性交:修订间差异
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對於因生理疾病而併發勃起功能障礙的人而言,{{link-en|他达拉非|Tadalafil}}、[[伐地那非]]、[[西地那非]](俗名偉哥)等处方葯都有助於其回復至足以進行性交的硬度,但是醫師們警告説不要非必要地使用這些藥物,因為它們伴有嚴重的副作用,比如令心臟病發作的风險增加<ref name="Greenberg ED">{{cite book |author= Jerrold S Greenberg |author2= Clint E. Bruess |author3= Dean Emeritus | title = Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality | publisher =[[Jones & Bartlett Publishers]]|page=633|year = 2010|accessdate=December 8, 2014| isbn = 0763797405 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6b36v8JHznIC&pg=PA633}}</ref>。[[选择性5-羟色胺再摄取抑制剂]](SSRI)及[[達泊西汀]]这兩款葯物已在早發性射精的治療中有所應用<ref name="Balon">{{cite book |author=Richard Balon |author2=Robert Taylor Segraves| title = Clinical Manual of Sexual Disorders | publisher =[[American Psychiatric Pub]]|page=292|year = 2009|accessdate=December 6, 2014| isbn = 1585629057 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=YuP3Hb0TMLQC&pg=PA292}}</ref>。與没有服用任何药物时相比,服用達泊西汀的早發性射精患者在臨床性交試驗中花3-4倍时間才達至高潮<ref name="Architectural Press">{{cite book| title = The Architects' Journal |volume=221 |issue=17-21 | publisher =[[Architectural Press]]|page=16|year = 2005|accessdate=December 6, 2014|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=7HlNAAAAYAAJ&q=The+Architects%27+Journal,+Volume+221,+Issues+17-21&dq=The+Architects%27+Journal,+Volume+221,+Issues+17-21&hl=en&sa=X&ei=E8uDVKqUNM6sogTpz4G4BA&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA}}</ref>。{{link-en|延遲性射精|delayed ejaculation}}也是一种跟射精相关的障礙,它可由抗抑鬱藥物的副作用所導致,比如[[氟伏沙明]];但所有SSRI型的抗抑鬱藥均具有延遲射精的副作用,氟伏沙明則是当中延遲效果最少的<ref name="Balon2">{{cite book |author= Richard Balon |author2= Robert Taylor Segraves| title = Clinical Manual of Sexual Disorders | publisher =[[American Psychiatric Pub]]|page=281|year = 2009|accessdate=December 6, 2014| isbn = 1585629057 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=YuP3Hb0TMLQC&pg=PA281}}</ref>。 |
對於因生理疾病而併發勃起功能障礙的人而言,{{link-en|他达拉非|Tadalafil}}、[[伐地那非]]、[[西地那非]](俗名偉哥)等处方葯都有助於其回復至足以進行性交的硬度,但是醫師們警告説不要非必要地使用這些藥物,因為它們伴有嚴重的副作用,比如令心臟病發作的风險增加<ref name="Greenberg ED">{{cite book |author= Jerrold S Greenberg |author2= Clint E. Bruess |author3= Dean Emeritus | title = Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality | publisher =[[Jones & Bartlett Publishers]]|page=633|year = 2010|accessdate=December 8, 2014| isbn = 0763797405 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6b36v8JHznIC&pg=PA633}}</ref>。[[选择性5-羟色胺再摄取抑制剂]](SSRI)及[[達泊西汀]]这兩款葯物已在早發性射精的治療中有所應用<ref name="Balon">{{cite book |author=Richard Balon |author2=Robert Taylor Segraves| title = Clinical Manual of Sexual Disorders | publisher =[[American Psychiatric Pub]]|page=292|year = 2009|accessdate=December 6, 2014| isbn = 1585629057 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=YuP3Hb0TMLQC&pg=PA292}}</ref>。與没有服用任何药物时相比,服用達泊西汀的早發性射精患者在臨床性交試驗中花3-4倍时間才達至高潮<ref name="Architectural Press">{{cite book| title = The Architects' Journal |volume=221 |issue=17-21 | publisher =[[Architectural Press]]|page=16|year = 2005|accessdate=December 6, 2014|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=7HlNAAAAYAAJ&q=The+Architects%27+Journal,+Volume+221,+Issues+17-21&dq=The+Architects%27+Journal,+Volume+221,+Issues+17-21&hl=en&sa=X&ei=E8uDVKqUNM6sogTpz4G4BA&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA}}</ref>。{{link-en|延遲性射精|delayed ejaculation}}也是一种跟射精相关的障礙,它可由抗抑鬱藥物的副作用所導致,比如[[氟伏沙明]];但所有SSRI型的抗抑鬱藥均具有延遲射精的副作用,氟伏沙明則是当中延遲效果最少的<ref name="Balon2">{{cite book |author= Richard Balon |author2= Robert Taylor Segraves| title = Clinical Manual of Sexual Disorders | publisher =[[American Psychiatric Pub]]|page=281|year = 2009|accessdate=December 6, 2014| isbn = 1585629057 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=YuP3Hb0TMLQC&pg=PA281}}</ref>。 |
