin-Wan Huang & Susan Shur-Fen Gau. An Open-Label, Randomized Trial of Methylphenidate and Atomoxetine Treatment in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology. 2015-09, 25 (7): 566–573. PMID 26222447. doi:10.1089/cap.2015.0035. At week 24, mean changes in ADHD-RS-IV Inattention scores were 13.58 points (Cohen's d, -3.08) for OROS-methylphenidate and 12.65 points (Cohen's d, -3.05) for atomoxetine; and mean changes in ADHD-RS-IV Hyperactivity-Impulsivity scores were 10.16 points (Cohen's d, -1.75) for OROS-methylphenidate and 10.68 points (Cohen's d, -1.87) for atomoxetine. 
  357. ^ 衛生福利部精神疾病衛教叢書 注意力不足過動症,第22頁「atomoxetine,用在病情 較為複雜、或是無法忍受MPH副作用的患者,然而一般發現其對於專注度的改善沒有MPH明顯」
  358. ^ Myriam Harfterkamp, Jan K. Buitelaar, Ruud B. Minderaa, Gigi van de Loo-Neus, Rutger-Jan van der Gaag & Pieter J. Hoekstra. Long-term treatment with atomoxetine for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: an open-label extension study. Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology. 2013-04, 23 (3): 194–199. PMID 23578015. doi:10.1089/cap.2012.0012. 
  359. ^ L. Eugene Arnold, Michael G. Aman, Amelia M. Cook, Andrea N. Witwer, Kristy L. Hall, Susan Thompson & Yaser Ramadan. Atomoxetine for hyperactivity in autism spectrum disorders: placebo-controlled crossover pilot trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2006-10, 45 (10): 1196–1205. PMID 17003665. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000231976.28719.2a. 
  360. ^ Matthew Siegel, MD.,Craig Erickson, MD., MS, Jean A. Frazier, MD., Toni Ferguson, Autism Society of America., Eric Goepfert, MD., Gagan Joshi, MD., Quentin Humberd, MD., Bryan H. King, MD., Amy Lutz, EASI Foundation: Ending Aggression and Self-Injury in the Developmentally Disabled., Louis Kraus, MD., Alice Mao, MD., Adelaide Robb, MD., Jeremy Veenstra-VanderWeele, MD, PhD., Paul Wang, MD, Autism SpeaksCarmen J. Head, MPH, CHES, Director, Research, Development, & WorkforceEve, Bender, Scientific Editor. Autism_Spectrum_Disorder_Parents_Medication_Guide (PDF). 3615 Wisconsin Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20016-3007: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016: 13. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-04-11) (英语). Atomoxetine (Strattera) has also been researched in controlled studies for treatment of ADHD in children with autism, and showed some improvements,particularly for hyperactivity and impulsivity. 
  361. ^ Parent's Medication Guide: ADHD. American Psychiatric Association (Guidelines (Tertiary source)). American Psychiatric Association & American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). 2013-06 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-02-02). Though not FDA-approved for combined treatment, atomoxetine (Strattera) is sometimes used in conjunction with stimulants as an off-label combination therapy.  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  362. ^ Medical Encyclopedia → Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. MedlinePlus.gov. 2017-01-05 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26). Medicine combined with behavioral treatment often works best. Different ADHD medicines can be used alone or combined with each other. The doctor will decide which medicine is right, based on the person's symptoms and needs. 
  363. ^ Treuer T, Gau SS, Méndez L, Montgomery W, Monk JA, Altin M; et al. A systematic review of combination therapy with stimulants and atomoxetine for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, including patient characteristics, treatment strategies, effectiveness, and tolerability.. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology (systematic review (Secondary source)). 2013, 23 (3): 179–93. PMC 3696926可免费查阅. PMID 23560600. doi:10.1089/cap.2012.0093. Existing evidence suggests, but does not confirm, that this drug combination may benefit some, but not all, patients who have tried several ADHD medications without success. 
  364. ^ Perugi G, Vannucchi G. The use of stimulants and atomoxetine in adults with comorbid ADHD and bipolar disorder.. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2015, 16 (14): 2193–204. PMID 26364896. doi:10.1517/14656566.2015.1079620. Although systematic trials on the use of stimulants and ATX in ADHD-BD comorbidity in adulthood are necessary, both treatments should be considered possible options to be carefully evaluated once the patient has been stabilized. 
  365. ^ Label of Strattera consisting of atomoxetine. DailyMed.gov (Leaflet/label (Tertiary source)). Eli Lilly Company. 2015-06 [2017-02]. 7.7 Methylphenidate\ Coadministration of methylphenidate with STRATTERA did not increase cardiovascular effects beyond those seen with methylphenidate alone. 
