注意力不足過動症:修订间差异

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:# 爸爸有「注意力不足過動症」,孩子有「注意力不足過動症」的比例(15%至45%)略高於媽媽有「注意力不足過動症」,孩子有「注意力不足過動症」的比例(14%至38%){{R|找回專注力}}。
:# 爸爸有「注意力不足過動症」,孩子有「注意力不足過動症」的比例(15%至45%)略高於媽媽有「注意力不足過動症」,孩子有「注意力不足過動症」的比例(14%至38%){{R|找回專注力}}。
:# ADHD[[神經心理學]]研究發現,在ADHD的親兄弟姊妹沒有確診為ADHD的前提下,ADHD孩童的親手足與一般孩童相比,依然容易出現執行功能 (如:[[空間工作記憶]]、[[視覺記憶]]<ref name="Gau Huang 2014 pp. 435–46">
:# ADHD[[神經心理學]]研究發現,在ADHD的親兄弟姊妹沒有確診為ADHD的前提下,ADHD孩童的親手足與一般孩童相比,依然容易出現執行功能 (如:[[空間工作記憶]]、[[視覺記憶]]<ref name="Gau Huang 2014 pp. 435–46">
{{cite journal | last=Gau | first=SS | last2=Huang | first2=WL | title=Rapid visual information processing as a cognitive endophenotype of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. (快速視覺訊息歷程為注意力不足過動症的內表現型) | journal=Psychological medicine | volume=44 | issue=2 | year=2014 | issn=0033-2917 | pmid=23561037 | doi=10.1017/S0033291713000640 | pages=435–46| quote = Compared with the controls, probands with ADHD and unaffected siblings had significantly higher total misses, lower probability of hits in the RVP task...}}</ref>及[[sustained attention|持續專注力]]、[[時間估算]]<ref name="Hwang-Gu Gau 2015 p=e0127157"><!--因為機器人會拿走tsl 所以便加上外語標註-->
{{cite journal | last=Gau | first=SS | last2=Huang | first2=WL | title=Rapid visual information processing as a cognitive endophenotype of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. (快速視覺訊息歷程為注意力不足過動症的內表現型) | journal=Psychological medicine | volume=44 | issue=2 | year=2014 | issn=0033-2917 | pmid=23561037 | doi=10.1017/S0033291713000640 | pages=435–46| quote = Compared with the controls, probands with ADHD and unaffected siblings had significantly higher total misses, lower probability of hits in the RVP task...}}</ref>及[[注意長度|持續專注力]]、[[時間估算]]<ref name="Hwang-Gu Gau 2015 p=e0127157"><!--因為機器人會拿走tsl 所以便加上外語標註-->
{{cite journal | last=Hwang-Gu | first=SL | last2=Gau | first2=SS | title=Interval timing deficits assessed by time reproduction dual tasks as cognitive endophenotypes for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. | journal=PloS one | volume=10 | issue=5 | year=2015 | issn=1932-6203 | pmid=25992899 | pmc=4436371 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0127157 | page=e0127157| quote = ADHD probands had higher accuracy coefficient scores than unaffected siblings (t(764) = 6.37, p< .001) and TD youths (t(764) = 4.67, p< .001) which implied that they tended to overestimate the length of duration. }}</ref>、反應時間變異<ref name="Lin Hwang-Gu Gau 2015 pp. 39–50">
{{cite journal | last=Hwang-Gu | first=SL | last2=Gau | first2=SS | title=Interval timing deficits assessed by time reproduction dual tasks as cognitive endophenotypes for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. | journal=PloS one | volume=10 | issue=5 | year=2015 | issn=1932-6203 | pmid=25992899 | pmc=4436371 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0127157 | page=e0127157| quote = ADHD probands had higher accuracy coefficient scores than unaffected siblings (t(764) = 6.37, p< .001) and TD youths (t(764) = 4.67, p< .001) which implied that they tended to overestimate the length of duration. }}</ref>、反應時間變異<ref name="Lin Hwang-Gu Gau 2015 pp. 39–50">
{{cite journal | last=Lin | first=HY | last2=Hwang-Gu | first2=SL | last3=Gau | first3=SS | title=Intra-individual reaction time variability based on ex-Gaussian distribution as a potential endophenotype for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. (個體内反應時間差異做為注意力不足過動症之內表現型:ex-Gaussian研究) | journal=Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume=132 | issue=1 | year=2015 | issn=0001-690X | pmid=25612058 | doi=10.1111/acps.12393 | pages=39–50| quote = Compared with unaffected siblings and controls, ADHD probands had elevated sigma value, omissions, commissions, and mean RT. Unaffected siblings formed an intermediate group in-between probands and controls in terms of tau value and RTSD...Conforming to a context-dependent nature, unaffected siblings still had an intermediate tau value in-between probands and controls across different interstimulus intervals.}}</ref>) 的缺損,ADHD患者的親兄弟姊妹出現類似上述問題的機率顯著較高,是一般正常孩子的3、4倍,稱為ADHD的{{tsl|en|endophenotype|認知內表現型}}(具有基因關係但未達診斷標準的症狀/特徵型)。<ref>高淑芬 2016. 找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 心靈工坊, 台北. 第89頁</ref><!--不過參考資料中沒有標注引用論文--><ref name="Chien Chou Chiu Chou 2017 p=37">
{{cite journal | last=Lin | first=HY | last2=Hwang-Gu | first2=SL | last3=Gau | first3=SS | title=Intra-individual reaction time variability based on ex-Gaussian distribution as a potential endophenotype for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. (個體内反應時間差異做為注意力不足過動症之內表現型:ex-Gaussian研究) | journal=Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume=132 | issue=1 | year=2015 | issn=0001-690X | pmid=25612058 | doi=10.1111/acps.12393 | pages=39–50| quote = Compared with unaffected siblings and controls, ADHD probands had elevated sigma value, omissions, commissions, and mean RT. Unaffected siblings formed an intermediate group in-between probands and controls in terms of tau value and RTSD...Conforming to a context-dependent nature, unaffected siblings still had an intermediate tau value in-between probands and controls across different interstimulus intervals.}}</ref>) 的缺損,ADHD患者的親兄弟姊妹出現類似上述問題的機率顯著較高,是一般正常孩子的3、4倍,稱為ADHD的{{tsl|en|endophenotype|認知內表現型}}(具有基因關係但未達診斷標準的症狀/特徵型)。<ref>高淑芬 2016. 找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 心靈工坊, 台北. 第89頁</ref><!--不過參考資料中沒有標注引用論文--><ref name="Chien Chou Chiu Chou 2017 p=37">
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兒童青少年的手足(兄弟姊妹)比起非ADHD患者的[[手足]]多上三到四倍的機率帶有ADHD的特徵或也有ADHD。<ref>{{cite book | author=Nolen-Hoeksema S | title=Abnormal Psychology | year=2013 | isbn=9780078035388 | page=267 | edition=Sixth}}</ref>基因可能也與注意力不足過動症是否從幼兒延續至成人有關聯。<ref name="pmid22105624">{{cite journal |vauthors=Franke B, Faraone SV, Asherson P, Buitelaar J, Bau CH, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Mick E, Grevet EH, Johansson S, Haavik J, Lesch KP, Cormand B, Reif A | title = The genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review | journal = Mol. Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 10 | pages = 960–987 | date = 2012-10 | pmid = 22105624 | pmc = 3449233 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2011.138 }}</ref>
兒童青少年的手足(兄弟姊妹)比起非ADHD患者的[[手足]]多上三到四倍的機率帶有ADHD的特徵或也有ADHD。<ref>{{cite book | author=Nolen-Hoeksema S | title=Abnormal Psychology | year=2013 | isbn=9780078035388 | page=267 | edition=Sixth}}</ref>基因可能也與注意力不足過動症是否從幼兒延續至成人有關聯。<ref name="pmid22105624">{{cite journal |vauthors=Franke B, Faraone SV, Asherson P, Buitelaar J, Bau CH, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Mick E, Grevet EH, Johansson S, Haavik J, Lesch KP, Cormand B, Reif A | title = The genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review | journal = Mol. Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 10 | pages = 960–987 | date = 2012-10 | pmid = 22105624 | pmc = 3449233 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2011.138 }}</ref>


在一般的情況下,ADHD大多與數個影響多巴胺(大腦內一種[[神經傳導物質]])傳遞的基因有關<ref name="Gizer-2009"/><ref name="Genes Rev" />。這些[[基因]]分別是 [[Dopamine transporter|多巴胺輸送元(再攝取)DAT]]、[[多巴胺受体D4]](DRD4)、{{tsl|en|DRD5|多巴胺第五號受體|多巴胺受體D5 (DRD5)}}、{{tsl|en|TAAR1|TAAR1}}、{{tsl|en|MAOA|MAOA}}、[[兒茶酚-O-甲基轉移酶]](COMT)、和[[多巴胺β羟化酶]](DBH)。<ref name="Genes Rev">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kebir O, Tabbane K, Sengupta S, Joober R |title=Candidate genes and neuropsychological phenotypes in children with ADHD: review of association studies |journal=J Psychiatry Neurosci |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=88–101 |date=2009-03 |pmid=19270759 |pmc=2647566 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="Berry-2007">{{cite journal |last=Berry |first=MD |title=The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases |journal=Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=3–19 |date= 2007-01 |pmid=18473983 |doi=10.2174/157488707779318107 |url=http://www.eurekaselect.com/77537/article |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201213246/http://www.eurekaselect.com/77537/article |archivedate=2017-02-01 }}</ref><ref name="TAAR1_2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR |title=Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets |journal=Mol. Pharmacol. |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=229–235 |date=2009-08 |pmid=19389919 |pmc=2713119 |doi=10.1124/mol.109.055970}}</ref>
在一般的情況下,ADHD大多與數個影響多巴胺(大腦內一種[[神經傳導物質]])傳遞的基因有關<ref name="Gizer-2009"/><ref name="Genes Rev" />。這些[[基因]]分別是 [[多巴胺轉運體|多巴胺輸送元(再攝取)DAT]]、[[多巴胺受体D4]](DRD4)、{{tsl|en|DRD5|多巴胺第五號受體|多巴胺受體D5 (DRD5)}}、{{tsl|en|TAAR1|TAAR1}}、{{tsl|en|MAOA|MAOA}}、[[兒茶酚-O-甲基轉移酶]](COMT)、和[[多巴胺β羟化酶]](DBH)。<ref name="Genes Rev">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kebir O, Tabbane K, Sengupta S, Joober R |title=Candidate genes and neuropsychological phenotypes in children with ADHD: review of association studies |journal=J Psychiatry Neurosci |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=88–101 |date=2009-03 |pmid=19270759 |pmc=2647566 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="Berry-2007">{{cite journal |last=Berry |first=MD |title=The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases |journal=Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=3–19 |date= 2007-01 |pmid=18473983 |doi=10.2174/157488707779318107 |url=http://www.eurekaselect.com/77537/article |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201213246/http://www.eurekaselect.com/77537/article |archivedate=2017-02-01 }}</ref><ref name="TAAR1_2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR |title=Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets |journal=Mol. Pharmacol. |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=229–235 |date=2009-08 |pmid=19389919 |pmc=2713119 |doi=10.1124/mol.109.055970}}</ref>


