哥伦比亚内战
![]() | 此条目可参照英语维基百科相应条目来扩充。 (2022年4月21日) |
哥伦比亚内战 (1964年—) | ||||||||||
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冷战 (1964年–1991年) 及毒品战争 (1991年—)的一部分 | ||||||||||
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参战方 | ||||||||||
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支持者: | |||||||||
指挥官与领导者 | ||||||||||
哥伦比亚政府: ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
哥伦比亚联合自卫军:![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
FARC: ![]() ![]() | ||||||||
兵力 | ||||||||||
国家警察: 175,250[13] 陆军: 237,567[13] 海军: 33,913[13] 空军: 14,033[13] | 准军事后继团体,包括黑鹰: 3,749 – 13,000[14][15][16] |
FARC: 13,980 (2016[17])[18][19][20][21][22][23] ELN: 1,380 – 3,000 (2013)[21][22][24] IRAFP: ~80 | ||||||||
伤亡与损失 | ||||||||||
![]() 2004 年以来 4,908 人死亡[13] 2004 年以来 20,001 人受伤[13] |
![]() 2,200 人死亡, 35,000 人复员。 BACRIM: 222人死亡[13] 18506人被捕[13] |
![]() ![]() 11,484 人自 2004 年以来被杀[13] 26,648 人自 2002 年以来复员[25] 34,065 人自 2004 年以来被俘[13] | ||||||||
总伤亡: 218,094[26][27] 平民丧生: 177,307[26] 绑架: 27,023[26] 失踪受害者: 25,007[26] 杀伤人员地雷的受害者: 10,189[26] 流离失所人口: 4,744,046–5,712,506[26][28] 孩童流离失所:230万[29] 孩童丧生: 45,000[29] 孩童失踪: 8,000 [29] |
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哥伦比亚内战是在哥伦比亚境内始于1960年代持续至今的一系列低强度不对称战争。冲突在哥伦比亚执政当局,极右翼准军事组织(如哥伦比亚联合自卫军和美洲反共联盟)、贩毒机构(如麦德林集团)还有极左翼游击队(如哥伦比亚革命武装力量-人民军和民族解放军)多方之间展开,以在哥伦比亚境内控制更多地区和获得更大影响力[30]。对哥伦比亚内战的国际赞助者包括跨国集团公司、美国[31][32][33]古巴[34]以及贩毒集团[35]。
现代
[编辑]冷战后,由于失去苏联及其它前社会主义国家的支援,哥伦比亚革命武装力量因要筹集经费,开始插足可卡因及绑架政客等勾当,以致形象急剧转差,被视为恐怖主义组织。[36] 因此,哥伦比亚共产党解除了哥伦比亚革命武装力量与其之间的隶属关系,哥伦比亚革命武装力量遂成为一个独立的政治军事组织。2007年,哥伦比亚革命武装力量人数约为3000-4000人。哥革武参与了哥伦比亚25-30%恐怖事件,尤其是在该国东南部的丛林以及安第斯山脉脚下的平原地区。哥伦比亚革命武装力量曾释放多名“有价值”人质,意图改善形象。
2012年,在以古巴和挪威作为担保国、以委内瑞拉和智利作为观察国的斡旋框架下,双方开始在古巴首都哈瓦那进行和谈。2016年6月23日,双方签署最终停火协议,8月24日哥伦比亚政府与哥伦比亚革命武装力量在古巴首都哈瓦那达成最终全面和平协议,协议包括停战、农村改革、打击贩毒、被遣散的游击队员可参与政治、建立过渡性司法机构等内容,但和平协议内容的合法性最终将由全民公投决定。[37][38]但哥伦比亚前总统乌里韦认为,最初的和平协议向反政府武装妥协过多、对受害者不公,呼吁民众投反对票,并要求对协议进行深入修改。与先前民调结果大相径庭,10月2日举行的公投结果为支持 49.77%,反对 50.22%,协议意外遭到否决。[39]11月24日哥伦比亚总统胡安·曼努埃尔·桑托斯与哥伦比亚革命武装力量领导人罗德里格·隆多尼奥在波哥大的科隆剧院签署了一份经修改的新的和平协议。而这一次,新的协议将会在国会核准,无需再进行全民表决[40]。2017年6月27日,哥伦比亚革命武装力量停止作为武装团体存在。9月1日,该组织正式改组为共同替代革命力量,并于10月31日向官方注册为合法政党。
另见
[编辑]参考资料
[编辑]注解
[编辑]- ^ Why did the Colombia Peace Process Fail? (PDF). The Tabula Rasa Institute. [2006-02-26]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2012-07-21). [PDF file]
- ^ Livingstone, Grace. Inside Colombia: Drugs, Democracy, and War. Rutgers University Press. 2004: 176. ISBN 0-8135-3443-7.