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在對生殖器官及其某些構造進行大型的治疗后,当事人仍有很大机会可繼續从事性交,尤其是女性。許多婦科手術一般不会造成性交上的困難,比如[[子宮切除術]]、{{link-en|卵巢切除術|oophorectomy}}、{{link-en|輸卵管切除術|salpingectomy}}、{{link-en|子宮擴刮術|Dilation and curettage}}、{{link-en|处女膜切开术|Hymenotomy}}、跟[[前庭大腺]]有关的手術、膿腫切除術、前庭切除術、[[小陰唇|陰唇]]縮小術、{{link-en|子宮頸錐狀切除術|Cervical conization}}、治療癌症的外科手術、放射治療和化療<ref name="Hoffman2012">{{cite book | last = Hoffman | first = Barbara | title = Williams gynecology | edition = 2nd | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical |page=65 |location = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 0071716726 }}</ref>。 |
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===其他疾病對性交的影響=== |
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[[身心障礙]]者在從事性交时可能面臨各种各样的挑戰及困難,包括疼痛、[[抑鬱]]、疲勞、負面的[[身體意象]]、性功能障礙、焦慮、性欲低下、體內激素失衡,以及藥物治療的副作用。[[類風濕性關節炎]]患者的性功能對生活質量的影響通常遭到忽視<ref name="Tristano2014">{{cite journal|last1=Tristano|first1=Antonio G|title=Impact of rheumatoid arthritis on sexual function|journal=World Journal of Orthopedics|volume=5|issue=2|year=2014|page=107|issn=2218-5836|doi=10.5312/wjo.v5.i2.107}}</ref>。對於那些必須以鴉片類藥物控制疼痛的患者而言,性交通常會變得較難去实行<ref name="DeyoVon Korff2015">{{cite journal|last1=Deyo|first1=R. A.|last2=Von Korff|first2=M.|last3=Duhrkoop|first3=D.|title=Opioids for low back pain|journal=BMJ|volume=350|issue=jan05 10|year=2015|pages=g6380–g6380|issn=1756-1833|doi=10.1136/bmj.g6380}}</ref>。中風也可能会使当事人从事性交的能力大受影响<ref name="HersonPalmateer2012">{{cite journal|last1=Herson|first1=Paco S.|last2=Palmateer|first2=Julie|last3=Hurn|first3=Patricia D.|title=Biological Sex and Mechanisms of Ischemic Brain Injury|journal=Translational Stroke Research|volume=4|issue=4|year=2012|pages=413–419|issn=1868-4483|doi=10.1007/s12975-012-0238-x}}</ref>。雖然諸如行动障碍和癌症般的身心障礙所引起的疼痛可能会使患者不能順利地完成性交,但身心障礙者的性交困難往往是心因性的<ref name="Falvo">{{cite book |author=Donna Falvo| title = Medical and Psychosocial Aspects of Chronic Illness and Disability | publisher =[[Jones & Bartlett Publishers]]|page=367|year = 2013|accessdate=December 7, 2014| isbn = 144969442X |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=SdM6FsykfWAC&pg=PA367}}</ref>。他們可能会對性交感到害怕,因为这牽涉到性的自我形象、伴侶以及自己的不安<ref name="Falvo"/>。 |
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== 性犯罪 == |
== 性犯罪 == |
2017年4月21日 (五) 11:30的版本
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Paul_Avril_-_Les_Sonnetts_Luxurieux_%281892%29_de_Pietro_Aretino%2C_2.jpg/260px-Paul_Avril_-_Les_Sonnetts_Luxurieux_%281892%29_de_Pietro_Aretino%2C_2.jpg)
性交(英語:Sexual intercourse),或稱性交合,指的是將一般為勃起狀態的陰莖插入陰道及在內抽送的過程,主要目的是为了令自身獲得性快感、繁殖下一代[3]。其也会被人們稱為陰交(vaginal sex)或阴道交(vaginal intercourse)[2][4]。其他的插入式性行為包括肛交(把陰莖插入至肛門)、口交(以口腔、舌、齒等部位刺激性伴侶生殖器)、指交(以手指刺激性伴侶的生殖器)、插入假陰莖(特別是捆綁式假陰莖)至性器官[5][6][7]。這些活動牽涉到個體與個體之間的身體接觸,當事人通常能從中獲得身心之愉悅感,性交亦有助加強人與人之間的感情纽带[5][8]。
「性交或其他性活動包含什麽成分在內?」此一問題有着許多不同的看法及答案[9][10],對此問題抱持的觀點亦可能影響当事人對性健康的看法[11][12]。儘管「性交」(特别是性交合)一詞通常指的是陰莖-陰道交,和能產生后代的交合[3],但它亦普遍地代指带侵入成分的口交,以及陰莖-肛交,但代指后者的情況則較为常見[13]。它通常由「插入與否」此一點來定義。而諸如不帶侵入成分的舔陰、互相撫慰等非插入式性行為,則一般會被統稱為体外性行为(outercourse)[14]。然而非插入式性行為在一些情況下亦會遭認作性交[5][15]。「性行为」(sex)一詞通常是在代指性交,但其亦可指任何形式的性活动[11][16]。 雖說非插入式性行為能顯著降低從中感染性傳播疾病的風險[12][17],但因為人們仍可從性活动中感染的缘故[18][19],所以世界卫生组织建议人們應實行安全性行為[12]。
在人类社会中,许多国家对性行为都有着某种的法律限制,比如近親性交、與未成年人、動物、性工作者、非自願者發生的性行為,以至鸡奸、婚前性行為、婚外性行為。宗教信仰在與性行為有關的抉擇中亦扮演了一定的角色,比如與处女相关的抉擇[10][20],以及相關的法律和公共政策。不同宗教及教派對性的看法差異很大,雖然當中亦有相同之處,比如對通奸的反對及禁止。