其他基因分別是[[Serotonin transporter|血清素輸送元(SERT)]]、{{tsl|en|HTR1B|HTR1B}}、{{tsl|en|SNAP25|SNAP25}}、{{tsl|en|GRIN2A|GRIN2A}}、 {{tsl|en|ADRA2A|ADRA2A}}、{{tsl|en|TPH2|TPH2}}、和 [[Brain-derived neurotrophic factor|腦源性神經營養因子(BDNF)]]<ref name="Gizer-2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID | title = Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review | journal = Hum. Genet. | volume = 126 | issue = 1 | pages = 51–90 | date = 2009-07 | pmid = 19506906 | doi = 10.1007/s00439-009-0694-x | url = }}</ref><ref name="Genes Rev" />。
其他基因分別是[[血清素轉運體|血清素輸送元(SERT)]]、{{tsl|en|HTR1B|HTR1B}}、{{tsl|en|SNAP25|SNAP25}}、{{tsl|en|GRIN2A|GRIN2A}}、 {{tsl|en|ADRA2A|ADRA2A}}、{{tsl|en|TPH2|TPH2}}、和 [[脑源性神经营养因子|腦源性神經營養因子(BDNF)]]<ref name="Gizer-2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID | title = Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review | journal = Hum. Genet. | volume = 126 | issue = 1 | pages = 51–90 | date = 2009-07 | pmid = 19506906 | doi = 10.1007/s00439-009-0694-x | url = }}</ref><ref name="Genes Rev" />。


大約9%的ADHD患者身上會有{{tsl|en|LPN3|LPN3}}基因的變異體。而這些患者可能會對於中樞神經刺激劑特別有反應<ref name="pmid21432600">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arcos-Burgos M, Muenke M |title=Toward a better understanding of ADHD: LPHN3 gene variants and the susceptibility to develop ADHD |journal=Atten Defic Hyperact Disord |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=139–147 |date= 2010-11 |pmid=21432600 |pmc=3280610 |doi=10.1007/s12402-010-0030-2 |url=}}</ref>。
大約9%的ADHD患者身上會有{{tsl|en|LPN3|LPN3}}基因的變異體。而這些患者可能會對於中樞神經刺激劑特別有反應<ref name="pmid21432600">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arcos-Burgos M, Muenke M |title=Toward a better understanding of ADHD: LPHN3 gene variants and the susceptibility to develop ADHD |journal=Atten Defic Hyperact Disord |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=139–147 |date= 2010-11 |pmid=21432600 |pmc=3280610 |doi=10.1007/s12402-010-0030-2 |url=}}</ref>。


多巴胺輸送元多巴胺受体D4(DRD4)的七個重複存在的變異體[[DRD4-7R]]與ADHD有關。因為它放大了由多巴胺觸發的[[抑制]]效果。DRD4的接收元是一個[[G蛋白偶聯受體]],作用是抑制[[腺苷酸環化酶]]。DRD4的突變反映在許多行為表現上,包括ADHD的症狀群,例如:分心。<ref name="ADHD and the DRD4 allele">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nikolaidis A, Gray JR |title=ADHD and the DRD4 exon III 7-repeat polymorphism: an international meta-analysis | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |volume=5 |issue=2-3 |pages=188–193 |date=2010-01 |pmc=2894686 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsp049 |url= |pmid=20019071}}</ref>
多巴胺輸送元多巴胺受体D4(DRD4)的七個重複存在的變異體[[多巴胺受体D4|DRD4-7R]]與ADHD有關。因為它放大了由多巴胺觸發的[[抑制]]效果。DRD4的接收元是一個[[G蛋白偶聯受體]],作用是抑制[[腺苷酸環化酶]]。DRD4的突變反映在許多行為表現上,包括ADHD的症狀群,例如:分心。<ref name="ADHD and the DRD4 allele">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nikolaidis A, Gray JR |title=ADHD and the DRD4 exon III 7-repeat polymorphism: an international meta-analysis | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |volume=5 |issue=2-3 |pages=188–193 |date=2010-01 |pmc=2894686 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsp049 |url= |pmid=20019071}}</ref>


[[演化]]可能在ADHD的[[盛行率]]中扮演一定的角色,特別是有過動-衝動症狀的男性患者。<ref name="pmid21250994">{{cite journal |author=Glover V |title=Annual Research Review: Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=356–67 |date=2011-04 |pmid=21250994 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02371.x |url=}}</ref>
[[演化]]可能在ADHD的[[盛行率]]中扮演一定的角色,特別是有過動-衝動症狀的男性患者。<ref name="pmid21250994">{{cite journal |author=Glover V |title=Annual Research Review: Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=356–67 |date=2011-04 |pmid=21250994 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02371.x |url=}}</ref>


[[唐氏綜合症|唐氏症]]患者可能有較高的機率出現ADHD。<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Down Syndrome and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)|url = http://jcn.sagepub.com/content/26/10/1290|journal = Journal of Child Neurology|date = 2011-10-01|issn = 0883-0738|pmid = 21628698|pages = 1290–1295|volume = 26|issue = 10|doi = 10.1177/0883073811405201|first = Sivan|last = Ekstein|first2 = Benjamin|last2 = Glick|first3 = Michal|last3 = Weill|first4 = Barrie|last4 = Kay|first5 = Itai|last5 = Berger|deadurl = yes|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151120083410/http://jcn.sagepub.com/content/26/10/1290|archivedate = 2015-11-20}}</ref>
[[唐氏綜合症|唐氏症]]患者可能有較高的機率出現ADHD。<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Down Syndrome and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)|url = http://jcn.sagepub.com/content/26/10/1290|journal = Journal of Child Neurology|date = 2011-10-01|issn = 0883-0738|pmid = 21628698|pages = 1290–1295|volume = 26|issue = 10|doi = 10.1177/0883073811405201|first = Sivan|last = Ekstein|first2 = Benjamin|last2 = Glick|first3 = Michal|last3 = Weill|first4 = Barrie|last4 = Kay|first5 = Itai|last5 = Berger|deadurl = yes|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151120083410/http://jcn.sagepub.com/content/26/10/1290|archivedate = 2015-11-20}}</ref>

2018年六月,[[科學 (期刊)|《科學》]]期刊發表一篇統合分析指出,ADHD和[[躁鬱症]]、[[重性抑郁障碍|憂鬱症]]、和[[精神分裂症]]有許多共同的可能致病基因。<ref name="The Brainstorm Consortium Anttila Bulik-Sullivan Finucane 2018 p. 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Ilyas | last33=Larson | first33=Eric B. | last34=Rogaeva | first34=Ekaterina | last35=George-Hyslop | first35=Peter St | last36=Hakonarson | first36=Hakon | last37=Kukull | first37=Walter A. | last38=Farrer | first38=Lindsay A. | last39=Barnes | first39=Lisa L. | last40=Beach | first40=Thomas G. | last41=Demirci | first41=F. Yesim | last42=Head | first42=Elizabeth | last43=Hulette | first43=Christine M. | last44=Jicha | first44=Gregory A. | last45=Kauwe | first45=John S.K. | last46=Kaye | first46=Jeffrey A. | last47=Leverenz | first47=James B. | last48=Levey | first48=Allan I. | last49=Lieberman | first49=Andrew P. | last50=Pankratz | first50=Vernon S. | last51=Poon | first51=Wayne W. | last52=Quinn | first52=Joseph F. | last53=Saykin | first53=Andrew J. | last54=Schneider | first54=Lon S. | last55=Smith | first55=Amanda G. | last56=Sonnen | first56=Joshua A. | last57=Stern | first57=Robert A. | last58=Deerlin | first58=Vivianna M. Van | last59=Eldik | first59=Linda J. Van | last60=Harold | first60=Denise | last61=Russo | first61=Giancarlo | last62=Rubinsztein | first62=David C. | last63=Bayer | first63=Anthony | last64=Tsolaki | first64=Magda | last65=Proitsi | first65=Petra | last66=Fox | first66=Nick C. | last67=Hampel | first67=Harald | last68=Owen | first68=Michael J. | last69=Mead | first69=Simon | last70=Passmore | first70=Peter | last71=Morgan | first71=Kevin | last72=Nöthen | first72=Markus M. | last73=Schott | first73=Jonathan M. | last74=Rossor | first74=Martin | last75=Lupton | first75=Michelle K. | last76=Hoffmann | first76=Per | last77=Kornhuber | first77=Johannes | last78=Lawlor | first78=Brian | last79=McQuillin | first79=Andrew | last80=Al-Chalabi | first80=Ammar | last81=Bis | first81=Joshua C | last82=Ruiz | first82=Agustin | last83=Boada | first83=Mercè | last84=Seshadri | first84=Sudha | last85=Beiser | first85=Alexa | last86=Rice | first86=Kenneth | last87=Lee | first87=Sven J. van der | last88=Jager | first88=Philip L. 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=== 環境因素===
=== 環境因素===