  366. ^ NIMH » Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. NIMH » Home. [2018-07-21]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-25). Non-stimulants. A few other ADHD medications are non-stimulants. These medications take longer to start working than stimulants, but can also improve focus, attention, and impulsivity in a person with ADHD. Doctors may prescribe a non-stimulant: when a person has bothersome side effects from stimulants; when a stimulant was not effective; or in combination with a stimulant to increase effectiveness.  |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  367. ^ 367.0 367.1 Parent's Medication Guide: ADHD. American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association & American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). 2013-06 [2017-02]. (原始内容存档于2017-02-02). Extended release guanfacine (Intuniv) and extended release clonidine (Kapvay) are approved to be added to stimulant treatment when the stimulant doesn’t fully reduce the ADHD symptoms.  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  368. ^ Loo SK, Bilder RM, Cho AL, Sturm A, Cowen J, Walshaw P; et al. Effects of d-Methylphenidate, Guanfacine, and Their Combination on Electroencephalogram Resting State Spectral Power in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016, 55 (8): 674–682.e1. PMID 27453081. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.04.020. 
  369. ^ 369.0 369.1 McCracken JT, McGough JJ, Loo SK, Levitt J, Del'Homme M, Cowen J; et al. Combined Stimulant and Guanfacine Administration in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Controlled, Comparative Study.. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016, 55 (8): 657–666.e1. PMC 4976782可免费查阅. PMID 27453079. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.05.015. 
  370. ^ 370.0 370.1 Bilder RM, Loo SK, McGough JJ, Whelan F, Hellemann G, Sugar C; et al. Cognitive Effects of Stimulant, Guanfacine, and Combined Treatment in Child and Adolescent Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016, 55 (8): 667–73. PMC 4964604可免费查阅. PMID 27453080. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.05.016. 
  371. ^ Combining medications could offer better results for ADHD patients. Science News. Elsevier. 2016-08-01 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-02). Summary:Three studies report that combining two standard medications could lead to greater clinical improvements for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than either ADHD therapy alone. At present, studies show that the use of several ADHD medications result in significant reductions in ADHD symptoms. However, so far there is no conclusive evidence that these standard drug treatments also improve long-term academic, social, and clinical outcomes.  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  372. ^ Death with the concomitant use of clonidine or guanfacine and amphetamine/dextroamphetamine or dexmethylphenidate or dextroamphetamine or lisdexamfetamine or methylphenidate. (PDF). American Psychiatric Association. Department of Health and Human Services & Public Health Service & Food and Drug Administration & Center for Drug Evaluation and Research & Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology. 2010-07-06 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-02-15). 
  373. ^ LABEL: STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride capsule STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride. DailyMed. 2017-03-16 [2017-24-23]. (原始内容存档于2017-09-02). Swallow STRATTERA capsules whole with water or other liquids. 
  374. ^ John-Michael Sauer, Barbara J. Ring & Jennifer W. Witcher. Clinical pharmacokinetics of atomoxetine. Clinical pharmacokinetics. 2005, 44 (6): 571–590. PMID 15910008. doi:10.2165/00003088-200544060-00002. After single oral dose, atomoxetine reaches maximum plasma concentration within about 1-2 hours of administration. In extensive metabolisers, atomoxetine has a plasma half-life of 5.2 hours, while in poor metabolisers, atomoxetine has a plasma half-life of 21.6 hours. 
  375. ^ STRATTERA® (atomoxetine hydrochloride). TGA eBusiness Services. Eli Lilly Australia Pty. Limited. 2013-08-21 [2013-11-10]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-06). 
  376. ^ ATOMOXETINE HYDROCHLORIDE capsule [Mylan Pharmaceuticals Inc.]. DailyMed. Mylan Pharmaceuticals Inc. 2011-10 [2013-11-10]. (原始内容存档于2013-11-10). 
  377. ^ LABEL: CLONIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE EXTENDED-RELEASE- clonidine hydrochloride tablet, extended release. DailyMed. 2016-09-30 [2017-04-23]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-23). 
  378. ^ 378.0 378.1 廖曉菁; 楊智超. 成人之注意力不足及過動症. National Taiwan University Hospital. [2017-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2018-01-29). 
  379. ^ 379.0 379.1 CLONIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE - clonidine hydrochloride tablet. DailyMed. 2017-04-13. (原始内容存档于2017-04-14). Clonidine hydrochloride USP tablets act relatively rapidly. The patient's blood pressure declines within 30 to 60 minutes after an oral dose, the maximum decrease occurring within 2 to 4 hours. 
  380. ^ New Zealand Datasheet\Name of Medicine\CATAPRES®\Clonidine hydrochloride (PDF). 2012-02-24 [2017-04-13]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-04-08) (en-nz). 