非人動物的生殖性性行为一般會稱為「交配」(copulation),當中精子可以不經陰道的方式來進入雌性的生殖管道,比如泄殖腔交配(cloacal copulation)。對於大多數哺乳动物而言,交配會在發情期發生(雌性生殖週期中最有可能發生受精的時間段),增加了成功受精的機會[21][22]。然而人类目前已知無論雌性是否處於發情期,倭黑猩猩、海豚、黑猩猩這些物種都會照樣地從事性交,並會發生同性性行为[23]。就像人類主要是為了快樂而從事性活動一樣[24],上述動物也同樣遭認為會為了享受而從事性交[25],性交還成为了加強牠們社會紐帶的促成因子[24]。
定義
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Deveria04.jpg/220px-Deveria04.jpg)
性交可由不同的詞語來代稱,包括交配(copulation)、交媾(coitus)、交尾(coition)、性交合(intercourse)。交媾的英語「coitus」是由拉丁语「coitio」或「coire」衍生而來,其意思為「一同到达或一同參與」,在拉丁语中其泛指各式各樣的性活動,但一般情况下它所指的是陰莖-陰道交[26]。它亦常遭稱為陰道交(vaginal sex)或阴道性交(vaginal intercourse)[4][27],以上兩者皆可指任何與陰道有关的性活動,尤其是帶侵入成分的,包括女同性恋伴侣間的性活動[28][29]。相反,交配更經常地指非人動物的交媾過程;它可代表異性或同性配偶間的任何性活動[30],但一般定義為一種把精子從雄性體內轉移到雌性體內的性生殖行為,或雄性和雌性之間的有性生殖行為[30][31][32]。
俚語
儘管「性交」及「性行為」这倆用詞最常指的是陰莖-陰道交[33],但「性行為」及「發生性行為/有過性關係」亦可指任何涉及二人或以上的插入或非插入式性行為[11][16][34]。世界衛生組織(WHO)指出,非英語系語言和文化「對性活動的描述用語及其所包含的含義都稍有不同」,用於描述性交或其他性活動的通俗語(俚語)和委婉語亦有所差異[11]。
中文
中文中「性交」及「性行為」的俚語包括:「屌」[35]、「扑野」[36]、「肏」[37]、「房事」[38]、「行房」[39]、「炒饭」(台灣俚語)[38]、「周公之禮」[38][40]、「敦伦」[40]、「魚水之歡」[39]、「陰陽交合」[39]、「啪啪啪」[38]。
英文
英語中的「Fuck」、「shag」(性交的俚語)和「sleep together」(睡在一起)都是「性交」及「性行為」的俚語[41][42][43]。以勃起的陰莖插入陰道此一行為在英語中亦遭稱為「intromission」,等同拉丁語的「immissio penis」(皆指插入陰莖)[44]。
性交与性行為的定义争议
比起其他性行為,陰道/肛/口交更常遭界定為性交[45]。雖然非插入式性行為和非陰莖-陰道交的性活動亦可能遭界定是性交[5][6][15],但是它們也可以被認為是避免失貞的一種手段,以至被界定為「體外性行為」。相比起肛交,口交更常發生此一情況[46]。女性更常於陰莖 - 陰道交失貞的部分原因是肛交或口交除了可為異性性伴侣带來愉悦感外,還可以是沒有從事生殖性行為時避免失貞的一種選擇[46]。一些男同性戀者亦会同樣地以陰莖摩擦或口交來避免失貞,因為他們視陰莖-肛交如同性交,並會導致失貞。而其他男同性戀者会以陰莖摩擦或口交作為他們最主要的性活動[10][47][48]。女同性戀者則可能会視口交或指交等同性交[9][10][49],並以女陰摩擦作為她們最主要的性活動[2][50]。
研究者通常將性交限定為陰莖-陰道交,同時使用其他術語去把性交以外的性行為區分,例如肛交或口交[51]。理查德·勒納和勞倫斯·斯坦伯格這兩位學者指出,研究者們「很少公開他們怎樣定義性行為(sex)一詞,定義中的潛在差異亦很少在學術界中討論及解決[9]。」勒納和斯坦伯格認為,研究者對陰莖-陰道交「這種形式的性活動有着一種文化上的偏见」,並對「不容置疑地把性行為等同性交此一問題」表示關注,因為「『受訪者怎理解那些關於性活動的問題,是否與研究者所想的一致?』此一點仍沒有系統地訪問調查[9]。」此一問題點可把其他形式的性活動降格為一種「前戲」,甚至使它們不被視為「真正的性行為」,並限制了強奸的定義[52][53][54][55]。在概念上把性行為與陰道交混为一谈此一點,可能会削弱了非異性戀者獲得性功能障礙及可能從事之性行為的信息的真偽性,異性戀者可能從事的非陰道性活動的信息亦同樣如是,其真偽性亦都可能因此而削弱[53]。
研究發現性交的定義有時是有爭議的。1999年一項由金賽研究所進行的研究中,先在美國29個州份隨機地取得599个大學生樣本,其後對他們進行訪談。结果發現「所有大學生受訪者都認為陰莖-陰道交是一種性行為」,19-20%認為肛交不是一種性行為(sex),還有60%的受訪者認為口部-生殖器(陰莖口交、陰戶口交)接觸不能算作有過性關係(have sex)[34][56][57]一項在2003年發表於《加拿大性学期刊》的研究則同樣地聚焦於來自美國、英國和澳大利亞等地的大學生對「有過性關係」的定義,「在這三地的研究中,絕大多數受訪者(超過97%)都把陰莖-陰道交包括在『有過性關係』的定義中,認為陰莖-肛交是有過性關係者則較少有(70%至90%之間)……把口部-生殖器行为定為有過性關係的受訪者约有32%至58%」[16]美国疾病控制与预防中心(CDC)在2009年指出:「儘管青少年從事口交的頻率及有從事者的人數有限,但有些數據表明,許多從事口交的青少年不認為那是『有過性關係』。因此,他們可能會以口交為體驗性行為的一种選擇,但在心中認為自己仍是在禁欲[58]。」
性活動研究的問題具体性還可影響受訪者對性交或其他性行為的定義。金賽研究所的另一項研究則訪問484個年齡介乎18-96歲之樣本。結果顯示將近95%的受訪者同意「陰莖-陰道交就是『有過性關係』,但当問題變得更为具体时,此數值就有了變化。」11%的受訪者以有没達至高潮去定義有過性關係與否,認為不存在性高潮即表示没「有過性關係」。「大約80%的受訪者認为陰莖-肛交亦等同『有過性關係』,約70%則認為口交等同『有過性關係』 。」[34]有沒有使用避孕套也是一個影響因子,一些人認為有避孕套保護的性行為不是「真正的性行為」[34][59][60]。一項研究報告指出,年齡較大的男性(65歲或以上)更為傾向不把有避孕套保護的性活動視為真正的性行為[34]。此一觀点在非洲男性間十分普遍[59][60],在該地涉及避孕套保護的性活動通常與完全的去勢有關,因為避孕套可防止直接的生殖器接觸[59]。
與性交有关的表現及行为
感情纽带
性交具有廣泛性的作用——從純生殖活動到情感結合。在人類的感情纽带中,性交和性活動通常扮演着一個十分重要的角色[24]。性行為本身亦有加強感情纽带和與伴侣一同享樂的功用[24]。
對於人類及倭黑猩猩而言,雌性的排卵相對較為隱蔽,使得不論當事人自身还是她的伴侣,通常都不知道她在某個時刻会否受孕。出現這種與別不同的生物特徵的可能原因在於此能幫助性伴侶形成強烈的感情纽带;對於人類而言,這種特徵有助建立長期的合作關係,避免迅即的有性生殖[24][61]。此一影響在人类中尤其明顯,其会加強社區中的協作行為。另外,性行為也增強了個體之間的社會性纽带,並有助更为龐大的社會結構的形成。由此産生的結果——協作,便成為了集體行動的誘因,並能以此增加群體之中每個個體生存的機會[23] 。
刺激方法及生理学
在大多數哺乳動物當中,生殖器官的解剖特徵以及神經系統的某些迴路是特地為了異性間的交配而形成的,交配此一行為相當於一系列的本能性反應:勃起、陰道潤滑、脊柱前凸、臥下、插入、抽送、射精。這些反應由激素所制控,並受到性費洛蒙的作用所軀使[62]。在人科(包括人類)此一分類之下,一些控制交配的生物性因子已在演化過程中遭到修改[63]。就神經調控此一層面而言,那些變化在人類女性中尤其明顯。非靈長類動物的雌性只有在發情期期間才會進行交配[64],但對於屬人科的雌性動物而言,她們在月經週期中的任何一點都可進行性交[65]。儘管性費洛蒙會助長交配的反應[66],但人類檢測費洛蒙的能力已經遭到削弱[67][68],且只有很少的殘留影響[69]。非靈長類動物的雌性会在交配过程中保持着脊柱前凸的狀態,但對於人類女性而言,此一反射毫无作用可言,且已被移除[64]。人類的性交跟其他哺乳動物的交配不同,其不是由激素所制控,或是受到性費洛蒙的作用所軀使,而是一種自願的習得性行为,目的是以此獲得生殖性的獎賞回饋[70][63]。