2018年7月28日 (六) 16:33的版本

注意力不足/過動症(AD/HD)
Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder
同义词注意力缺失症、注意力缺陷過動症、過度活躍症、Hyperkinetic disorder (ICD-10)
An image of children
注意力不足過動症兒童患者可能比較難以專注在學校的作業,因此也不容易在期限內完成作業
症状容易分心英语attentional shift(難以把專注力放對地方)、過度的活動、 難以控制行為和衝動[1][2]
常見始發於6 - 12歲左右[3][4]
病程多於6個月[3]
类型特殊性发育障碍多动障碍[*]疾病神經發育異常
肇因尚不明確[5]
診斷方法根據症狀並排除其他可能的致病原因。[1]
相似疾病或共病品行障碍對立反抗症學習障礙躁鬱症[6]自閉症光譜睡眠障礙[7]焦慮症[7]憂鬱症[7]
治療心理治療、改變生活方式、藥物[1]
盛行率5,110萬(2015年)[8]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科精神醫學
ICD-116A05
ICD-10F90.0
OMIM143465、​608903、​608904、​608905、​608906、​612311、​612312
DiseasesDB6158
MedlinePluswillem
eMedicine289350、​912633
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
注意力不足過動症
症状執行困難症[*]難以控制行為和衝動情緒失調[*]過度專注rejection sensitive dysphoria[*]distractibility[*]
类型特殊性发育障碍多动障碍[*]疾病神經發育異常
分类和外部资源
醫學專科精神医学、​兒童青少年精神醫學
ICD-116A05
ICD-10F90
ICD-9-CM314.00314.01
OMIM143465
DiseasesDB6158
MedlinePlus001551
eMedicinemed/3103 ped/177
MeSHD001289
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
「ADHD」的各地常用譯名
中国大陸注意力缺陷多动障碍
臺灣注意力不足過動症
香港專注力失調或過度活躍症
澳門專注力失調/過度活躍症
日本注意欠陥・多動性障害
大韓民國注意力缺乏過多行動障礙
注意力缺乏 過剩行動 症候群
越南𦇒亂增動減注意

注意力不足過動症(英語:Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,縮寫为ADHD),涵蓋注意力缺失症(英語:Attention Deficit Disorder,縮寫为ADD)。ADHD是一個與腦神經發育相關英语neurodevelopmental disorder心理疾患[9][10],也是一個與腦神經相關的疾病英语brain disorder[11][12]。它的特徵是「容易分心,難以專注英语attentional shift」、「過度的活動」或「難以控制自身的言行舉止」且不符合患者年齡該有的成熟度英语Age appropriateness[1][13]。症狀通常出現在十二歲左右且持續超過六個月並在至少兩種情境中出現(例如:學校、家庭、休閒活動等)[4][14]。專注力方面的問題可能影響兒童患者的在學表現[1]

過去普遍認為注意力不足過動症是只會發生在兒童身上的腦部發展障礙,但近年發現注意力不足過動症患者的60%(包括應接受診斷卻未接受診斷的患者),其注意力不足過動症癥狀會持續至成人時期,而這60%患者中的41%,其注意力不足過動症仍對生活造成明顯的影響[15][16][17][18]。注意力不足過動症在嬰兒幼兒時期,因為孩子正在學走路和說話,所以症狀通常不易被察覺,往往要等到他們進入幼稚園或小學之後,透過遵守教室、課堂的規範及跟同學們的相處,旁人才會漸漸注意到其症狀。學校老師往往是最容易發現孩童注意力不足過動症症狀的人,因為在學校有明確的對照組[19];然而,不少注意力不足過動症患者(尤其是女性患者)不但沒有過動症狀,甚至是非常安靜、沒有破壞性的,惟過去對此症的認識總是集中在過動[a]症狀上,使得這類「不過動衝動」、「純粹注意力缺陷」的注意力不足過動症患者甚少能診斷出來。端視注意力不足過動症患者其腦部發展的程度與其所在環境對其執行功能要求的程度之比例,因此有些注意力不足過動症患者可能直到青少年時期甚至是成年期(特別是成年初期)才開始顯露出注意力不足過動症的症狀[20][21][22]。國際注意力不足過動症流行率中位數,兒童為5-8%,成人為3-5%。研究顯示美國一年因注意力不足過動症損失高達近40億美金,其中即包括父母的工作損失[23]。注意力不足過動症患者甚至其家屬可能對自身或患者的問題存有否認心理[24][25]

現時沒有任何確切證據證實任何一個或多個因素決定性地導致這種病症。研究顯示注意力不足過動症與腦部的額葉及其他構造發展相關,但詳細成因仍未得知。注意力不足過動症可能具有相當高的遺傳率。根據美国疾病控制与预防中心的研究,注意力不足過動症是一群症狀的交集。因此,要正確診斷這病症,不能依靠單一臨床方法去確定,而必須同時採用多種臨床方法配合去確認。注意力不足過動症的診斷係依據《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》的標準、門診病人主訴、症狀學、患者的歷史經歷、發展史、家族史、共病生理評估及各種醫師評估後認為需要進一步的檢查等。[註 1][26][27][21]每年的十月為國際間訂定的注意力不足過動症意識之月(ADHD Awareness Month)。

藥物治療合併行為治療是目前證實最有效的治療方式[21][28][29][30][31][32]。學齡前的患者,通常僅需接受行為治療,除非症狀達到嚴重的程度且拒絕接受行為治療或無法從行為治療中獲得改善,才需考慮加入藥物治療[33][34]。 注意力不足過動症的治療並非是要將孩子們標準化[b],而是一本教育的初衷,協助每一位孩子「發掘、發揚自己的優點、並避免缺點」。[35][36][37][38]

名稱

注意力不足過動症也译作注意力不集中/過動症(英語:Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder,簡稱AD/HD)、過度活躍症(英語:Hyperkinetic Disorder;於ICD 10中的名稱),俗称有多動症多動障礙大雄·胖虎症候群(日本)等。此病患的兒童習稱過動兒,也有醫療人士建議改稱為心動兒[39][40]

注意力不足過動症可以依其子類型分為以下幾類。

注意力不足過動症
子類型  \  核心症狀 注意力不足(分心) 過動 衝動
過動-衝動為主型 -
注意力不足為主型
又稱為注意力缺失(陷)症(Attention Deficit Disorder)
- -
混和型

世界衛生組織出版的《世界通用疾病分類手冊》第十版中(ICD-10, International Classification of Disease-10,又稱為國際通用的疾病分類表), 過度活躍症的症狀幾乎等同於《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》第五版(DSM-5)中注意力不足過動症的症狀。而「注意力不足過動症」在ICD-10中稱為「過度活躍症」[41]

ICD-11 正式版將廢除「過度活躍症」名稱,改採「注意力不足/過動症」[42]並納入上述三種ADHD的類型、子類型[43][44][45]

定義

讲解注意力不足過動症的影片(英文)

對注意力不足過動症比較確切的定義,記載於美國精神醫學會(APA)出版的《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》(DSM)第四版之文本修改版[46]

注意力不足過動症的主要病徵是:

  1. 注意力渙散或集中困難(專注力失調、注意力缺陷)
  2. 活動量過多 (過度活躍、多動)
  3. 自我管理能力弱 (衝動

基於以上三種病徵,再把注意力不足過動症細分為以下三個分類:

  1. 注意力渙散主導型
    又稱為注意力不足(專注力失調)為主型
  2. 活動量過多或自制力弱主導型
    又稱為過動-衝動(過度活躍、多動障礙)為主型
  3. 混合型
    又稱為注意力不足(專注力失調)、過動-衝動(過度活躍、多動障礙)混和型

注意力不足(失調/缺陷)

      參見:注意力的臨床表現型[47][48]注意力不集中分心過度專心

面向 解釋
選擇性注意力
(Selective attention)
  1. 能夠維持原有的行為或認知過程,即便遇到外界的刺激或誘惑,亦复如此。
  2. 能夠將注意力凝聚於某一個重要目標,而忽略其他不相干的訊息,所以就不會分心。
分開性注意力
(Divided attention)

能夠同時專注於不同的事情上、同時接收多個指令、或者同時進行好幾件事情而不會搞混或忘記。

轉移性注意力
(Shifting/Alternating attention)
  1. 專注力可以迅速從一件事切換到另一件事,果斷地處理完眼前的事物、再隨時切換回去,不會遲疑不決或慌張混亂。
  2. 能夠在心靈上保有彈性,使自己能把注意力的焦點從一件事切換到另一件事,也能在「所需認知程度不同的」事情之間切換。
持續的注意/警覺英语Vigilance (psychology)/專注
(Sustained Attention/Vigilance/ Concentration)

可以讓專注力在「持續一段時間且內容重複」的事情中保持一段較長的時間,不會一下子就恍神或散漫。

集中的注意力(選擇地集中注意力)
(Focused attention/Selective sustained attention[49][50]

能夠一個一個,井然有序地應對來自視覺聽覺觸覺等外部刺激。

  • 備註:「一件事」在此也可為「一個想法或點子」。

注意力不足過動症的兒童,在「轉移性注意力」、「選擇性注意力」和「持續性注意力」有類似的特點,尤其是「持續性注意力」,會低於同年齡無ADHD的兒童[51]

父母常疑問:孩子在看電視或打電動時常常一坐就是幾小時,可是靜態的看書畫畫就沒有辦法,可能幾分鐘就喊無聊。不過不同活動所需的專注度原本就有差異,電視電動因為畫面不停的變換,加上各種聽覺效果視覺吸引的效果(包含時下興起的:虛擬實境),只需維持短暫的注意力就能持續進行,但孩子一旦從事要求較長專注度的工作或是活動時,其注意力就會無法持續或出現缺失。[35][36][52][53]而許多ADHD的孩子在自身感興趣的事情上可以維持長時間的專注[21][54]

簡而言之,「注意力不足/缺陷」指的就是難以把注意力維持在「沒有帶給個案高強度刺激感或沒有頻繁帶給個案獎賞/回饋/滿足感英语reward(Reward)」的事情上或容易分心且有組織規劃上的困難。[43]

好動與過動

好動 雖然活動量大,但是「神經動作」、「精細動作」的控制沒有問題,是故可以進行靜態的活動。[52]
過動 過動者在靜止時容易有主觀的「不安」感覺。若患者不被允許進行大動作(走路、站立)時,其會需要透過小幅度的動作(如抖腳、轉筆等)來化解坐立不安的感覺。[52][55][56]

除此之外,過動的孩子往往無時無刻都保持動態,難以維持肢體上的固定(在那些需要自我控制肢體的場合中動來動去就是證據之一);也會顯得過於活躍、帶有攻擊性衝動或難以保持專注,並造成社交上和學業上的困難。[57][56][58]