  381. ^ Catapres-drug/clinical-pharmacology. RxList. [2017-04-13]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-14). 
  382. ^ CATAPRES® 100 TABLETS (PDF). ABN 52 000 452 308 78 Waterloo Road NORTH RYDE NSW 2113: Boehringer Ingelheim Pty Limited. 2016-11-07 [2014-04-14]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2015-02-28) (澳大利亚英语). Pharmacokinetic Studies Absorption and distribution The pharmacokinetics of clonidine is dose-proportional in the range of 75-300 micrograms. Clonidine, the active ingredient of CATAPRES, is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and undergoes a minor first pass effect. Peak plasma concentrations are reached within 1-3 hours after oral administration. The duration of action varies from 6-12 hours, the duration of action being longer in the milder hypertensives. The plasma protein binding is 30-40%. Metabolism and excretion The terminal elimination half-life of clonidine has been found to range from 9-26 hours in patients with normal renal function. With impaired enal function it has been reported to increase to 18-48 hours  参数|quote=值左起第412位存在換行符 (帮助)
  383. ^ Lowenthal, DT; Matzek, KM; MacGregor, TR. Clinical pharmacokinetics of clonidine.. Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 1988-05, 14 (5): 287–310. PMID 3293868. doi:10.2165/00003088-198814050-00002. 
  384. ^ Clonidine: MedlinePlus Drug Information. MedlinePlus. [2018-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2018-04-23). 
  385. ^ Guanfacine: MedlinePlus Drug Information. MedlinePlus. [2018-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2018-05-27). 
  386. ^ Guanfacine hydrochloride (Guanfacine) - Adrenergic Receptor Agonist - MCE中国. MCE中国-您身边的抑制剂大师 | 活性小分子-抑制剂-激动剂-化合物库. [2017-12-15]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-15) (中文). 
  387. ^ Niederhofer, Helmut. Duloxetine May Improve Some Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2010-01-01, 12 (2). PMC 2910994可免费查阅. PMID 20694126. doi:10.4088/PCC.09l00807pin –通过PubMed Central. 
  388. ^ Pharmacotherapy-for-adult-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder. UpToDate. [2018-03-17]. (原始内容存档于2018-03-17). For adults with ADHD and co-occurring generalized anxiety disorder, we suggest treatment with the combination of a stimulant and an SSRI over other medications. For adults with ADHD and co-occurring depression, we suggest first-line treatment with bupropionrather than other medications (Grade 2C). Treatment with an SSRI plus a stimulant is also a reasonable option. 
  389. ^ Dr. Ian Morton, I.K. Morton, Judith M. Hall. Concise Dictionary of Pharmacological Agents: Properties and Synonyms. Springer Science & Business Media. 1999-10-31: 57–. ISBN 978-0-7514-0499-9. (原始内容存档于2016-04-27). 
  390. ^ Dictionary of Organic Compounds. CRC Press. : 104–. ISBN 978-0-412-54090-5. (原始内容存档于2016-04-30). 
  391. ^ Index Nominum 2000: International Drug Directory. Taylor & Francis. 2000-01: 38–. ISBN 978-3-88763-075-1. (原始内容存档于2016-04-30). 
  392. ^ Childress, A. C.; Sallee, F. R. Revisiting clonidine: an innovative add-on option for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Drugs of Today (Barcelona, Spain: 1998). 2012, 48 (3): 207–217. ISSN 1699-3993. PMID 22462040. doi:10.1358/dot.2012.48.3.1750904. 
  393. ^ STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride capsule STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride. DailyMed. [2018-12-16]. (原始内容存档于2017-09-02). 14.2 ADHD studies in Adults
    The effectiveness of STRATTERA in the treatment of ADHD was established in 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical studies of adult patients, age 18 and older, who met DSM-IV criteria for ADHD.
    Signs and symptoms of ADHD were evaluated using the investigator-administered Conners Adult ADHD Rating Scale Screening Version (CAARS), a 30-item scale. The primary effectiveness measure was the 18-item Total ADHD Symptom score (the sum of the inattentive and hyperactivity/impulsivity subscales from the CAARS) evaluated by a comparison of mean change from baseline to endpoint using an intent-to-treat analysis.
    In 2 identical, 10-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled acute treatment studies (Study 5, N=280; Study 6, N=256), patients received either STRATTERA or placebo. STRATTERA was administered as a divided dose in the early morning and late afternoon/early evening and titrated according to clinical response in a range of 60 to 120 mg/day. The mean final dose of STRATTERA for both studies was approximately 95 mg/day. In both studies, ADHD symptoms were statistically significantly improved on STRATTERA, as measured on the ADHD Symptom score from the CAARS scale. Examination of population subsets based on gender and age (<42 and ≥42) did not reveal any differential responsiveness on the basis of these subgroupings. There was not sufficient exposure of ethnic groups other than Caucasian to allow exploration of differences in these subgroups.
     