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/%C3%89douard-Henri_Avril_%2814%29.jpg/220px-%C3%89douard-Henri_Avril_%2814%29.jpg)
性交及其他性活動可包含各式各樣影响性刺激的要素(生理刺激或心理刺激)在內,例如性交体位的變化、性玩具的使用情况[2][6][71]。在進行某些性活動之前,前戲亦可使伴侶得到充分的性喚起,令陰莖勃起,或使陰道得以潤滑[72]。伴侣亦常常通過親吻、以帶有情欲的方式愛撫身體,來使另一方獲得性滿足,在性交过程中施行以上兩者亦能加强性滿足[73]。
在交配期間,伴侶可調整臀部的面向,以成一条直线,使得陰莖可在陰道內來回移動,引起摩擦,过程中陰莖通常沒有完全移離陰道。這種方式可使雙方都獲得刺激,並使單方或雙方都獲得高潮[15][74]。
對於人類女性而言,刺激陰蒂常在性活動中了一個關鍵的作用;70-80%的女性都須以對陰蒂進行刺激的方式來達至高潮[75][76][77],但是間接刺激陰蒂亦可能足以令一些女士達至高潮,例如陰道交[78][79]。一些伴侶可能因此選擇以女上位或貓式體位(一種結合傳教士式體位及施壓-反壓技術的性侵入體位)的方式去進行性交,以令刺激陰蒂的頻率最大化[1][6][80]。
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/%C3%89douard-Henri_Avril_%2824%29.jpg/220px-%C3%89douard-Henri_Avril_%2824%29.jpg)
肛交的一般意思為將男性的陰莖插入其伴侣的直腸,以對肛門、肛門腔、括約肌瓣以及直腸等部位進行刺激的方式來獲取快感。但實踐者也可能把諸如性玩具和手指般的刺激源插入肛門,以此實現舔肛和假陰莖肛交[81]。
口交指的是所有以口腔和喉嚨刺激生殖器或肛門的性活動,其有时会取代其他形式之性活動。實踐者也可能會從中吞入精液/阴道分泌液[2][82]。
指交是指以手指挑逗陰蒂、陰戶、陰道或肛門的性活動,以達至刺激對方及令對方性喚起的目的。它既可以是一次性經驗中的全部,亦可以是相互撫慰、前戲或其他性行為的一個組成部分[29][83][84]。
繁殖
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Coition_of_a_Hemisected_Man_and_Woman.jpg/180px-Coition_of_a_Hemisected_Man_and_Woman.jpg)
性交可能已有3.85億年的實踐歷史,地球上最古老的顎魚可能是第一種會通過交配繁衍後代的動物[85]。人類一般以陰莖-陰道交的方式繁殖下一代[86]。男性性高潮一般伴隨射精,當中會發生一系列的肌肉收縮,把含有男性配子(精子)的精液從陰莖射至陰道內。精子後從阴道穹窿往子宮頸移動,進入子宮,再由子宮進入輸卵管。每次射精都有數以千萬甚至數以億計的精子射出,增加卵子受精的機會。當輸卵管中擁有能发育成新个体的卵子時,男性配子便會與卵子結合,導致受精的出現,以及新的胚胎形成。當胚胎到達子宮時,它会植入至子宮內膜,意味着懷孕的開始[86]。人類的性活動與大多數物種不同——其與發情期無關:在生殖週期的任何一點,以至懷孕途中,人類女性都可以進行性活動[61][87]。
一名捐精者只為放出精子,而跟並非他伴侣的女性進行性交的舉動一般稱為「自然授精」,其跟人工授精相反。人工授精是輔助生殖技術的形式之一,其透過完全或部分人工的手段去達至最终目的——懷孕[88]。就人工授精的情況而言,捐精者会向精子庫捐獻精子,並以那些精子協助擁有明確懷孕意願的女性授精。这一种醫學手段的目的某程度上等同性交[89][90]。
以上方法已被同性恋伴侣所應用。男同性伴侣可以以代孕的方式來獲得一名或數名子女,女同性伴侣則除了代孕之外,還可選擇异配授精[91][92]。上述兩者皆为同性恋伴侣獲得子女的最主要方法。代孕是指代孕母親完成懷孕后,把孩子交给另一个人或另一對伴侣抚養的安排。代孕母親可能跟孩子有血緣關係(传统代孕),或只是被植入其他女性的卵子的代孕者(妊娠代孕)。同性恋伴侣若希望代孕母親跟孩子没有任何血緣關係,那么則可选择妊娠代孕,并与捐卵者签订合同。男同性伴侣也可共同为体外受精獻出精液,此亦能证实雙方皆有成为父母的意願[92]。女同性伴侣一般会跟捐精者签订合同,使其不再有任何关於她們的孩子之合法权利,同时為自己確立关於孩子的合法权利[93]。
安全性行为和生育控制
不少异性和同性伴侣都有採用各種手段去達至安全性行为的目的,当中包括非插入式性行為[19][94],异性伴侣也會把口交或/和肛交視为生育控制的方法[95][96]。若陰莖與陰道十分接近(比如股间性爱、互相摩擦生殖器),那么即使只進行肛交或其他性活動,女方仍有機會懷孕,當中精子會在阴道口附近沿着阴道的润滑液进入陰道。此外即使阴茎不靠近阴道,怀孕的风险仍然存在,因为沾有精液的手指或其他身体部分有可能会跟阴道接触,使得精子从此一途径進入阴道[97][98]。
安全性行为是一種跟緩減傷害有關的理念[12][99] ,使用避孕套則是安全性行为及生育控制的其中一種方式,其还被醫學界廣泛推舉为一种有效預防性感染疾病的方法[12][99]。根据美國國立衛生研究院及世界卫生组织的調查,相對於没有進行任何保护措施,正确及不間斷地使用乳胶安全套可使艾滋病的传播风险降低约85-99%[100][101]。避免感染性傳播疾病的最有效方法是避免發生性行為,特别是阴道/肛/口交[99]。
與生育控制有關的决定和选择可能受当事人的文化背景所影響,比如宗教信仰、性别角色,以及民俗[102]。在天主教为最大宗教的国家当中,比如爱尔兰、意大利和菲律宾,人們較为着重推算安全期避孕法及生育能力計劃生育法,並会反對使用其他避孕方法[18]。以全世界來計,絕育比以上兩种自然避孕法更为常见[18] 。於女性子宫置入子宮環(IUD)則是最常见及最有效的可逆避孕方法[18][103]。在發展中國家,怀孕及避孕更为攸关生死,当中三份之一女性在20岁前就经歷至少一次分娩,但那些国家90%的不安全流产都可以通过有效的避孕方式來预防[18]。
葛特馬赫研究所指出,在2002年,6200万名年齡介乎15-44岁的女性當中,就有62%至少采用一种避孕方法去避孕。在當時的美国,最普遍的避孕方法为服用避孕药(30.6%),其次為输卵管结扎(27.0%)以及使用男用避孕套(18.0%),27%使用避孕用品的青少年女性則以避孕套为首選[104]。2006年,一份由凯泽家庭基金会發表的报告指出,在性活躍的美國青少年(年齡介乎15-19岁)當中,就有83%女性及91%男性报稱在上一次性交当中有使用至少一种避孕方法[105]。
在2010年,美国性健康与行为调查(NSSHB)指出「美国国內有使用避孕套的阴道交達四份之一(若只計單身的則有三份之一)……黑人和西班牙裔美国人比白人和其他种族更常使用避孕套……在性唤醒、性愉悦和性高潮這些方面,有使用避孕套者跟没有使用者的程度大致相若[106]。」
盛行率
「性交」一詞通常指的是陰莖-陰道交[4][27]。研究表明,绝大多数异性伴侣几乎每次發生性行为时都会進行阴道交[27]。美国性健康与行为调查在2010年指出陰道交是「最普遍的性行为,不分年龄、性别和种族[27]。」克林特·布鲁斯(Clint E. Bruess)等人於2013年指出它是「一种最常被人研究的行为」,並表示在不同文化中,当人们提到「性行为」或「性交」时,往往是指「青少年性教育課程的重心[107]。」