衝動性

衝動是指在抑制控制上有困難,所以會在尚未深思熟慮前,就開始行動(簡言之,未能謀定而後動)。ADHD往往無法正確判斷什麼是「適當的行為」,這乃是因為ADHD的衝動性質反映在認知上所形成的特殊現象。由於ADHD的自我抑制能力不足,所以往往會不由自主地說出本身不願意說的話或做出本身不願意做的事情/行動。舉例來說:當非ADHD的孩子做出不適當的行為時,只要被老師或家長處罰2到3次就會修正其行為;而ADHD兒童在受到好幾次處罰後,仍持續違反紀律的情形十分普遍。這樣重蹈覆轍的行為不是反抗也不是故意的,而是心裡的衝動所致。具有衝動性特質的人,其反應時間(不經深思熟慮的反應),比起同齡或同智能的人要短一些。這種衝動的個性會直接反映在學業上,譬如說,衝動的人傾向在還沒閱讀完較長的題幹,或還沒有讀完全部的答題選項時,就因不耐煩而作答,導致答錯問題的比率甚高。除此之外,曾有個性衝動的人因為沒注意到眼前的障礙物而絆倒,或在沒有注意路況下,就衝到馬路上而發生交通事故的例子。[59][60]

一言以蔽之,衝動乃患者經常在「能『立即』獲得酬賞滿足感(Reward)」的點子的驅使下就「立即」行動,行動前沒有縝密思考過行動的緩急輕重、風險及可能帶來的後果,之所以行動幾乎只是為了能『立即』獲得酬賞/回饋/滿足感(Reward)。 [61]

特徵和症狀

注意力缺失症患者在學生時期的特徵包含:患者在上課時看起來是靜靜地聽講,但事實上患者對教師所說的內容可能茫然不知、純粹只是望著教師。[37]

未治療的注意力不足過動症患者(紅色實線)相較於非注意力不足過動症患者(藍色虛線),通常對刺激過於延遲的反應(反應包含:緊張、開心等),並造成患者過於不易分辨事情的緩急輕重等症狀。[62]

注意力不足過動症的主要特徵包括:容易忘記事情、分心、囉唆、話多、常打斷別人,且愛辯駁、靜不下來、讀寫困難(包括寫錯字,常多一畫或少一畫、拼字錯誤等)、閱讀時會跳行或無法理解文意等,做事易拖拖拉拉英语procrastination,常拖至最後。工作普遍都做不久,持續有點子突然在腦海中蹦出來英语Racing_thoughts,會一直換工作,顯得三心兩意[註 2]、缺乏組織英语Organizing_(structure)規劃力,無法把自己想說的話、想做的事具體地表達或規劃出來。逃避需要持續動腦的工作(例如:做家庭作業或學校作業)、無法分辨事情的優先次序英语Prioritization(緩急輕重)、缺乏時間管理的認知。[21][64][65][66]

以上症狀隨患者年齡而有不同表現,譬如說,注意力不足過動症的孩子,其表現通常有:上課不專心、無法抑制自己的衝動以及坐立不安的情況;成人患者的主要問題則常在於無法計劃並完成好他們的日常生活每日簡單的工作英语routine[66]

各年齡層的注意力不足過動症患者往往較容易遭遇社交技巧上的問題,例如:社交互動建立一段人際關係英语relationship forming維持一段人際關係等。這個觀察在各注意力不足過動症的三種子類型中都是成立的。大約一半(50%)的患有注意力不足過動症的兒童及青少年曾經歷過来自他人的社交拒絕;相形之下,其同儕[註 3]被別人拒絕社交的比率約為10-15%。注意力不足的人比起對照組(非注意力不足過動症患者)更容易遭遇理解他人「口頭英语verbal非口頭」言行舉止/交際上的困難,進而對於其社交互動產生負面影響。注意力不足過動症患者也可能在對話的過程中打瞌睡並遺漏他人釋放出的社交暗示。[67]

難以管理憤怒情緒的情況則較常在兒童注意力不足過動症患者身上顯現。[68]再者,兒童注意力不足過動症患者通常有寫字英语handwriting的困難[69][70]言語及行動發展的遲緩英语Child_development#growth。雖然這些問題造成患者在現今社會中很大的障礙[71][72],然而許多注意力不足過動症患者在他們有興趣的事情上都能持續維持專注力,[73]甚至過度專心,成為工作狂[35][註 4]

注意力不足過動症患者遇到需要保持長時間專注的事情,比如說:讀書、寫功課、或閱讀英语Reading comprehension,就容易出現不適應的情況。[35]研究結果證實注意力不足過動症本身與低學業成就英语Academic_achievement為直接的因果關係。[74]

不少注意力不足過動症患者(尤其是女性患者)不但沒有過動症狀,甚至是非常安靜、沒有破壞性的,惟過去對此症的認識總是集中在過動(多動、過度活躍)症狀上,使得這類「不過動或衝動」的注意力不足過動症患者甚少能被診斷出來。[75][76]

正向特徵

注意力不足過動症患者較為正向的特質為:
舉止坦率自然、落落大方、富有想像力好奇心能夠跳脫框架思考[77];思考獨特,對直覺較敏感,能深入問題核心發現問題;對自己的想法堅持、特立獨行[65];具高度創造力、追求創新熱心助人、富有正義感幽默感、活潑開朗[35];勇於冒險、韌性十足、源源不絕的活力[78]。有興趣時非常能夠堅持[77][65][78]

人際交往與婚姻

台灣精神科醫師高淑芬在《找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊》一書中指出,ADHD患者活潑開朗、熱心助人、說話風趣、勇於告白的特性對於兩性交往與婚姻來說都具有加分作用;但交往一段時間後,ADHD患者的負面特質,例如:沒耐心、容易遲到、無法專心聽人說話、交代的事情老是忘記、需要幫忙的時候找不到人、生活習慣及生活作息不正常、及個性迷糊等,就可能讓對方萌生退意。[35]高淑芬亦指出,如果順利交往、結婚,則接下來注意力不足過動症患者可能遇到的挑戰為:比起交往時期多了許多日常生活之事,患者可能會因為忘記付帳單、照顧小孩很散漫、做事有始無終而引起夫妻間的爭吵,為婚姻生活埋下陰影。[35][79]

然而,高淑芬強調,只要ADHD患者可以提升專注力並且落實執行力,一樣可以如同其他人。[35]

智力

注意力不足過動症患者的智力潛力和非注意力不足過動症患者相仿,然而因為注意力不足過動症的症狀,使得其智力測驗結果可能產生較大的誤差[80][81]

由於ADHD可能被當成學習障礙智能障礙為主的方式處理,因此文獻指出,面對兒童青少年和成人之學習障礙或智能障礙患者的相關人員應具備ADHD的專業知識[82][83]

台灣醫師高淑芬在其著作中提到,若能在大約九、十歲以前把握年齡較小、症狀較為單純時治療,可以避免往後病情複雜化(衍生共病)。再者,能在早期建立良好的學習及生活習慣,培養自信心及責任感,對注意力不足過動症患者的未來將有深遠的影響[18][35][36]

可能與注意力不足過動症有關的疾病

在注意力不足過動症患者中,大約會有23 的機率伴隨其他有關的特徵或疾病[54]。常見的特徵或共病如下:

一篇2016年發表的系統性文獻回顧發現「注意力不足過動症」與肥胖呼吸道氣管過敏(例如:氣喘過敏性鼻炎)、或睡眠障礙有著直接的關聯[121];而與偏頭痛可能有點關係[121]。同一篇論文也認為注意力不足過動症和乳糜瀉可能有關[121],然而也有2016年發表的系統性文獻回顧認為二者無關連性[122]

診斷

注意力不足過動症又可細分為以下三種類型:注意力不足(專注力失調)為主型、過動-衝動為主型、或注意力不足(專注力失調)且過動-衝動的混和型。[46]

過動,即為「過度」活躍。過度兩字意味著活躍的程度已經對生活造成不良的影響。[123]即便個案並無上述注意力不足過動症的所有特徵,他仍有可能是ADHD患者,有無全部特徵牽涉到是否有其他共病存在且治療的主要目的在於協助患者避免缺點並發揚優點。成人及兒童青少年的注意力不足過動症的診斷依據《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》的標準、患者的歷史經歷(個案史)[46]、門診病人的主訴、症狀學、發展史、家族史、共病、生理評估及各種醫師評估後認為需要進一步的檢查等。[註 1][7][21]

精神疾病診斷與統計手冊

根據最新的精神疾病診斷與統計手冊第五版(DSM-V),以下表列之症狀至少在一個類別中擁有六個項目(成人為至少五項[124])並必須持續至少六個月且其程度高於多數同年齡層之同儕。除此之外,以下表列之症狀必須在至少兩種不同的情境下(例如:社交、課業/工作、家庭、朋友之間、親戚之間、或其他場合/活動)造成問題並有明確證據證明這些症狀確實影響或降低患者在學校、社交或工作的應對能力與學校生活、社交生活及工作生活的品質,且這些條件必須出現在大約十二歲以前。[125] 再者,這些症狀無法被其他心理疾病更好地定義、解釋(例如:情感障礙焦虑症解离性障碍人格障礙)。[126]另外,診斷者須確保個案的這些症狀不只出現於個案的(若有)精神分裂症或其他思覺失調的(發病)病程中。[127]

「注意力缺失」為主的注意力不足過動症

一個未滿17歲,以注意力不足(專注力失調)為主的注意力不足過動症患者擁有下表中至少六項的症狀[126](17歲以上為至少五項[124]),且非由其他醫學疾病直接造成。[125]除此之外,症狀持續至少六個月而且這些症狀與患者所處年紀應該展現的發展成熟度不符。[126]