- ^ Molano, Alfredo. James Graham (Translator) , 编. Loyal Soldiers in the Cocaine Kingdom: Tales of Drugs, Mules, and Gunmen. Columbia University Press. 2004-02-18. ISBN 0-231-12915-7.
- ^ Peter, Canby. Latin America's longest war; "More Terrible than Death: Massacres, Drugs, and America's War in Colombia," "Walking Ghosts: Murder and Guerrilla Politics in Colombia," "Inside Colombia: Drugs, Democracy and War," "Loyal Soldiers in the Cocaine Kingdom: Tales of Drugs, Mules and Gunmen," "Law in a Lawless Land: Diary of a Limpieza in Colombia"; Book Review. The Nation. 2004-08-16, 279 (5): 31 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2006-10-20).
- ^ Stokes, Doug. America's Other War: Terrorizing Colombia. Canadian Dimension. 2005-07-01, 39 (4): 26 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2016-01-09).
- ^ Stokes, p. 26, quoting Marc Grossman, U.S. undersecretary of state for political affairs.
- ^ Dudley, Steven; January. Walking Ghosts: Murder and Guerrilla Politics in Colombia. Routledge. 2004. ISBN 0-415-93303-X.
- ^ Corbyn, Jeremy. Supporting terror; Jeremy Corbyn MP explains the reasons why Britain should be staying well clear of Colombian President Uribe Velez's regime. Morning Star. 2003-07-02: 7 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2006-05-31).
- ^ Livingstone, (Foreword by Pearce, Jenny), p. xvii (f24)
- ^ Livingstone, p. 5;
Pearce, Jenny. 1st , 编. Colombia:Inside the Labyrinth. London: Latin America Bureau. 1990-05-01: 287. ISBN 0-906156-44-0. - ^ Pearce's forward in Livingstone, p. xx
- ^ LeGrand, Catherine C. The Colombian crisis in historical perspective (Record in progress). Canadian Journal of Latin American & Caribbean Studies. June 2003, 28 (55/5): 165–209 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2006-05-31).
- ^ Economic Indicators Real Sector, 1999–2004. Latin Focus. [2006-05-31]. (原始内容存档于2006-06-19).
- ^ Legrand, p. 165. See Note #15 for more on women in the conflict.
- ^ Legrand, p. 165. See Note #18 for more on peasant support for the guerrillas. (see also Ortiz 2001; Reyes Posada and A. Bejarano 1988; Archila N. 1996)", Notes.
- ^ Legrand, p. 165. Lengrand states: "Some observers noted that this percentage of supposed paramilitary supporters elected to congress in March 2002 corresponded to the number of representatives elected from Uraba and the Atlantic coast where the paramilitaries are strong. (El Tiempo March 13–14, 2002)", see Notes.