  394. ^ 394.0 394.1 中醫有效治療小兒過動症及妥瑞氏症記者會. 中華民國中醫師公會全國聯合會. 臺灣. 2018-08-09 [2018-08-11]. (原始内容存档于2018-08-11) (中文). 注意力不足過動症(Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,簡稱 ADHD)及妥瑞氏症(Tourette Syndrom,簡稱TS)是常見發病於兒童的慢性神經精神異常疾病(Neuropsychiatric disorder),目前不論中西醫都在尋求根治的方法。長久以來,傳統中醫在改善這類慢性長期精神生理疾病症狀方面,具有顯著的療效及實證案例,透過中醫藥的幫助,減低病症對日常生活之影響,提升生活品質及學業表現,讓孩子有尊嚴、不受歧視、健康自在地活出自己 
  395. ^ 中醫有效治療小兒過動症及妥瑞氏症記者會 (PDF). 中華民國中醫師公會全國聯合會. 臺灣. 2018-08-09 [2018-08-11]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2018-08-11) (中文(臺灣)). 臨床實驗證明中醫藥治療注意力不足過動症及妥瑞氏症有一定優勢,如在緩解症狀、穩定病情上有較明顯的療效,同時能增進食慾,改善睡眠,消除或減少遺尿、夜遊、易驚、汗多、痰多等兼症,可以達到增強體質,固本增元,全面調節的作用。目前市面上已有許多藥物對於這類精神疾病有治療效果,如:利他能(Ritalin)等,但因容易產生失眠、腸胃不適及食慾不振、頭暈等副作用,因此尋求中醫診治成了不少家長的選擇。中藥、針灸雙管齊下 治療過動兒...... 
  396. ^ 曾凡慈、劉毓翔. 建構童年異常:新聞媒體中的兒童過動症及其轉變 The Construction of ADHD and Its Transformation in the News. 社會分析 (東吳大學社會系;輔仁大學社會系;世新大學社會心理學系). 2017-02, 201702 (14). doi:10.3966/221866892017020014003. 
  397. ^ 曾凡慈. 兒童過動症的在地興起與專業技能網絡的變遷. 《科技、醫療與社會》 Taiwanese Journal for Studies of Science, Technology and Medicine: 15–76. 2015年10月 [2017-06-23]. (原始内容存档于2017-08-10) (中文).  参数|journal=与模板{{cite web}}不匹配(建议改用{{cite journal}}|website=) (帮助); |issue=被忽略 (帮助)
  398. ^ Parrillo VN. Encyclopedia of Social Problems. SAGE. 2008: 63 [2 May 2009]. ISBN 9781412941655. 
  399. ^ 399.0 399.1 399.2 399.3 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater JL. Medicating Children: ADHD and Pediatric Mental Health illustrated. Harvard University Press. 2009: 4–24. ISBN 978-0-674-03163-0. 
  400. ^ 張如杏、林幸台. 特教醫療化現象之探討 (PDF). 特殊教育與復健學報. 2009, (21): 1∼17. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2018-03-07). 
  401. ^ 401.0 401.1 401.2 Silver LB. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 3rd. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2004: 4–7. ISBN 978-1-58562-131-6. 
  402. ^ 402.0 402.1 402.2 Schonwald A, Lechner E. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. April 2006, 18 (2): 189–195. PMID 16601502. doi:10.1097/01.mop.0000193302.70882.70. 
  403. ^ Merten, EC; Cwik, JC; Margraf, J; Schneider, S. Overdiagnosis of mental disorders in children and adolescents (in developed countries).. Child and adolescent psychiatry and mental health. 2017, 11: 5. PMC 5240230可免费查阅. PMID 28105068. 
  404. ^ Taylor, E. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: overdiagnosed or diagnoses missed?. Archives of disease in childhood. April 2017, 102 (4): 376–379. PMID 27821518. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2016-310487. 
  405. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Diagnosis. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 116–7, 119. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. (原始内容存档于2016-01-13) –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  406. ^ 巫毓荃(中央研究院歷史語言研究所助研究員). 注意力不足過動症爭議的十個話題. 歷史學柑仔店(kám-á-tiàm). March 24, 2017 [2017-06-24]. (原始内容存档于2017年6月23日) (中文). 