  1. 難以認知細微的細節、或在學校、工作、或其他活動上經常不夠細心、或容易粗心甚至犯下無心之過。[126]
  2. 難以持續對於一件事情或遊戲保持專注。[126]
  3. 經常沒有遵從指示且難以完成或(如期)繳交家庭作業、日常瑣事、應該做的事(責任)、職務要求、雜務、或乏味的例行工作。[126]
  4. 經常丟失完成任務或活動所需的東西(例如:鉛筆、課本、考卷、水壺、鑰匙、學習用品、書本、工具器材、眼鏡、手機、紙本文書等)。[126]
  5. 在做一件重要的事情時容易分心,或被其他比較不重要的事情吸引。[126]
  6. 當他人跟患者說話時,患者似乎沒在聽其說話。[126]
  7. 難以組織籌畫許多任務或活動。[126]
  8. 不喜歡、經常避免、不情願、或需要勉強自己去做那些需要長時間動腦的事情(例如:課業、家庭作業、在學事務)。[126]
  9. 容易分心或容易把注意力放錯地方。[126]
  10. 健忘、容易忘記那些每天都會做的事情/例行公事(daily routine)。[126]

「過動-衝動」為主的注意力不足過動症

一個未滿17歲,以注意力不足(專注力失調)為主的注意力不足過動症患者擁有下表中至少六項的症狀(17歲以上為至少五項[124]),且非由其他醫學疾病直接造成。[35][37][125]除此之外,症狀持續至少六個月,再者這些症狀與患者所處年紀應該展現的發展成熟度不符而且對患者本身或他人造成困擾(disruptive)。[126]

  1. 坐在椅子上動來動去、在位置上用手指頭敲打東西、 或用腳趾頭敲打地板。[126]
  2. 不停地講話,講話的頻繁度超出正常範圍。[126]
  3. 四處東奔西跑、碰觸或玩弄視野內的任一或每一個物體。(青少年或成人則為:感到不安寧、感覺靜不下來/閒不下來)[126]
  4. 一直在移動、做動作或「正在做某事」,似乎一直被馬達給驅動著。[126]
  5. 難以安靜的參與或從事休閒活動[126]
  6. 常常在還沒聽完或看完問題的時候就脫口說出自己認為的答案或衝動/急於作答。[126]
  7. 難以忍受延遲的滿足、難耐在遊戲或其他事情中因輪流所產生的等待時間。[126]
  8. 經常干擾他人或「闖入」他人之間的對話、活動或遊戲等活動。[126]
  9. 經常在被預期應該長時間坐著的情況下離開座位(例如:在圖書館常常離席、在演講場合常常離席、在上課時間/吃飯時間/做功課的時間或聽故事時間無法乖乖坐好)。[126]

在青少年及成年的注意力不足過動症患者中,過動的症狀往往隨著社會化及年齡的增長而轉變為內在的不安寧。[128]

若個案同時滿足「『注意力缺失』為主的注意力不足過動症」和「『過動-衝動』為主的注意力不足過動症」的診斷標準,則該個案屬於「注意力不足過動症『混合型』」。[126]

一位求診患者即便在過去六個月中,症狀數量較診斷準則少,但若曾經完全符合診斷準則且症狀仍導致多重情境下(例如:工作、學業及社會等)功能減損之狀態,仍可能符合注意力不足過動症的診斷。此乃注意力不足過動症的部分緩解。[35]ADHD的嚴重度則以表列症狀的多寡及程度、是否存在少數幾個特別嚴重的症狀、和/或 ADHD對於患者的執行功能(社交、學業、職業工作的應對能力/功能)的減損程度判斷。[35]

兒童及成人之注意力不足過動症診斷必須由受過專業訓練的醫療團隊(例如兒童精神科醫師團隊)才可,否則容易受到誤診與處方,這相當危險。[35][37][129][130][131][註 7]

世界通用疾病分類手冊

以下為2010年出版之《世界通用疾病分類手冊 第十版》(ICD-10, International Classification of Disease-10,又稱為國際通用的疾病分類表)第五章節:

心理與行為疾病(F00-F99)[註 7]

早發於青少年時期的情緒及行為疾病 (F90-F98)[132]
過度活躍症 (Hyperkinetic Disorder, F90)
  • 年紀輕輕(通常在零到五歲的時候)就出現難以持續進行一件需要動腦的活動、常常一件事情還沒做到一個段落就跳到另一個事情去,並伴隨組織與規劃能力的不足、聽從指示上的困難、過多的活動。
  • ADHD可能與其他疾病共病。
  • 患有過度活躍症的孩子通常較衝動、沒有三思而後行。因此容易發生意外。聽從指示上的困難通常起因於沒有三思而後行,刻意造反相較之下的可能性較低。
  • 患者對成人的溝通交流(相處)可能是毫無保留的,缺乏正常的戒心與保守。患者可能在群體之中不受歡迎且受到孤立。
  • 認知功能的不足是常見的,運動語言發展上的延遲、遲緩更是頻繁。
  • 次要的併發症包含未「社會化」(社會無法接受)的行為以及低自尊心。

ICD-11

已經於2018年六月發行、預定在2019年中提交世界衛生組織大會(WHA)審核的ICD-11 (ICD 第十一版)準正式版中,注意力不足過動症歸類於6A05(ADHD)的類別裡,而該注意力不足過動症類別中對ADHD的定義暨介紹已趨近現時之DSM-5。[42][133]

成年注意力不足過動症患者

成人注意力不足過動症(Adult ADHD;AADHD;Adult ADD;AADD)其實是注意力不足過動症的症狀從幼年延續到成年期,並不是成年後才出現的疾病。其症狀基本上仍未脫離分心、過動-衝動的核心概念,只是表現方式有很多(比起幼年期更為多樣),一般大眾不一定能將這些多樣的表現型式與ADHD的核心症狀相連結。[134]。成人注意力不足過動症及成人自閉症也是為台灣兒童青少年精神科醫師培訓過程中的重點科目[註 7]

世界衛生組織的《成人ADHD自填量表症狀檢核表》(簡稱ASRS)就有列出成人注意力不足過動症的一些可能症狀,其中分別依「注意力缺損」及「過動/衝動」二種表現型進行歸納[135]

研究發現,兒童青少年時期的ADHD症狀若未經治療,超過六成進入成年期後仍有明顯症狀。[16]隨著年齡增加,症狀的表現將較為多變,舉例來說:青少年或成人ADHD的「過動」症狀極可能以「非常浮躁」或「把別人弄得精疲力竭」等方式呈現。[136]

生物標記研究

數篇關於ADHD生物標記的回顧性研究指出,ADHD患者的血小板单胺氧化酶表現型(expression)、尿液中的正肾上腺素、尿液中的MHPG英语3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol和尿液中的苯乙胺濃度都與由「非ADHD患者」組成的對照組不同。[137][138]檢測上述這些項目可能可以作為是否有ADHD的診斷生理標記(diagnostic biomarkers),簡言之就是作為診斷ADHD的重要參考。然而這部分正處於研究階段,尚需更多研究與實驗來確立這方面利用的可行性[138]。ADHD患者尿液中的苯乙胺濃度、血浆中的苯乙胺濃度皆較「非ADHD患者」及「服用苯丙胺或哌甲酯治療的ADHD患者」來得低。已知苯丙胺和哌甲酯會增加苯乙胺在體內的合成。特別是那些對苯丙胺和哌甲酯有反應的ADHD患者[137][138][139]。偏低的尿液中苯乙胺濃度與ADHD患者「不專心(inattentiveness)」的症狀相關。[138]。當今的腦波檢測還不夠精準到足以用來當作診斷的重要依據[140]

腦部造影

由於關於ADHD的腦部結構之神經影像學仍處於廣泛的研究發展階段,迄今為止學界尚未得到一致的ADHD與非ADHD之腦部構造的差異結論。除此之外,一名ADHD與另一名ADHD的腦部內造結構仍不完全相同。因此腦部造影只被用於對於複雜的人腦進一步的研究,尚未能應用於診斷ADHD。[141]

病因學

絕大多數ADHD的確切成因目前並沒有定論,最有可能是基因和環境交互作用導致。[35][36][142][143]有些個案的成因可能與腦部的疾病感染和腦部創傷有關。[35][36][142]根據研究統計,注意力不足過動症具有相當高的遺傳率。[35][36]

近期的研究發現,注意力不足過動症是由一種發生於腦前額葉遺傳性的多巴胺新陳代謝失常引致。更近期的研究認為正腎上腺素新陳代謝亦會對病情有所影響 [144] [145] [146]

Zametkin等人在1990年发表的一篇论文中利用核磁共振成像技术研究了成人ADHD患者的脑部葡萄糖代谢,成像结果如上图。图中颜色越接近白色表示葡萄糖利用率越高,左侧为非ADHD成人,右侧为ADHD成人患者,可见二者有显著不同。 [147]

利用核磁共振成像技術(MRI)對腦部掃描的研究顯示患有ADHD和正常孩子的圖象有分別。不少科學家認為這足以證明ADHD是和腦部創傷有關。但另一方面,根據腦部的正电子发射断层扫描顯示,這種分別很可能只說明了ADHD患者的問題:因為他們並不能專注於一件事情,所以腦部影像只說明了作為腦內燃料的葡萄糖的分佈,在兩組兒童之間的分別。在成人ADHD患者的腦掃描中,控制專注力的部份由於葡萄糖水平較低,所以顯得不太活躍。不過,沒有證據顯示低葡萄糖水平與低注意力有關連,亦無法推論兩者之間的因果關係。[147]

不少ADHD患者有迟到的問題。現已知这种“惯常迟到”的認知行為模式源自脑部问题,导致「常常迟到」的脑部区域与人腦中和ADHD相关的区域相同。这使得ADHD患者經常无法估计出自己完成一件事需要耗费的时间。患者可能常常遭遇「錯過一件事的截止時間」的窘境。時間知覺英语Tachypsychia與腦部的執行功能相關。低落的時間管理能力將會影響患者的表現。[148][149][150][151][152]

基因遺傳

“研究顯示ADHD會在家族中出現,所以有一定程度的遺傳影響。ADHD的病童通常都至少有一位近親亦有ADHD。患有ADHD的男童長大成為父親後,子女亦是ADHD患者的機率超過三分之一。一個更有說服力的遺傳聯繫,就是同卵雙生兒(雙胞胎),如果診斷出當中一位為ADHD患者,另一位同時亦是患者的機會非常高。”[153][154]
  1. 爸爸有「注意力不足過動症」,孩子有「注意力不足過動症」的比例(15%至45%)略高於媽媽有「注意力不足過動症」,孩子有「注意力不足過動症」的比例(14%至38%)[35]
  2. ADHD神經心理學研究發現,在ADHD的親兄弟姊妹沒有確診為ADHD的前提下,ADHD孩童的親手足與一般孩童相比,依然容易出現執行功能 (如:空間工作記憶視覺記憶[155]持續專注力時間估算[156]、反應時間變異[157]) 的缺損,ADHD患者的親兄弟姊妹出現類似上述問題的機率顯著較高,是一般正常孩子的3、4倍,稱為ADHD的認知內表現型英语endophenotype(具有基因關係但未達診斷標準的症狀/特徵型)。[158][159][160][161][162]而當自己的親生兄弟姊妹之一確診是ADHD時,則自己也有ADHD的機率為25%至35%。[163][164][165][166][167]