2009年,美國疾病控制與預防中心亦指出:「研究表明,不論年纪,口交都是一種經常在性活躍之男女和同性伴侣当中实践的性行為,包括青少年伴侣[58]。」美国性健康与行为调查在2010年指出,陰道交遠比肛交(以插入方來計)常見,但仍有13-15%年齡介乎25-49岁的男性有从事过肛交(插入方)。在肛交中扮演接受方的男性則比扮演插入方的罕见,大约只有7%年齡介乎14-94岁的男性有在肛交中扮演接受方。它还宣稱从事肛交的女性較男性少,但仍不算罕見:估计10-14%年齡介乎18-39岁的女性在过去90天內有參與肛交,多數女性表示從事肛交的頻率为每月一次或一年數次[27]。
此外研究者已對不同文化中性交的盛行率進行比較。2003年,法国國家人口統計研究院進行一項名為「什么时候男性和女性才会發生第一次性交?」(At what age do women and men have their first sexual intercourse?)的跨文化研究。其首先研究撒哈拉沙漠以南的非洲地區(馬里、塞內加爾和埃塞俄比亞)。數據表明,身处這些社會的男性的性啟蒙晚於女性,但通常發生於婚外。該研究認為印度次大陸也包括在以上群体中,儘管相关數據只從尼泊尔取得[108][109]。
數據表明,屬第二組的社会的家庭一般会鼓勵女兒晚婚,且在结婚前避免性活動。但卻会鼓勵兒子在婚前从老年女性或妓女身上獲得相关的經驗。身处這些社會的男性的性啟蒙早於女性。屬这组的社会包括南欧(葡萄牙、希臘和羅馬尼亞)和拉丁美洲(巴西、智利和多明尼加)。該研究認為許多亞洲社會也屬於這一群體,儘管相关數據只從泰國獲得[108][109]。
在第三組,男性和女性的性啟蒙比較接近,但第三組之下又细分了兩个亚组。在非拉丁語系的天主教國家(比如波蘭和立陶宛)。性啟蒙开始得較遲,社会一般鼓勵晚婚,以及珍視男女的貞操。新加坡和斯里蘭卡的主流社会亦有类近的價值觀及行为模式。這項研究認為中國和越南也屬於這一組,儘管没从以上兩处地方獲得數據[108][109]。在北歐和東歐,性啟蒙的时間一般較早。且不論男女,一般都会从事婚前性交合,該研究把瑞士、德國和捷克歸类为此一組[108][109]。
1995年,美國的全国調查顯示,美國有至少3/4的男女在青少年晚期中進行过性交,超過2/3擁有性經驗的青少年有兩个或以上的性伴侶[110]。据美国卫生及公共服务部發表的《2002年家庭增长的全国调查》(2002 National Survey of Family Growth),15-44岁的受訪者平均首次性交年龄分別为17.3岁(女性)和17.0岁(男性)[111][112][113]。美国國家衛生統計中心的特別表列顯示,2006年至2010年此一數字進一步下降至17.1岁(不論男女)[114]。美國疾病控制與預防中心指出在2002年,45.5%的女性和45.7%的男性在19岁或以前从事过至少一次性活動;2011年,他們發表了一份在2006-2010年進行的研究,当中指出43%美国未婚青少年女性及45.7%美国未婚青少年男性有从事过性交[115]。中心还指出美国的女性較常被比她們大1-3年的男性破处[115]。
美国卫生及公共服务部在2002年的一份报告中指出,美国青少年首次从事性交及其他性活動的年齡正在延遲[116]。在1988-2002年間,15-19岁的美国未婚青少年男性从事性交的比率由60%下降至46%,女性則由51%下降至46%[116]。舆观调查网为第四台進行的調查顯示,40%14-17岁的英國青少年是性活躍的。当中74%曾在低於法定许可年龄的情況下發生性关系,6%的青少年則表示会等到结婚后才跟人發生性关系[117]。
據中國性學家潘绥铭於2015年進行的調查顯示,60%的中國女性和40%的中國男性在20岁时已有过性交,25岁時則有90%左右[118],且未婚者中从來没有性生活者亦只有25%到33.3%(75%到66.7%有性生活),遠低於2000年時的數據(60-70%)[119]。他亦在2010年的調查中指出,18到61岁的中國未婚者有过性交的比例已从2000年的37.7%升至2010年的49.1%;未婚男性与一个以上的人发生过性交的比例由15%升至45%左右,女性則由近乎0%升至30%[120]。
對健康的影響
好處
性行為和性活動通常能为人類帶來好處。比如其會增加體内的抗體產生、降低血壓,从而使免疫力得以增強[121][122],並会降低男性患上前列腺癌的風險[121]。性親密和性高潮還會使體内催产素的水平增加,其有助加強人與人之間的感情紐帶和信任[122][123]。據信,催產素對女性的影響比男性大,这可能是女性更常把性吸引力/性行為跟戀愛和愛情聯繫起來的原因[8]。臨床神經心理學家大衛·威克斯(David Weeks)進行了一項持續10年的長期研究,当中包括3500位年齡介乎18歲至102歲的測試對象。並在研究開始後的第10年客观地为受試者的照片評分。结果發現定期的性行為有助使人看起來更为年轻[124]。
風險
细菌、病毒、寄生物可经由性接觸傳染(尤其是插入式性行為),造成性感染疾病。諸如愛滋病和梅毒般的「性感染疾病」亦可经由其他方式傳播,比如母嬰傳播、血液傳播、共用針筒[125]。受到淋球菌或衣原體感染的人通常不會有任何症狀出現。未經妥善治療的衣原體感染可導致女性不育和異位妊娠,梅毒則可導致死產和新生兒死亡。未經妥善治療的淋病可引致流产、早產,以及新生兒死亡。若某孩子的母亲在妊娠的同时患有未经妥善治療的淋病或衣原體感染,則可能会導致該名孩子患上新生兒結膜炎(嚴重的眼睛感染),嚴重者或会失明[125]。乙型肝炎也可通过性接觸傳染[126] 。全球約有3.5億人是慢性乙肝攜帶者[127]。
美國每年有1900萬例新的性感染疾病个案[128]。在2005年,世界衛生組織估計每年约有4488萬人感染可治癒的性傳播疾病(比如梅毒、淋病和衣原體感染)[125]。某些性感染疾病可引起生殖器潰瘍;即使沒有潰瘍,也使得愛滋病毒感染和傳染的风險各增加了10倍[125]。人類免疫缺陷病毒是世界头号的傳染性殺手之一:在2010年有估計指出,自愛滋病毒疫情開始以來,已有約3000萬人因其死亡。估計2010年全球270萬例新感染个案中,就有约190萬例(70%)來自非洲。「2010年,估計有120萬非洲人死於跟愛滋病毒相關的疾病,佔了全球死於愛滋病毒的180萬人的69%[129]。」其可通過血液检测來診斷。儘管目前无法治愈艾滋病毒感染,但可以通過抗逆转录病毒治疗來控制病情,艾滋病毒携带者仍可以享有健康且有益的生活[130]。
早期醫療介入對所有懷疑艾滋病毒感染者都是有好处的,美國疾病控制與預防中心表示:「跟艾滋病毒携带者從事口交的風險遠低於肛交或阴交……但是要準確衡量因为口交而傳播病毒的風險仍是十分困難……因为許多性活躍的人在一次性经驗中除了会進行口交之外,还会進行其他形式的性活動,比如肛交或/和阴交,所以艾滋病毒一旦傳染,便很難確定是那种性活動所導致……幾個相關因子会增加口交时傳播病毒的風險,包括潰瘍、牙齦出血、生殖器皰疹,和患上其他性感染疾病[58]。」
世界衛生組織(WHO)於2005年估計,全球每年有1.23億名婦女懷孕,当中大約有8700萬例(70.7%)屬意外怀孕。據報每年約有4600萬名懷孕婦女選擇墮胎[131]。美國每年約有600萬婦女懷孕,当中活产婴儿的约有66.6%,墮胎的有25%,其餘的則流產。然而許多婦女根本没意識到自己曾懷孕及已流產,以至錯誤地把流產所帶來的陰道出血当作經血過多[132]。在1990年至2000年間,美國青少年懷孕率下降了27%,从1000名青少年女性(15-19岁)中有116.3名懷孕下降至84.5名。以上數據包括活產、墮胎和流產。每年有近100萬名美國青少年女性懷孕,佔了全部懷孕个案的10%,此數字亦相当於有从事过性交的青少年女性的27%[133]。
性活動能增加基因轉錄因子ΔFosB 於大腦獎勵中心的表達[134][135][136]。因此,經常(每日)參與性活動可能会導致ΔFosB的過度表達,誘發当事人對性活動成癮(性癮是指強迫性地參與性活動,儘管可能会为自己带來負面後果[137],比如影響个人生活、工作以及社交[138],根據2014年發表的一份系統回顧,其盛行率约为3%-6%[139] )[134][135][136]。性成癮或性慾亢進通常遭認為是一种衝動控制疾患,或是行為成癮的一种。它已被認为跟多巴胺这种神經遞質的水平異常有关。其特點在於过份执迷於性交,以及失去相关的控制能力。有建議認为DSM-5應把這種「上癮行為」归类为强迫型人格障碍。它亦遭認為跟遺傳因子有關。性交成癮者的大腦對視覺性的性暗示有着較活躍的反應。尋求治療的患者通常會会見一名醫師,以便進行藥物治疗,以及其他疗法[140]。克萊恩-萊文症候群是其中一种会導致患者性慾亢進的疾病,它的臨床表現包括嗜睡及性慾亢進,但是此一疾病的患者十分罕見[141]。