- ^ Colombia’s Three Wars: U.S. Strategy at the Crossroads (PDF). Strategic Studies Institute of the U.S. Army War College. [2006-02-26]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2018-06-29). [PDF file]
- ^ Colombia’s Three Wars: U.S. Strategy at the Crossroads (PDF). Strategic Studies Institute of the U.S. Army War College. [2006-02-26]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2018-06-29). [PDF file]
James, Preston Everett. Latin America (4th edition). The Odyssey Press. 1969: 426. - ^ The United States and Colombia: The Journey from Ambiguity to Strategic Clarity (PDF). Strategic Studies Institute of the U.S. Army War College. [2006-02-26]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2018-05-29). [PDF file]
- ^ Livingstone, p. 5; Author Unknown. Bergquist, Charles , 编. Violence in Colombia, 1990–2000: Waging War and Negotiating Peace. SR Books. February 2001: 13. ISBN 0-8420-2869-2.
- ^ Livingstone, p. 110.
- ^ Livingstone, p. 7; Quoting: Colombia: Inseguridad, Violencia, y Desempeño Económico en las Areas Rurales, Consejería para la Paz de la Presidencia de la República, Colombia, 1999, Director de Investigación: Jesus Antonio Bejarano Avila.
- ^ Livingstone, p. 5
- ^ Livingstone, p. 5; Canby, p 31
Colombia. infoplease.com. [2006-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2013-05-17). - ^ Livingstone, p. 6; Amnistía Internacional Colombia Seguridad, ¿a qué precio? La falta de voluntad del gobierno para hacer frente a la crisis de derechos humanos. Amnesty Internacional (Amnesty International). December 2002 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2007-11-07).
- ^ Livingstone, p. 6; Source: Colombian Commission of Jurists; Arocha, Jaime. Evolución reciente del conflicto armado en Colombia: La Guerrilla in Las violencias: inclusión creciente 1998. Bogata: CES. 1998: 35–65. ISBN 958-96259-5-9.
- ^ Livingstone, p. 6; Source: Colombian Commission of Jurists; Author Unknown. Country report on Human Rights in Colombia. US State Department. 2000: 1 (mimeograph).
- ^ Livingstone, p. 7; Source: Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (DAS); Richani, Nazih. Systems of Violence: The Political Economy of War and Peace in Colombia. State University of New York Press. 2002-04-01. ISBN 0-7914-5345-6.
- ^ Livingstone, p. 7; Richani, p. 87
- ^ Livingstone, p. 7
来源
[编辑]- ^ British intelligence members sent to Colombia after IRA suspects arrested. The Irish News. The irish News. 2016-09-17 [2017-03-02]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-20).
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- ^ Venezuela's relations with terrorism and FARC exposed. Infovenezuela.org. [2014-10-14]. (原始内容存档于2015-02-17).
- ^ Martinez, Michael. Study: Colombian rebels were willing to kill for Venezuela's Chavez. CNN. 2011-05-10 [2014-04-21]. (原始内容存档于2014-05-08).
- ^ Colombia: Chavez funding FARC rebels. USA Today. 2008-03-04 [2014-04-21]. (原始内容存档于2014-05-08).
- ^ Padgett, Tim. Chávez and the Cash-Filled Suitcase. TIME. 2008-09-03 [2014-03-28]. (原始内容存档于2014-03-18).
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- ^ Венесуэла собиралась поставлять колумбийским повстанцам белорусское оружие[失效链接] — Комсомольская правда, 4 февраля 2015
- ^ Timeline: Colombia's war with the FARC. 2012-11-13.
- ^ Bargent, James. The FARC 1964-2002: From Ragged Rebellion to Military Machine. [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2016-09-27).
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- ^ 10,000 demobilized fighters rearm – Colombia news. Colombia Reports. 2010-09-14 [2011-10-18]. (原始内容存档于2010-09-17).
- ^ Las Farc tendrían 13.980 miembros. [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2016-08-13).
- ^ A las Farc la conforman unas 13.892 personas armadas y colaboradores. [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2016-04-21).
- ^ Colombian soldiers die in clashes. BBC News. 2013-07-21 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-12).
- ^ To the edge and back again. The Economist. 2013-08-31 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2017-08-31).
- ^ 21.0 21.1 Desmovilización, principal arma contra las guerrillas. eltiempo.com. [2013-09-27]. (原始内容存档于2013-09-23) (西班牙语).