更進一步來說,雙胞胎研究顯示ADHD通常遺傳自患者的父母。大約75%的患者的病因是基因因素。[168][169][170]
兒童青少年的手足(兄弟姊妹)比起非ADHD患者的手足多上三到四倍的機率帶有ADHD的特徵或也有ADHD。[171]基因可能也與注意力不足過動症是否從幼兒延續至成人有關聯。[172]

在一般的情況下,ADHD大多與數個影響多巴胺(大腦內一種神經傳導物質)傳遞的基因有關[173][174]。這些基因分別是 多巴胺輸送元(再攝取)DAT多巴胺受体D4(DRD4)、多巴胺受體D5 (DRD5)英语DRD5TAAR1英语TAAR1MAOA英语MAOA兒茶酚-O-甲基轉移酶(COMT)、和多巴胺β羟化酶(DBH)。[174][175][176]

其他基因分別是血清素輸送元(SERT)HTR1B英语HTR1BSNAP25英语SNAP25GRIN2A英语GRIN2AADRA2A英语ADRA2ATPH2英语TPH2、和 腦源性神經營養因子(BDNF)[173][174]

大約9%的ADHD患者身上會有LPN3英语LPN3基因的變異體。而這些患者可能會對於中樞神經刺激劑特別有反應[177]

多巴胺輸送元多巴胺受体D4(DRD4)的七個重複存在的變異體DRD4-7R與ADHD有關。因為它放大了由多巴胺觸發的抑制效果。DRD4的接收元是一個G蛋白偶聯受體,作用是抑制腺苷酸環化酶。DRD4的突變反映在許多行為表現上,包括ADHD的症狀群,例如:分心。[178]

演化可能在ADHD的盛行率中扮演一定的角色,特別是有過動-衝動症狀的男性患者。[179]

唐氏症患者可能有較高的機率出現ADHD。[180]

2018年六月,《科學》期刊發表一篇統合分析指出,ADHD和躁鬱症憂鬱症、和精神分裂症有許多共同的可能致病基因。[181]

環境因素

除了基因外,一些環境因子也可能是注意力不足過動症的致病因素。[182]例如:在懷孕期間攝取酒精可能導致包含類似注意力不足過動症症狀的胎兒酒精譜系障礙。暴露在特定有毒物質,例如:多氯聯苯等,可能會產生類似注意力不足過動症的中毒症狀。[183]暴露在磷酸酯殺蟲劑毒死蜱(一種晶體有機磷殺蟲劑)、烷基磷酸酯英语Alkyl phosphate、二烷基磷酸酯中,將提高致病率,不過此結論尚未受到學界的廣泛認可。[184]在懷孕過程中接觸到二手煙,將不利於胚胎的腦部神經發育,並將增加罹患注意力不足過動症的機率。[185][186]

新生兒嚴重早產新生兒體重過輕、兒童極端疏於照料、遭受凌虐、嚴重地缺乏與社會的互動英语Social_deprivation,也可能增加往後出現注意力不足過動症的機率。[185][187]

母親在懷孕期間、兒童在出生時或成長初期遭受特定的感染都可能提高致病率。這些特定的感染包含但不限於:麻疹varicella zoster英语Varicella zoster virus腦炎風疹、德國麻疹或三日麻疹、 第71型腸病毒 (EV71)[188]

一份於2017年11月美國小兒科學會英语American Academy of Pediatrics發表的研究顯示,長時間於妊娠期間使用对乙酰氨基酚與孩子出生後帶有ADHD,有統計上的相關性[189][190]

另一份於2018年5月在JAMA發表的研究顯示,懷孕期間接觸己烯雌酚可能會使孫子(女)、外孫(女)增加帶有ADHD的機率。[191][192]

曾遭受外傷性腦損傷英语traumatic brain injury(TBI)[c][註 9]的兒童,其中至少30%將在往後的人生中發展出注意力不足過動症[193]。因外力而導致腦部受損而致注意力不足過動症大約占所有注意力不足過動症個案的5%。[19]

截至2018年7月,現有的證據無法支持減少食用特定食物(例如人工食用色素)來治療注意力不足過動症的療法[194]

截至2018年7月,研究並不支持注意力不足過動症是因為攝取過多的精緻糖、看太多電視、貧窮或混亂、時局/所在環境的動盪不安、吵吵鬧鬧的家庭所致。然而前述的這些項目可能會惡化一些注意力不足過動症患者的注意力不足過動症症狀。[195]

社會因素

被診斷為注意力不足過動症,不一定是受診者自身的問題,可能代表家庭功能不彰以及教育體制的僵化。[196] 曾遭受過暴力精神虐待(心理虐待、情緒霸凌)的兒童相較於未曾有類似經驗的兒童,有較高的比例出現注意力不足過動症。 [197]

澳洲官方統計發現低收入家庭的ADHD盛行率多於高收入的家庭、ADHD在單親家庭繼母繼父家庭英语blended family的盛行率高於普通常見的原生家庭結構。然而這些因素不被認為是導致ADHD的原因;相反地,它們被認為是ADHD和「患者周遭環境」產生交互作用後所導致的後果。 [198][199][200]

鑑別診斷

以下疾病可能造成類似注意力不足過動症的相關症狀表現(鑑別診斷[37][121][201][202]

病理生理學

截至西元2018年7月底,注意力不足過動症被認為是肇因於部分腦內的神經傳導物質系統的損傷(特別是與多巴胺和正腎上腺素有關的神經傳導系統),進而對患者的腦部執行功能產生不良的影響。[212][213]多巴胺與正腎上腺素的腦內神經通道英语Neural_pathway大多起源自腦內的腹側被蓋區藍斑核,並由此投射至不同的腦區且管理許多認知的流程(與認知功能相關的處理流程)。[212][214]特別是那些投射至前額葉和紋狀體英语striatum腦內多巴胺通道英语dopaminergic pathway腦內正腎上腺素通道/藍斑核系統。它們主要的工作就是負責調節執行功能(認知和行為的功能與管理)、動機酬賞/報償的感受能力、和運動神經的功能英语Motor_control[212][213][214]以上是目前已知在注意力不足過動症的病理生理學中扮演主要腳色的幾條腦內神經通道英语Neural_pathway。也已經有人提議強化對於注意力不足過動症更全面的概觀以及更多可能與之相關的腦內神經通道之探究。[213][215][216]

大腦結構

在兒童注意力不足過動症患者中,普遍存有一些腦部結構(特別是左側的前額葉、後頂葉皮質英语posterior parietal cortex)在體積上小於平均值的現象。[213][217]其他諸如注意力不足過動症患者的:前額 - 紋狀體-小腦和前額葉-紋狀體-丘腦迴路也被發現與非注意力不足過動症患者不同。[213][215][216]

ADHD兒童的雙側額葉頂葉顳葉灰質體積小於同樣正在發育中的非ADHD兒童,ADHD兒童的腦部構造跟對照組(同樣正在發育中的非ADHD兒童)相比後,體積差異最大的部分是右額葉和左顳葉。進一步檢視實驗組(ADHD兒童)與對照組(非ADHD兒童)的額葉子區域後發現,實驗組與對照組彼此之間的左側眶額葉皮質、左側初級運動皮質英语Primary_motor_cortex(M1)、和左側运动辅助区(SMC)體積差異最大。[218] 與「特定亞區(左前額葉、左前葉、左額葉、M1和右SMC)相關的ADHD關聯程度」跟「ADHD症狀的嚴重程度」成反比,舉例來說:當前述皮層的體積越小則「過動—衝動」症狀的嚴重程度越高,前述皮層的體積與「過動—衝動」症狀的嚴重程度成反比。[218]ADHD個案組在伏隔核海馬迴杏仁核基底核顱內等區域之體積皆有較健康控制組(非ADHD兒童)更小的體積;實驗組(ADHD兒童)與對照組(非ADHD兒童)在蒼白球英语globus pallidus視丘的體積相比之下則沒有在統計學上達到顯著差異。進一步分析發現,在大部分區域(包括杏仁核、基底核、伏隔核、海馬迴),小於15歲的ADHD孩童與健康發展孩童(非ADHD兒童)的腦體積差異程度,較持續到成人的ADHD患者(大於21歲)與健康受試成人(非ADHD成人)的比較差異程度來得大,這暗示著ADHD患者之大腦發展遲緩的現象。[12]

另外,目前學術界對於ADHD藥物治療是否會對於ADHD患者的大腦內部結構體積產生改變,出現了不一致的研究結果。[12]

神經傳導物質的通道/路徑

目前的研究模型包含了 中腦皮質素-多巴胺通道英语mesocorticolimbic projection 及蓝斑核-去甲腎上腺素系統。[212][213][214]用於治療注意力不足過動症的中樞神經刺激劑,其療效可能是起因於它增進了神經傳導物質在這些系統中的活動。[213][214][219]注意力不足過動症患者腦部中的 5-羥色胺能英语serotoninergic(與血清素有關)通道、 谷氨酸能英语glutamate (neurotransmitter)(一種神經傳導物質)通道、 或膽鹼能英语cholinergic通道可能也存有一些導致注意力不足過動症症狀的原因。[219][220][221]