參考資料群組

群組A

群組B

註解

  1. ^ 雖然中樞神經刺激劑(methylphenidate & amphetamine)與非典型中樞神經刺激劑(atomoxetine)能改善ADHD的核心症狀,但往往無法全面治癒患者在管理時間規劃方面的困難;社交和情緒方面的自我控制[61][62][63]。 而認知行為治療的領域中,為此再建立出專門針對改善ADHD執行功能缺陷的「ADHD認知行為治療」[50]
  2. ^ 減少環境中的分心誘因。
  3. ^ 在《找回專注力 成人ADHD全方位自助手冊》中,「改善ADHD症狀的實用技巧與策略」涵蓋:創造有助於專注的環境與內在策略、強化記憶力的妙方、時間管理、改善衝動問題與人際關係、學習表達和傾聽、改善情緒、改善與親人與情人的關係等。[4]
  4. ^ 陳錦宏醫師的研究發現,因 ADHD 照顧者本身為 ADHD 症狀衍生功能損害的負面後果承擔者,如校園衝突、學習困難,生活困難,所以本身也是壓力的高風險群,ADHD 家庭研究顯示, ADHD 媽媽的生活品質較差,而沮喪的媽媽較難正向協助孩子。這就產生了 ADHD 照護中的核心困難[91] [92][93][86]
  5. ^ 或稱心理與身體無法保持安寧。 無法專心睡覺。
  6. ^ 即表示可附加在現有具備科學實證且能在統計學上達到顯著意義之有效改善症狀的醫學療法。
  7. ^ 攝取過多的維他命可能產生健康問題。[117]例如:長期且高劑量的攝取維他命B6維他命B12可能導致肺癌[118][119]
  8. ^ 全美國ADHD的用藥率從2007-2011年成長了4%,其中男性青少年用藥比率是相對其他族群來說,成長最快的。[168][169]
  9. ^ 藥物不會成癮且ADHD患者往往不易維持生活組織及時間等。[189]
  10. ^ 又名中樞神經活化劑、中樞神經興奮劑、興奮劑
  11. ^ 也就是中樞神經刺激劑類
  12. ^ 又稱為「派醋甲酯」
  13. ^ 中樞神經過度刺激或心跳增加都可能推升基礎代謝率。
  14. ^ 尿液滯留或膀胱已經蓄積足量尿液卻不自覺,同樣可能導致心悸
  15. ^ See Obsessive–compulsive_spectrum#Tic_disorders英语Obsessive–compulsive_spectrum#Tic_disorders
  16. ^ Elsevier BV曾經出版一篇文獻指出,未經治療的ADHD可能在往後的人生中直接或間接衍生出以下共伴疾病(已忽略重複項目):吸菸性成癮(包含:從事高風險性愛英语Risky sexual behavior、罹患性感染疾病)。間接:體適能不足、醫療費用及就醫次數增加。極間接:糖尿病高血壓[322]
  17. ^ 「常見副作用」的定義為:在臨床試驗中,實驗組中至少5%的人出現此症狀,且在實驗組中出現此反應的比例為安慰組的兩倍。
  18. ^ 「較少見的副作用」的定義為:在臨床試驗中,實驗組中至少2%的人出現此症狀,且在實驗組中出現此反應的比例多於安慰組。
  19. ^ 舉例:一個三十公斤的服藥者每天不可服用超過60毫克的專思達
  20. ^ 延伸閱讀:腎上腺素受體、α2腎上腺素受體
  21. ^ 膠囊必須整顆與開水或其他液體一起吞服。其他注意事項請詳閱藥品說明書。[373]
  22. ^ 請注意(仿單標註):
    • 除非經醫師評估後允許,否則在服用Clonidine期間切勿攝取酒精及其他與clonidine藥效相似皆會增加睡意的物質、藥物。
    • 不要在服用Clonidine期間駕車、操作機械或從事具危險性的活動,除非服藥者已明白且熟悉Clonidine對自己帶來的各種影響。
    • 避免讓自己脫水及中暑。
    clonidine常見的副作用為:
    1. 較低的血壓及心跳速率
    2. 想睡覺。 [377]
  23. ^ 舊名:amfebutamone
  24. ^ 中華民國中醫師公會全國聯合會將《Complementary Therapies in Medicine》翻譯為「醫學補充療法」
  25. ^ (英文名稱:complementary and alternative medicine)

注释

  1. ^ 即表示可附加在現有具備科學實證且能在統計學上達到顯著意義之有效改善症狀的醫學療法。

參見

外部連結