- ^ 22.0 22.1 Colombia army claims guerrillas have lost 5000 fighters in past 2 years. colombiareports.co. [2013-09-27]. (原始内容存档于2013-10-14).
- ^ Comandantes de Fuerza presentaron resultados operacionales de los últimos 2 años. mindefensa.gov.co. [2013-09-27]. (原始内容存档于2013-10-05) (西班牙语).
- ^ Colombia's ELN rebels release oil workers after brief capture -police. Reuters. 2013-10-18 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2015-09-24).
- ^ Desmovilización, principal arma contra las guerrillas. eltiempo.com. [2013-09-26]. (原始内容存档于2013-09-23) (西班牙语).
- ^ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 引用错误:没有为名为
estadisticas
的参考文献提供内容 - ^ Georgetown Welcomes Colombia’s Ex-Pres. Uribe. Georgetown University. [2010-10-02]. (原始内容存档于2010-11-13).
- ^ Silva, Gustavo. The price of Colombia's drug war. Colombia Reports. [2011-10-09]. (原始内容存档于2012-02-21).
- ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 引用错误:没有为名为
Multi-Generation War
的参考文献提供内容 - ^ *War and Drugs in Colombia – International Crisis Group. Crisisgroup.org. [2014-10-14]. (原始内容存档于2014-10-20).
- 'Loco,' Colombia's Last Drug Lord, Extradited to New York. Foreign Policy. 2013-07-10 [2014-10-14]. (原始内容存档于2014-10-18).
- Neo-Paramilitary Groups Consolidating in Colombia: Report. Insightcrime.org. [2014-10-14]. (原始内容存档于2014-10-22).
- Neo-paramilitaries do not deserve political status: Govt. Colombia News – Colombia Reports. [2014-10-14]. (原始内容存档于2014-02-23).
- armed conflict Archives – Colombia News – Colombia Reports. Colombia News – Colombia Reports. [2014-10-14]. (原始内容存档于2014-09-01).
- peace talks Archives – Colombia News – Colombia Reports. Colombia News – Colombia Reports. [2014-10-14]. (原始内容存档于2014-10-16).
- The Colombian "War on Drugs", A Family Affair – SHOAH. Shoah.org. [2014-10-14]. (原始内容存档于2015-03-01).
- ^ Historical Commission on the Conflict and Its Victims (CHCV). Contribution to an Understanding of the Armed Conflict in Colombia (PDF). February 2015 [2017-03-26]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2016-01-21) (西班牙语).
- ^ 引用错误:没有为名为
colombia-and-us-54
的参考文献提供内容 - ^ 引用错误:没有为名为
International actors
的参考文献提供内容 - ^ Cuba's Renewed Support for Violence in Latin America (PDF). United States Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs. 1981-12-14 [2020-04-01]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-11-03).
- ^ 存档副本. [2020-06-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-09).
- ^ BBC新闻,《Colombia's most powerful rebels》 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆),2003年9月19日发表,于2008年1月10日查阅。
- ^ Brodinsky, Sybilla; Watts, Jonathan. Colombia and Farc rebels sign historic ceasefire deal to end 50-year conflict. The Guardian. 2016-06-23 [2016-06-23]. (原始内容存档于2016-06-24).
- ^ 结束50年内战 哥伦比亚宣布全面和平协议. BBC. 2016-08-25 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2020-08-12).
- ^ 哥伦比亚全民公投未通过和平协议. 新华社. 2016-10-03 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-05).
- ^ 陈正健. 不再交付公投 哥國政府與叛軍重簽和平協議. 自由时报. 2016-11-26 [2016-11-26]. (原始内容存档于2020-08-12).
延伸阅读
[编辑]书
[编辑]英文
[编辑]- Stokes, Doug; Noam Chomsky (Foreword). America's Other War: Terrorizing Colombia. Zed Books. 2005. ISBN 1-84277-547-2.