性活動可能会導致猝死,尤其是透過冠狀動脈疾病所引起的,此一死法有时会被稱为性猝死、性交猝死,或馬上风[15][142][143] ,但性猝死的情況十分罕見[142]。日常運動量少的人一旦進行性交或高強度運動时,其心臟病發作或猝死的風險便会略有增加[143]。虽然定期鍛煉可以減少相关風險,但仍不能完全消去[143]。瑞士的一項研究指出,所有跟性交有關的急症室求診个案中,只有少於1%为心血管疾病,10%的个案为創傷,神经系统疾病的則有12%,当中最常見的是頭痛,佔了49%。其后則是短暫性全面腦失憶(20%)以及蛛网膜下腔出血(22%)[144]。
持續時間及相關障礙
若某次性交牽涉到一名男性的參與,那麼男方一旦射精,該次性交往往便就此結束,但其伴侣有可能尚未達至高潮[145]。早發性射精對男士而言亦是十分普遍的現象,女性往往需花比男方更長的時間才能在性伴侣的刺激底下達至高潮[72][146][147]。麥斯特與強生在他們的研究中發現,男性在與伴侶進行性交時,每位平均花約4分鐘便達至高潮,但在同樣情況之下,女性卻要花10-20分鐘才能達至高潮。相比下,女性以自慰達至高潮的時間就短很多:每位平均約花4分鐘[72]。諸如魏滕(Weiten)般的学者指出:「許多夫婦都拘泥於『只應以性交(陰道交)來達至高潮』此一無謂的想法上……以至『前戲』此一用詞都在暗示它只是一項『事前準備』……因為女性在陰道交之中較難高潮的關係,所以她們更有可能會假裝高潮[72]。」
金賽研究所的学者們在1991年指出:「从插入陰道到射精之間的時間不僅因人而異,在同一男士中亦会有所變化……雙方皆滿意的性交持续时间便是最合适的時長」,他們还强调道:「虽然金賽發現75%的男性在插入后2分鐘內便会射精,但他並没有詢問這些男性或他們的伴侶是否對2分鐘的持续时间感到滿意……最近許多的研究報告都指出性交的持续时间稍比金賽所發現的長[148]。」2008年,一份訪問加拿大和美國的性治療師的調查指出,異性交媾(性交)的平均持續时間为7分鐘,1-2分鐘則过短,3-7分鐘为适当,最理想的持续时间为7-13分鐘,但持续10-30分鐘的性交則反而过長[27][149]。
在充足的刺激底下難以達至高潮的情況一般稱為高潮障礙,其会使当事人感到沮喪[150]。高潮障礙常見發生於女性身上,且較男性患者多[151][152],這可歸因於缺乏關注女性身體的性教育,使人們缺乏諸如「刺激陰蒂通常是女性性高潮的關鍵」般的知識,此一現象在反性文化中特別常見[152]。用於性交的身体结构較不利於刺激陰蒂,但有利于刺激陰莖;伴侣通常需以手指、口舌等刺激源對陰蒂的外部進行刺激,才能使女方達至高潮[72]。大約25%的女性自感難以達至高潮[27],10%則從來沒體驗過一次高潮[153]。4-5成的女性則對性生活存有不滿或在一生的某個階段體會過性喚起困難[154]。
陰道痙攣是指因为骨盆底肌肉无意识地绷紧,而令女方在性交或往陰道插入任何物件时感到痛苦,甚至不可能進行任何形式的插入。它是由恥骨尾骨肌(或稱PC肌)的條件反射所引起的。陰道痙攣對某些女性而言是難以克服的,因為如果一名女性預期在性交過程中會感到疼痛,便有机会引致陰道痙攣,繼而使自我預言成真[152][155]。治療陰道痙攣一般需從心理及行為這兩方面入手,比如陰道擴張器練習[156]。此外已有測試證实肉毒桿菌毒素能治疗陰道痙攣,故此其已被加入部分陰道痙攣的治疗流程中[157]。使人感到痛苦或不舒服的性交亦可歸类为性交疼痛[156]。
約40%的男性自稱至少偶爾地会發生某種形式的勃起功能障礙(ED)[158]。早發性射精比勃起功能障礙更為普遍,儘管各方估計不盡相同[146][147][158]。由於研究者對早發性射精的定義不为一致,所以對其患病率的估計差異遠比勃起功能障礙的大[146][147]。例如马约诊所指出:「儘管估計有所不同,但3个男士中便有1个在某些時候可能會受到其(早發性射精)影響[159] 。」;此外「麥斯特與強生推測,早發性射精是最常見的性功能障礙,即使会为勃起困難尋求治療的男性較多……[因為]雖估計15%至20%的男性在控制早發性射精方面遇上一些困難,但当中大多數不認為這是需要人幫助的問題,許多女性亦難以表達自己的性需求[148]。」美国泌尿外科学会估計有21%的美国男性受到早發性射精的影響[160]。
對於因生理疾病而併發勃起功能障礙的人而言,他达拉非、伐地那非、西地那非(俗名偉哥)等处方葯都有助於其回復至足以進行性交的硬度,但是醫師們警告説不要非必要地使用這些藥物,因為它們伴有嚴重的副作用,比如令心臟病發作的风險增加[161]。选择性5-羟色胺再摄取抑制剂(SSRI)及達泊西汀这兩款葯物已在早發性射精的治療中有所應用[162]。與没有服用任何药物时相比,服用達泊西汀的早發性射精患者在臨床性交試驗中花3-4倍时間才達至高潮[163]。延遲性射精也是一种跟射精相关的障礙,它可由抗抑鬱藥物的副作用所導致,比如氟伏沙明;但所有SSRI型的抗抑鬱藥均具有延遲射精的副作用,氟伏沙明則是当中延遲效果最少的[164]。
在對生殖器官及其某些構造進行大型的治疗后,当事人仍有很大机会可繼續从事性交,尤其是女性。許多婦科手術一般不会造成性交上的困難,比如子宮切除術、卵巢切除術、輸卵管切除術、子宮擴刮術、处女膜切开术、跟前庭大腺有关的手術、膿腫切除術、前庭切除術、陰唇縮小術、子宮頸錐狀切除術、治療癌症的外科手術、放射治療和化療[165]。
其他疾病對性交的影響
身心障礙者在從事性交时可能面臨各种各样的挑戰及困難,包括疼痛、抑鬱、疲勞、負面的身體意象、性功能障礙、焦慮、性欲低下、體內激素失衡,以及藥物治療的副作用。類風濕性關節炎患者的性功能對生活質量的影響通常遭到忽視[166]。對於那些必須以鴉片類藥物控制疼痛的患者而言,性交通常會變得較難去实行[167]。中風也可能会使当事人从事性交的能力大受影响[168]。雖然諸如行动障碍和癌症般的身心障礙所引起的疼痛可能会使患者不能順利地完成性交,但身心障礙者的性交困難往往是心因性的[169]。他們可能会對性交感到害怕,因为这牽涉到性的自我形象、伴侶以及自己的不安[169]。
性犯罪
- 不乎合上述兩項構成要件之性交即被視為強制性交或與未滿合法性交年齡人士發生性行為,此係為社會法律和道德所不容許。
動物的性交
動物的性交稱為交配。家畜之間的交配通常也稱配種。鳥類和魚類以及爬行类的交配可以稱為交尾。交配時某些雌性動物會含雄性的陰莖,令其容易射精。
大部份的陸生動物與鳥類都是进行體內受精而有交配行為,哺乳類動物也是把雄性的陰莖插進雌性的陰道內,雄性動物射精後,精子會進入雌性體內,並且與卵細胞發生受精作用。
若受精過程發生在體外或是沒有性交過程,則不再是交尾,例如魚類(雄性和雌性將生殖細胞排到水中,完成受精)或是人工授精。
自然交尾在大部分的動物(如鳥、爬行動物)的交配是雙方生殖開口(泄殖腔)的對接,而在人類和其他哺乳動物則是雄性生殖器(陰莖)進入雌性生殖器(陰道),即性交。
交配是由於本能、性欲和相應的誘發因素引起的(如:孔雀的開屏,雌性狗散發的氣味分子等)。
小肢魚
根據「自然」(Nature)期刊,小肢魚(Microbrachius dicki)是至今所知第一個以交配行體內受精的物種。約在3億8500萬年前,人類遠祖古老的盾皮魚,出現如人類性交的親密動作。科學家在屬於盾皮魚綱的雄性小肢魚化石發現,牠們演化出稱為鰭足的交尾器(clasper)的有骨L型生殖器,可輸送精子給雌性。雌性小肢魚演化出小型成對骨頭,可鎖住雄性的生殖器交配。[172][173][174][175]
參見
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- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Ada P. Kahn; Jan Fawcett. The Encyclopedia of Mental Health. Infobase Publishing. 2008: 111 [September 5, 2012]. ISBN 0816064547.
- ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Randall, H. E. & Byers, S. E. What is sex? Students' definitions of having sex, sexual partner, and unfaithful sexual behaviour. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality. 2003, 12: 87–96.
Recently, researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia have investigated university students' definitions of having sex. These studies found that students differ in their opinions of what sexual behaviours constitute having sex (Pitts & Rahman, 2001; Richters & Song, 1999; Sanders & Reinisch, 1999). While the vast majority of respondents (more than 97%) in these three studies included penile–vaginal intercourse in their definition of sex, fewer (between 70% and 90%) respondents considered penile–anal intercourse to constitute having sex. Oral-genital behaviours were defined as sex by between 32% and 58% of respondents.
- ^ Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2008 [December 6, 2011]. Also see Fact Sheet
- ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Dianne Hales. An Invitation to Health Brief 2010–2011. Cengage Learning. 2008: 269–271 [August 29, 2013]. ISBN 0495391921.
- ^ 19.0 19.1 Bhushan Kumar; Somesh Gupta. Sexually Transmitted Infections. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2014: 237 [December 6, 2014]. ISBN 8131229785.
- ^ Bryan Strong; Christine DeVault; Theodore F. Cohen. The Marriage and Family Experience: Intimate Relationship in a Changing Society. Cengage Learning. 2010: 186 [October 8, 2011]. ISBN 0-534-62425-1.
Most people agree that we maintain virginity as long as we refrain from sexual (vaginal) intercourse. But occasionally we hear people speak of 'technical virginity' [...] Data indicate that 'a very significant proportion of teens ha[ve] had experience with oral sex, even if they haven't had sexual intercourse, and may think of themselves as virgins' [...] Other research, especially research looking into virginity loss, reports that 35% of virgins, defined as people who have never engaged in vaginal intercourse, have nonetheless engaged in one or more other forms of heterosexual sexual activity (e.g., oral sex, anal sex, or mutual masturbation).
- ^ Michael Kent. Advanced biology. Oxford University Press. 2000: 250–253 [2015-10-21]. ISBN 0199141959.
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- de Waal, Frans. Bonobo Sex and Society. Scientific American. 1995: 82–86.
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- ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Diamond, Jared. The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpanzee. Radius. 1991: 360 pages [2015-10-21]. ISBN 0091742684.
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- Coitus. Merriam-Webster. [September 6, 2012].
- Nilamadhab Kar; Gopal Chandra Kar. Comprehensive Textbook of Sexual Medicine. Jaypee Brothers Publishers. 2005: 107–112 [September 4, 2012]. ISBN 8180614050.
- Fedwa Malti-Douglas. Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: A-C. Macmillan Reference. 2007: 308. ISBN 0028659619.
Sexual intercourse. [T]he term coitus indicates a specific act of sexual intercourse that also is known as coition or copulation. This 'coming together' is generally understood in heteronormative terms as the penetration of a woman's vagina by a man's penis.
- Ada P. Kahn; Jan Fawcett. The Encyclopedia of Mental Health. Infobase Publishing. 2008: 111 [September 5, 2012]. ISBN 0816064547.
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 See page 302 for orgasm information, and pages 285–286 for definitions, prevalence and length of sexual intercourse. Janell L. Carroll. Discovery Series: Human Sexuality 1st. Cengage Learning. 2012: 656 pages [August 25, 2013]. ISBN 1111841896.
- ^ Harvey B. Milkman; Kenneth W. Wanberg. Pathways to Self-Discovery and Change: Criminal Conduct and Substance Abuse Treatment for Adolescents. SAGE. 2004: 254–255 [September 6, 2013]. ISBN 1412906148.
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- Ken Plummer. Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences. Routledge. 2002: 187–191 [August 24, 2013]. ISBN 1134922426.
[S]ome sexual practices are regarded as inherently better (normal, natural, more satisfying) than others, with vaginal intercourse privileged as the 'Real Thing.' Such beliefs, influenced by views about sex as ultimately a reproductive function, continue to be perpetuated through discourses on sex despite a number of important contradictions.
- Richard M. Lerner; Laurence Steinberg. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. 2004: 193–196 [April 29, 2013]. ISBN 0471690449.
When researchers use the term sex, they nearly always mean sexual intercourse – more specifically, penile–vaginal intercourse... The widespread, unquestioned equation of penile–vaginal intercourse with sex reflects a failure to examine systematically 'whether the respondent's understanding of the question matches what the researcher had in mind.'
- See page 11 onwards and pages 47–49 for views on what constitutes virginity loss and therefore sexual intercourse or other sexual activity; source discusses how gay and lesbian individuals define virginity loss, and how the majority of researchers and heterosexuals define virginity loss/"technical virginity" by whether or not a person has engaged in penile–vaginal sex. Laura M. Carpenter. Virginity Lost: An Intimate Portrait of First Sexual Experiences. NYU Press. 2005: 295 pages [October 9, 2011]. ISBN 0-8147-1652-0.
- Fedwa Malti-Douglas. Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: A-C. Macmillan Reference. 2007: 308. ISBN 0028659619.
Sexual intercourse. [T]he term coitus indicates a specific act of sexual intercourse that also is known as coition or copulation. This 'coming together' is generally understood in heteronormative terms as the penetration of a woman's vagina by a man's penis.
- Irving B. Weiner; W. Edward Craighead. The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology 4. John Wiley & Sons. 2010: 1577 [August 21, 2013]. ISBN 0470170239.
Human sexual intercourse, or coitus, is one of the most common sexual outlets among adults. Sexual intercourse generally refers to penile penetration of the vagina...
- Clint E. Bruess; Elizabeth Schroeder. Sexuality Education Theory and Practice. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 2013: 152 [December 5, 2014]. ISBN 1449649289.
Vaginal sex is defined as when a penis or sex toy is inserted into a vagina for pleasure. In many cultures around the world, vaginal sex is what is usually implied when people refer to 'having sex' or 'sexual intercourse'. It is the most frequently studied behavior and is often the focus of sexuality education programming for youth.
- Ken Plummer. Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences. Routledge. 2002: 187–191 [August 24, 2013]. ISBN 1134922426.
- ^ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Cox, Lauren. Study: Adults Can't Agree What 'Sex' Means. ABC.com. March 8, 2010 [September 5, 2012].
- ^ 曾子凡. 香港粵語慣用語研究. 香港城市大學. 2008-11-10: 92. ISBN 9789629371470.
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竟回答說,「香港好多好嚴峻問題……就算我哋而家想去扑野(做愛),都搵唔到房扑呀」
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古人把夫妻性交称为"敦伦" ,即敦合人之大伦;又称为"行周公之礼" ,即认为夫妻性交是祖宗订下的老规矩
- ^ Fuck. Merriam-Webster. [March 30, 2013].
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- Sexual Intercourse. Discovery.com. [2008-01-12]. (原始内容存档于2008-08-22).