執行功能和動機

注意力不足過動症的症狀起因於某些執行功能上的缺陷,例如:注意力/專注力的控制衝動-過動控制、及工作記憶[20][213][214][223]執行功能簡單來說就是一整群包含認知處理過程的集合[d]。而這集合必須能夠成功的幫助一個人選擇並督促自己做出得以實現他那經過深思熟慮過後的目標之行為。[20][214][223]注意力不足過動症患者先天的執行功能損傷造成以下這些症狀:難以維持有規劃的、難以有組織性的、缺乏時間觀念、過度的拖延、難以保持專注、難以把注意力放對地方、難以忽略與任務不相干的外務/誘惑、有情緒管理的困難、難以把細節記起來。[20][213][214]注意力不足過動症患者在長期記憶的表現可看出注意力不足過動症患者的長期記憶是沒有損傷的。注意力不足過動症患者在提取長期記憶時所產生的困難顯然是肇因於工作記憶[e]的受損[20][224]。 端視一個注意力不足過動症患者其腦部發展的程度與其所在環境對其執行功能要求的程度的比例,因此有些注意力不足過動症患者可能直到青少年時期甚至是成年期(特別是成年初期)才開始顯露出注意力不足過動症的症狀。[20][22]

注意力不足過動症與患者在兒童青少年乃至成年時期缺乏動機相關。兒童青少年甚至成人注意力不足過動症患者會發現自己比起眼前立即的回饋/酬賞/滿足更難以專注在長遠的目標/回報/回饋/酬賞/滿足,並展現出對於眼前立即的回饋/酬賞/滿足的衝動言行。[225]

治疗

注意力不足過動症的治療包括心理治療、行為治療及藥物,也有可能是用心理治療配合藥物進行治療。治療對病症會有長期的改善,但是無法完全根除病症的影響[226]美國兒科學會針對病患的年齡不同,有建議不同的治療方式。若是四歲至五歲的兒童,學會會建議有實證基礎,且由家長或/和老師監督的行為治療,只有在有中度到重度,持續性的功能紊亂時,才加上哌甲酯的藥物治療。若是六歲至十一歲的兒童,會建議使用藥物以及行為治療;而「中樞神經刺激劑」的藥效會比「非中樞神經刺激劑」的藥效要明顯一些,雖然「中樞神經刺激劑」和「非中樞神經刺激劑」都能讓孩子核心症狀減少的程度在統計學上達到明顯意義[227]。若是十二歲至十八歲的患者,強烈建議使用藥物治療,但用藥仍需取得患者的同意;藥物治療之餘也建議能搭配行為治療[227][228]。有其他研究指出若能合併藥物治療及行為治療、認知行為治療等心理治療,將可帶來更樂觀的預後[228]

ADHD的多元介入治療包含藥物治療、親職諮商訓練、學校資源教育及社交技巧訓練等各種模式,這些治療模式的效果都有嚴謹而完整的科學研究加以證實。[229] 藥物包括中樞神經刺激劑、阿托莫西汀α2腎上腺素受體英语alpha-2 adrenergic receptor刺激劑,有時也會使用抗憂鬱藥物[103][230]。針對無法專注在長期獎勵的人而言,大量的正增强會提昇任務表現[225]。治療用的中樞神經刺激劑也可以提昇ADHD兒童的持續力以及任務表現[213][225]

注意力不足過動症患者甚至其家屬[231]可能對自身或患者的問題存有否認心理[232],包括:高估自己的能力及低估自己的困難、並因此做出不合理的決定(為反對而反對地否認診斷,即便確實有需要仍拒絕接受學習及醫療上的協助、排斥旁人包括醫師、老師、父母與家人的幫忙等)。鼓勵患者甚至其家屬勇於面對注意力不足過動症將使注意力不足過動症的長期預後變得更為樂觀。[29][233]

  • 國立臺灣大學醫學院附設醫院-現任基因醫學部、前精神醫學部主任高淑芬強調及早發現並接受治療,絕對是最佳策略。[18][35]
  • 本身也是注意力不足過動症患者的愛德華·哈洛威爾醫師則建議治療的策略應把握發揚優點、避免缺點的原則。[37]
  • 藥物治療合併行為治療(認知行為治療[234])已證實為當前最有效的注意力不足過動症治療方式。[28][29][30][31][32][32][235][236]
  • 對於那些難以著眼於長遠報酬(報償、酬賞)的注意力不足過動症患者(傾向著眼於眼前立即回饋的注意力不足過動症患者),大量且持續的正向激勵可以增進患者的任務表現。注意力不足過動症的用藥亦有相同的功效。[212][213]
  • 許多文獻及指引都表示,ADHD的治療(包含藥物治療)並非是要將孩子們標準化(一致化)或是控制她們,而是一本教育的初衷,協助每一位孩子發掘、發揚自己的優點、並避免缺點。
實證治療[237][238][239]
下表中的數字為「相對比例」非「絕對比例」
治療模式 整體進步(單位:%百分比)
藥物+行為治療
68
藥物治療
56
行為治療
34
社區治療
25
  • 臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會發文指出,對於ADHD患者而言,應注意所接受的療法是否受到政府的密切監督以確保符合嚴謹的研究設計及是否奠基於嚴謹實證醫學科學證據、充分研究證據支持療效且符合台灣現行的法律規範;對於政府衛生醫療相關單位而言:應給予足夠資源,強化對弱勢家庭的支持,包括提升親職功能以及家族治療等,以便提供患者更完整有效的醫療模式。[229]
  • PloS One期刊中一篇文獻指出,對臨床醫師而言,應向患者及家屬傳達-持續藥物治療對於減少身體傷害有其重要性。研究發現,相較於從未接受藥物治療的患者,接受藥物治療超過180天的ADHD族群,其骨折風險顯著較低,低了將近23%。有接受藥物治療,但總期間不超過180天的患者,其骨折風險與未接受藥物的族群比較起來並無明顯差異,凸顯了藥物治療持續時間的影響。[240]除此之外,研究顯示,ADHD的藥物治療能顯著降低患者發生交通事故的機率。[241]
  • ADHD的治療可能大幅降低ADHD患者被霸凌或霸凌他人的機率[242][243][244][245](包含遭受網路霸凌或在網路上霸凌別人[246][247])。[248]
  • 適度且規律的運動,特別是有氧運動有助於改善許多中樞神經系統疾患的症狀,也證實為注意力不足過動症的有效附加療法英语add-on treatment[f][35][37][38][249][250][251][252]
  • 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會指出:「治療ADHD核心症狀時,藥物是絕對不能忽略的治療選項。[30]」台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會另指出,對於18歲後才獲得第一次ADHD診斷的患者,台灣健保僅給付短效利他能,但患者若認為有使用其他藥物需求,應勇於跟醫生討論,不要因而忌諱就醫。[253][35]
ADHD藥物治療能減少ADHD患者(無論是否被診斷出來)身體受傷的發生率[254]

間接醫療協助 (社會資源協助)

台灣

除了在醫療、教育場所接受直接的醫療照護外,中華民國中央政府及地方政府亦下轄衛生福利部-社會及家庭署、衛生福利部-1957福利需求諮詢評估專線[255] [256]及社會局、衛生局等 [257] [258],彙整對於弱勢者社會支持的資源,以便讓這些患者能在接受直接醫療協助時無後顧之憂。衛生福利部心理及口腔衛生司提供許多官方的心理健康衛教資源。[259]

除此之外,特殊教育學校能協助具備特殊需求的孩子們在適當的環境中成長、茁壯。[260]   民間亦有許多特殊教育的支持團體及ADHD的社群。(例如:社團法人台灣赤子心過動症協會社團法人心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會[261] [262] [263][264] [265]。於高等教育的部分,許多大學設有特殊教育學系及特殊教育中心 [266] [267] [268] [269] [270] [271]中華民國的教育部也成立了台灣特殊教育資訊網[272]全國特殊教育資訊網[273]特殊教育通報網[274]身心障礙職業教育資源網站[275]來協助具有相關需求之學生。 [276]而勞動部則涵蓋了各族群的勞動統計 [277],政府也已訂定《身心障礙者權益保障法》以維護相關弱勢族群的生活 [278]

中國大陸

一群对“注意缺陷多动障碍”诊断和治疗拥有丰富经验和学识的心理咨询师、医生、教师,自愿自发的组成一个针对“注意缺陷障碍”的非盈利性的组织-“中国注意缺陷障碍组织”,为儿童及其家长提供各种信息和帮助。 [279] [280] [281]

香港
  • 一群有《專注力不足/過度活躍症》兒童的家長,為了喚起社會大眾對這些學童的認識和關注,及推動有關專業人士對《專注力不足/過度活躍症》作進一步的研究與探討,於2006年成立協會,並於2013年把協會成功註冊為非牟利慈善團體。[282]
  • 一群專業人員和熱心人士發起的非牟利組織專注力促進會,於2005年在香港成立,旨在提高公眾對專注力失調及/或者過度活躍症的關注和認識,以促進患者得到平等的教育和發展機會。[283]
  • 香港政府另成立「GovHK 香港政府一站通:心理健康」提供需要者相關的所需資源。[284]
澳門

專注不足過度活躍症(澳門)協會是澳門關注專注不足過度活躍症的協會,在2014年2月正式成立,協會目的是推動社會大衆對專注力失調或過度活躍症(AD/HD)學童的了解、關注、包容[285]

韓國
  • 韓國的校園精神衛生服務系統,兒童青少年精神科醫師佔有主導的角色,並且這幾年來分別建立ADHD研究中心,自閉症研究中心,及其他兒童心理健康相關的研究中心。[286][287]
  • 韓國有校園心理健康法,自2007年開始明文規定每年必須做一次全國性每一位篩選,自2013年間簡化成階段進行每年學生心理健康篩檢。[287]
  • 韓國的老師每年必須接受40小時的精神疾病繼續教育英语Continuing education[註 11],是由兒童精神科醫師規劃。[287]

台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會在2017年年會的新聞稿中表示:「韓國兩個國家級的心理衛生健康研究中心(注意力不足過動症與自閉症)為例,該中心可以完整的收集個人、家庭、學校以及生活環境中與心理、社會及生物學相關的資料,且進行長期追蹤。這些寶貴的資料,不僅可以奠定協助個人及家庭更好的基礎,更有助於醫學研究的發展暨國家政策的擬定與執行。」[287]

新加坡
  • 新加坡政府新特殊教育學生的支援計畫始於2005年,計畫內容包括在派令教師接受特殊教育訓練並在校內配置特殊教育的專業人員。[288]
  • 持續發展、執行、觀察、評估特殊教育學生的需求是否有被滿足。[289]
  • 新加坡的衛生當局曾在2014年開會討論ADHD的治療策略。[288]
    策略內容涵蓋:藥物治療、行為治療、學校支援、父母支持。[288][註 12]
國際社會