- Cuellar, Francisco Ramírez; Aviva Chomsky. The Profits of Extermination. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press. 2005. ISBN 1-56751-322-0.
- Aviva Chomsky. Linked labor histories: New England, Colombia, and the making of a global working class. Duke University Press. 2008. ISBN 978-0-8223-4190-1.
- Bushnell, David. The Making of Modern Colombia, a Nation in spite of itself. University of California Press. 1993. ISBN 0-520-08289-3.
- Dudley, Steven. Walking Ghosts: Murder and Guerrilla Politics in Colombia. Routledge. January 2004. ISBN 0-415-93303-X.
- Kirk, Robin. More Terrible than Death: Massacres, Drugs, and America's War in Colombia. PublicAffairs. January 2003. ISBN 1-58648-104-5.
- Ruiz, Bert. The Colombian Civil War. McFarland & Company. 2001-10-01. ISBN 0-7864-1084-1.
- Safford, Frank and Marco Palacios. Colombia: Fragmented Land, Divided Society. Oxford University Press. 2001-07-01. ISBN 0-19-504617-X.
- Taussig, Michael. Law in a Lawless Land: Diary of a Limpieza. New Press. 2003-11-01. ISBN 1-56584-863-2.
其他语言
[编辑]- Murillo, Mario and Jesus Rey Avirama. Colombia and the United States: War, Terrorism and Destabilization. Seven Stories Press. 2003-09-01. ISBN 1-58322-606-0.
- Palacios, Marco. Entre la legitimidad y la violencia: Colombia 1875–1994. Norma. 1995 (西班牙语).
- Pardo Rueda, Rafael. La historia de las guerras. Ediciones B-Vergara. 2004. ISBN 958-97405-5-3 (西班牙语).
- Hennecke, Angelika. Zwischen Faszination und Gewalt : Kolumbien—unser gemeinsamer Nenner : Reflexionen über das Verhältnis zwischen kultureller Identität, Kommunikation und Medien anhand der diskursanalytischen Untersuchung einer kolumbianischen Werbekampagne. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 2006. ISBN 3-631-54930-X (德语).
- Pizarro Leongómez, Eduardo. Las Farc: de la autodefensa a la combinación de todas las formas de lucha. Universidad Nacional. 1991.
- Tirado Mejía, Alvaro (编). Nueva historia de Colombia. Planeta. 1989.
期刊文献
[编辑]- Sherman, John W. "Political Violence in Colombia: Dirty Wars Since 1977." History Compass (Sep 2015) 13#9 pp 454–465.
- Cirlig, Carmen-Cristina. Colombia: new momentum for peace? (PDF). Library Briefing. Library of the European Parliament. [2013-07-15]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-11-08).
- Azcarate, Camilo A. Psychosocial Dynamics of the Armed Conflict in Colombia. Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution. March 1999 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2003-01-06).
- James Petras. Neglected Dimensions of Violence. Economic and Political Weekly. 1988-07-02, 23 (27): 1367. JSTOR 4378701.
- Elizabeth F. Schwartz. Getting Away with Murder: Social Cleansing in Colombia and the Role of the United States. The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review. Winter 1995–1996, 27 (2): 381–420.
- John Lindsay-Poland. Retreat to Colombia: The Pentagon Adapts Its Latin America Strategy. NACLA Report on the Americas. January–February 2010.
政府及非政府组织报告
[编辑]- Colombia. Human Rights Watch. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2006-02-23).
- Information about the combatants. Center for International Policy. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-04-23).
- Solutions to Escape the Conflict's Impasse. National Human Development Report 2003. [2006-02-23]. (原始内容存档于2004-08-03). Extensive ideas on solutions to the Colombia conflict
- Colombia 2005 Report. UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2020-08-01). (Spanish and English)
- The Day after Tomorrow: Colombia's FARC and the End of the Conflict (PDF). International Crisis Group. [2014-12-11]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2014-12-13). (Spanish and English)
- Squaring Colombia's Circle: The Objectives of Punishment and the Pursuit of Peace. International Center for Transitional Justice. [2016-08-24]. (原始内容存档于2020-07-28).