- Harvey B. Milkman; Kenneth W. Wanberg. Pathways to Self-Discovery and Change: Criminal Conduct and Substance Abuse Treatment for Adolescents. SAGE. 2004: 254–255 [September 6, 2013]. ISBN 1412906148.
- Nilamadhab Kar; Gopal Chandra Kar. Comprehensive Textbook of Sexual Medicine. Jaypee Brothers Publishers. 2005: 107–112 [September 4, 2012]. ISBN 8180614050.
- Nancy W. Denney; David Quadagno. Human Sexuality. Mosby-Year Book. 2008: 273. ISBN 0801663741.
Although the term intercourse is usually used to refer to the insertion of the penis into the vagina, it is also used to refer to oral intercourse or anal intercourse in which the penis is inserted into the mouth or the anus, respectively.
- ^ 46.0 46.1
- Ken Plummer. Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences. Routledge. 2002: 187–191 [August 24, 2013]. ISBN 1134922426.
The social construction of 'sex' as vaginal intercourse affects how other forms of sexual activity are evaluated as sexually satisfying or arousing; in some cases whether an activity is seen as a sexual act at all. For example, unless a woman has been penetrated by a man's penis she is still technically a virgin even if she has had lots of sexual experience.
- Randall, H. E. & Byers, S. E. What is sex? Students' definitions of having sex, sexual partner, and unfaithful sexual behaviour. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality. 2003, 12: 87–96.
Recently, researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia have investigated university students' definitions of having sex. These studies found that students differ in their opinions of what sexual behaviours constitute having sex (Pitts & Rahman, 2001; Richters & Song, 1999; Sanders & Reinisch, 1999). While the vast majority of respondents (more than 97%) in these three studies included penile–vaginal intercourse in their definition of sex, fewer (between 70% and 90%) respondents considered penile-anal intercourse to constitute having sex. Oral-genital behaviours were defined as sex by between 32% and 58% of respondents.
- See page 11 onwards and pages 47–49 for views on what constitutes virginity loss and therefore sexual intercourse or other sexual activity; source discusses how gay and lesbian individuals define virginity loss, and how the majority of researchers and heterosexuals define virginity loss/"technical virginity" by whether or not a person has engaged in penile–vaginal sex. Laura M. Carpenter. Virginity Lost: An Intimate Portrait of First Sexual Experiences. NYU Press. 2005: 295 pages [October 9, 2011]. ISBN 0-8147-1652-0.
- Bryan Strong; Christine DeVault; Theodore F. Cohen. The Marriage and Family Experience: Intimate Relationship in a Changing Society. Cengage Learning. 2010: 186 [October 8, 2011]. ISBN 0-534-62425-1.
Most people agree that we maintain virginity as long as we refrain from sexual (vaginal) intercourse. ...But occasionally we hear people speak of 'technical virginity' ... Other research, especially research looking into virginity loss, reports that 35% of virgins, defined as people who have never engaged in vaginal intercourse, have nonetheless engaged in one or more other forms of heterosexual activity (e.g. oral sex, anal sex, or mutual masturbation). ... Data indicate that 'a very significant proportion of teens ha[ve] had experience with oral sex, even if they haven't had sexual intercourse, and may think of themselves as virgins'.
- Robert Crooks; Karla Baur. Our Sexuality. Cengage Learning. 2010: 286–289 [August 30, 2012]. ISBN 0495812943.
Noncoital forms of sexual intimacy, which have been called outercourse, can be a viable form of birth control. Outercourse includes all avenues of sexual intimacy other than penile–vaginal intercourse, including kissing, touching, mutual masturbation, and oral and anal sex.
- Ken Plummer. Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences. Routledge. 2002: 187–191 [August 24, 2013]. ISBN 1134922426.
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- Richard M. Lerner; Laurence Steinberg. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. 2004: 193–196 [April 29, 2013]. ISBN 0471690449.
When researchers use the term sex, they nearly always mean sexual intercourse – more specifically, penile–vaginal intercourse... The widespread, unquestioned equation of penile–vaginal intercourse with sex reflects a failure to examine systematically 'whether the respondent's understanding of the question matches what the researcher had in mind.'
- See page 11 onwards and pages 47–49 for views on what constitutes virginity loss and therefore sexual intercourse or other sexual activity; source discusses how gay and lesbian individuals define virginity loss, and how the majority of researchers and heterosexuals define virginity loss/"technical virginity" by whether or not a person has engaged in penile–vaginal sex. Laura M. Carpenter. Virginity Lost: An Intimate Portrait of First Sexual Experiences. NYU Press. 2005: 295 pages [October 9, 2011]. ISBN 0-8147-1652-0.
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- ^ Ken Plummer. Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences. Routledge. 2002: 187–191 [August 24, 2013]. ISBN 1134922426.
[S]ome sexual practices are regarded as inherently better (normal, natural, more satisfying) than others, with vaginal intercourse privileged as the 'Real Thing.' Such beliefs, influenced by views about sex as ultimately a reproductive function, continue to be perpetuated through discourses on sex despite a number of important contradictions.
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Many people consider penile–vaginal intercourse the only form of 'real' sex.
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Many men simply did not like the feel of condoms, or associated them with emasculation. They say, 'Unless it's flesh on flesh, it's not real sex...
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The amount of time of sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm is variable — and usually much longer — in women than in men; thus, only 20–30% of women attain a coital climax. b. Many women (70–80%) require manual clitoral stimulation...
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Women rated clitoral stimulation as at least somewhat more important than vaginal stimulation in achieving orgasm; only about 20% indicated that they did not require additional clitoral stimulation during intercourse.
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Most women report the inability to achieve orgasm with vaginal intercourse and require direct clitoral stimulation ... About 20% have coital climaxes...
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Noncoital forms of sexual intimacy, which have been called outercourse, can be a viable form of birth control. Outercourse includes all avenues of sexual intimacy other than penile–vaginal intercourse, including kissing, touching, mutual masturbation, and oral and anal sex.
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The defining feature of addiction is compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. ...
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被忽略 (帮助) - ^ Richard Balon; Robert Taylor Segraves. Clinical Manual of Sexual Disorders. American Psychiatric Pub. 2009: 281 [December 6, 2014]. ISBN 1585629057.
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- ^ 引用错误:没有为名为
sp
的参考文献提供内容 - ^ 以中華民國刑法為例,參見兩小無猜條款。
- ^ 人類性交始祖 億萬年前魚類. 中央日報 網路報 (中央社). 2014-10-20.
澳洲阿得雷德(Adelaide)福林德斯大學(Flinders University)古生物学教授朗恩(John Long)說:「Microbrachius意思是小臂(小肢),但是科學家數世紀以來始終不解,這些有骨的成對手臂到底有什麼用途。」他說:「我們已揭開這個大謎團,這是用來交配,好讓雄性可將交尾器放進雌性生殖器區。」
- ^ Microbrachius Dicki, Ancient Plated Fish, Were The First Creatures To Have Sex. PARIS-AFP. 2014-10-20.
- ^ 最早性交生物就是它 側面完成體內受精. 風傳媒. 2014-10-20.
- ^ 性交的始祖是……魚?. 2014-10-21.
這個發現不只關乎「性行為」本身。……許多對人體構造相當重要的演化特徵(例如頷部、牙齒、成對的肢體和體內受精行為)都是始於這些覆有骨甲的魚。
外部連結
- The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality
- Glossario di Sessuologia clinica – Glossary of clinical sexology
- Janssen, D. F., Growing Up Sexually. Volume I. World Reference Atlas
- Introduction to Animal Reproduction
- Advantages of Sexual Reproduction
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