- From Principles to Practice: Challenges of Implementing Reparations for Massive Violations in Colombia. International Center for Transitional Justice. [2016-08-24]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-27).
- Political Crime, Amnesties and Pardons: Scope and Challenges. International Center for Transitional Justice. [2016-08-24]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-23).
新闻
[编辑]- Constanza Vieira. 'Let's talk about the disappeared'. Inter Press Service. 2010-07-16 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2010-07-18).
- Indigenous Community in Colombia Fears Start of "Dirty War. Democracy Now!. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2006-02-23). Guests: Ezequiel Vitonas, former mayor of Toribio, and Manuel Rozental, human rights activist. Interviewers: Juan Gonzalez and Amy Goodman. Segment available in and via streaming real audio[永久失效链接], 128k streaming Real Video[永久失效链接] or MP3 download.
- The Colombian Miracle(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
外部链接
[编辑]- Overview of Colombian–FARC Peace Process
- Who are the victims? – The aftermath of violence in Colombia(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) – (Former combatants in Colombia's internal armed conflict spent two years painting their experiences. They face difficult decisions about what to remember, what to forget and how to forgive)
- Colombia Page on InSight Crime. [2011-03-29]. (原始内容存档于2011-07-26). (Ongoing reporting on the Colombian conflict and active criminal groups)
- Evolution of the Colombian Civil War. Paul Wolf. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2006-02-03). (collection of declassified U.S. documents online)
- Michael Evans (编). War in Colombia: Guerrillas, Drugs and Human Rights in U.S.-Colombia Policy, 1988–2002. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 69. National Security Archive. 2002-05-03 [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2014-06-17).
- America's Other War: Terrorizing Colombia. [2006-02-25]. (原始内容存档于2009-10-25).
- Plan Colombia by Carmen Guhn-Knight
- Rule of Law in Armed Conflict: Colombia. RULAC Project. [2009-03-23]. (原始内容存档于2011-07-06).
- Q&A: Colombia's civil conflict. BBC. 2009-12-23 [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2009-12-24).
- Colombia Program. Center for International Policy. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2008-02-12).
- Accord issue on Colombia's peace process. Alternatives to war. [2006-11-18]. (原始内容存档于2006-11-17). (In Spanish and English with chronology and key texts and agreements)
- CERAC. Conflict Analysis Resources Center. [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2007-07-04). Colombian-based private research center that studies the conflict (In Spanish and English)
- Colombian Army website. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2007-09-27). (In Spanish and English)
- Colombian President's Office. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2008-11-18). (In Spanish and English)
- Background Note: Colombia. U.S. Department of State. [2006-02-11]. (原始内容存档于2012-05-04).
- Different Views of Colombian Territory. [2006-02-24].[失效链接] Maps of the conflict.
- AUC Official Website. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2005-10-16). (in Spanish)
- FARC website. [2008-07-12]. (原始内容存档于2008-07-05). (in Spanish and English) – No longer available online (censored by U.S. government)
- Colombia – Insurgency. Global Security. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-21).
- Civil War? The Language of Conflict in Colombia (PDF). Ideas for Peace Foundation. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2010-02-17). (PDF) Is the Colombia conflict a civil war?
- The Peace Village San José Must Live. SOS San Jose. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2006-01-12). (in German and English)
- Washington Office on Latin America. [2006-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-16).
- Who Shot My Brother?. National Film Board of Canada. [2006]. (原始内容存档于2007-05-24).
- Why the End of the Cold War Doesn't Matter: the US War of Terror in Colombia. Bristol University Politics Department. [2006-02-27]. (原始内容存档于2005-10-01). by Doug Stokes
- Red Resistencia(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Insight on Conflict. Colombia Peacebuilding database. [2017-05-05]. (原始内容存档于2017-07-01).
- Crisis briefing on displacement because of the war(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) from Reuters AlertNet
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