將每年的十月訂為「ADHD意識之月(ADHD Awareness Month)」,以加強社會大眾對於注意力不足過動症的意識[291][292][註 13]

流行病學

根據2015年發表的研究,依照DSM-III, DSM-III-R及DSM-IV的標準,國際ADHD流行率中位數,兒童為6-8%[293]。若使用ICD-10的標準,同年齡兒童的流行率則為1–2% [294]。根據《找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊》,成人的國際ADHD流行率為3-8%[35]。ADHD是全球性的問題[32][295][296][297]

美國的數據

截至2011年底,大約11%的4-17歲的兒童與青少年被診斷出注意力不足過動症[298]。11%換算後約為640萬的兒童與青少年。[298]診斷出有ADHD的男童在比例上比女童約高出兩倍。對於這個性別上差異的成因,目前仍然未知確切原因。不過,有專家指有可能由於女童的病症普遍與男童不同,因此在診斷時亦同時較男童難於察覺,所以較少讓家長及老師發現而作出轉介。[75] [76]

研究顯示美國一年因注意力不足過動症損失高達近40億美金,其中即包括父母的工作損失[23]

台灣的數據

ADHD在台灣兒童暨青少年的盛行率約為7%至7.5%。依據衛生福利部中央健保署之健保資料庫[299]的資料顯示,兒童就醫者大約是2.3%至2.5%左右。兒童及青少年ADHD的就醫比率不到一半,也就是有超過一半患有注意力不足過動症的兒童及青少年沒有接受相關治療。[35][300],ADHD在台灣成人的盛行率推估為一百個成人中大約有四位(4%)左右的ADHD成人患者。根據健保資料庫的資料顯示:18歲至50歲成人,曾診斷為ADHD的比率為0.057%。[35]

中國大陸的數據

根据最新2016年中國大陸的流行病学调研(調查研究),中國大陸儿童與青少年的ADHD患病率是6.26% (95% 信賴區間: 5.36–7.22%),这意味着中國大陸有數千万小於十八歲的未成年患有注意力缺陷/多动症。[301]

ADHD在香港兒童與青少年的流行率約落在5%至7%之間。[302] ADHD在澳門的流行率與國際盛行率相仿。[303]

西班牙的數據

ADHD在西班牙未成年族群中的盛行率約為6.8%。[304]

韓國的數據

注意力不足過動症在南韓成人族群(18歲以上)的盛行率大約為 4.4%。而此症在南韓的兒童及青少年族群的盛行率與西方國家的數據大致相同。[305]

日本的數據

日本的學齡族群中(6-18歲)中,注意力不足過動症的盛行率約為7%。[306]

澳洲的數據

澳洲官方數據顯示,在18歲以下的兒童與青少年族群中,有大約11.2%的人患有ADHD。ADHD是澳洲未成年族群中最常見的心理疾患。[198]其中男性患者的比例為女性患者的將近三倍。[198]

越南的數據

越南國小學生族群中,ADHD的流行率約為7.7%。其中「注意力缺失型」約佔1.7%;「過動-衝動型」約佔5%;「混合型」約佔1%。[307]

各子類型中的個案性別平均分布。越南的研究指出,7.7%的流行率與鄰近的亞洲國家和世界其他國家的ADHD兒童流行率相仿,呼籲提升越南境內對ADHD的意識。[307]

法國的數據

ADHD在法國大學生(平均年齡:20.6歲)中的盛行率約為5.6%。[308]

研究發現,有ADHD的大學生和沒有ADHD的大學生相較之下,有ADHD的大學生有顯著更高的機率需要重修課程以及顯著較低的學業成就。有ADHD的大學生相較之下也有顯著較多的物質或特定行為成癮的個案數,這些成癮的具體事例有:酒精成癮大麻成癮菸癮賭博成癮衝動購物症飲食障礙、和网络成瘾症等。[308] 研究也點出「ADHD個別化醫療」的重要性。[308]

非洲的數據

ADHD影響了大概5.4-8.7%的非洲兒童[309],然而此數據的品質並不高。[309]

歷史

關於ADHD治療、診斷標準及流行率的時間軸.

1798年時蘇格蘭醫師亞歷山大·克里奇頓英语Alexander Crichton在其著作《對精神紊亂的性質和起源的探究》(An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement)中提到了精神不安[310][311],1902年,英國兒科醫生George Still英语George Frederic Still首次描述一項與注意力不足過動症近似的病徵[312][313]

不同的時期,描述注意力不足過動症的名詞也有所不同:在1952年的DSM-I稱為微細腦功能失常,在1968年的DSM-II則稱為兒童活动亢进,在1980年的DSM-III稱為注意力不足症(可能伴隨過動,也可能沒有)英文為 attention-deficit disorder (ADD) with or without hyperactivity[313],在1987年的DSM-III-R更名為注意力不足過動症,在1994年的DSM-IV將注意力不足過動症分為注意力散渙主導型英语Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive、活動量過多型以及混合型[314],在2013年的DSM-5仍延用此一分類[13]。其他的名詞有在1930年代使用的微細腦創傷[315],但因為不少病童都沒有發覺有受過任何創傷,因此後來改名為微細腦功能失常。

1937年時,神經刺激劑開始用在注意力不足過動症的治療[316]。1934年時美國許可將安非他命用在注意力不足過動症治療,是美國第一個許可的苯丙胺類藥物[317],1950年代開始使用哌甲酯(商品名稱為利他能),1970年代則開始使用对映异构右旋苯丙胺[313]

社會與文化

治療方式的爭議

自1970年代開始,注意力不足過動症疾病本身、其診斷及醫療在歐美就已經是有爭議性的議題。爭議和臨床醫師、教師、政策訂定者、家長及媒體有關。世界衛生組織也認可治療ADHD兒童時,先進行非藥物治療再進行藥物治療的作法[318][319],但各觀點對注意力不足過動症的認知差異很大。

有的觀點認為注意力不足過動症是正常行為的範圍內,也有的假定注意力不足過動症是一種遺傳疾病。其他有關注意力不足過動症的爭議包括對兒童用(合理劑量的)中樞神經刺激劑(俗稱興奮劑)藥物進行治療、診斷的方式,以及是否有過度診斷英语Overdiagnosis的情形。有些宗教對治療方式也會有不同的認知,例如公民人權委員會山達基在1969年成立的反精神醫學團體)曾在1980年代提出反對使用利他能的運動,目前該組織的立場仍是不主張用中樞神經刺激劑處方治療ADHD[320]

台灣

極少部分台灣的中醫師[321]、非精神科專科的醫師[註 14]、社會學派學者[322][323]作家[註 14]、協助轉達民眾心中疑惑的民意代表[324][325][326]山達基教[321]及其附屬組織:新生活教育中心無毒世界基金會公民人權基金會[註 15]中華國際人權促進會等對於現有ADHD的治療策略(涵蓋藥物及非藥物治療)不以為然,認為西藥有毒又有副作用[321]、『ADHD用藥診斷是藥廠醫療的利益』[327]、「質疑『注意力不足/過動症(AD/HD)』的存在性與真實性」、不符醫學實證比例地過度強調某些改善注意力不足過動症症狀的方式、或將疾病現象的研討訴諸以情緒性、故事性的文字而非科學的、知識性的探討,使整個對話往往失去焦點。[322][328] 坊間亦有商人等宣傳自費保健食品、花精皂[註 16][329]、人造磁鐵[330][331]、自然/天然療法[330] 、營養食譜/處方[330]、及「血液尿液檢測」[332]等試驗者、提倡者、成分、短中長期之安全性、有效性、科學根據、官方認證等皆不明的療法。社會上有些人散播不具醫學實證的謠言[註 17],即便是出於善意,卻因為欠缺專業知識[註 18],而可能讓患者因此而延誤治療、應治療而未治療、或造成不少家庭誤信並因此付出許多不必要的代價。[333]也有人認為ADHD及其藥物在台灣有被過度診斷、過度治療與濫用之虞,然而,台灣兒童及青少年患有ADHD之盛行率約介於7%至7.5%,全世界的平均值約為7.2%(95% 信賴區間:6.7%至7.8%)[293],兩者並無顯著差異。根據健保資料庫,小於18歲之ADHD患者求診率約2.3%至2.5%,用藥率約1.6%[334],約1%的患者接受足夠時間的完整治療[21][335] 。注意力不足過動症在台灣其實反而有低度診斷的情形[336][337][338]

「還孩子做自己行動聯盟」[註 19]則是對於注意力不足過動症的治療方式表達關切[註 20],然而過程中曾引發一些爭議[註 14]天下文化曾經在官方臉書帳號發文轉述洪蘭教授的個人意見,引起專家學者強力批判而自行撤文。[332][339] 許多精神科醫師為了因應一股「因為對於疾病『片面』的了解」、「患者無法接受部分醫師缺乏專業素養的對待」[236][340][341]、或純粹「為反對而反對」所引起的反精神醫學浪潮而發文澄清 [sources 1] 。 對此,國立臺灣大學醫學院附設醫院-精神科主治醫師高淑芬及臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會回應指出,對注意力不足過動症治療想法可以很多元,但介入方式必需要有科學證據及嚴謹的研究設計,包括對象治療多久,都應受到密切監督且應正視未經治療的注意力不足過動症可能衍生出的風險[346][347][321][348]

臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會並在其官方公告發布數篇新聞稿[30][349][350][351][352],其內容除涵蓋對於當前治療策略的明確釋疑外,亦重申有科學根據、通過臨床試驗、獲得政府安全許可的把關才是一個療法對患者人生負責任的體現。[36][347]

 參見:對於注意力不足過動症(ADHD)及其治療方式的不同論點

中國大陸

目前注意力不足過動症的治療策略(涵蓋藥物及非藥物治療)已成為中國大陸的相關醫學指南 [353],中國大陸的多动症关爱协会指出:「中國大陸对『注意力缺陷多动障碍』的诊断、治疗尚不规范,家长的认知亦不够全面,导致社会上仍有很多不科学的治疗方式和训练方法在被家长们使用。」[280]

醫病關係

台灣

許多兒童青少年精神科醫師在門診時,所做的事不只是開藥,也包括心理治療及心理教育,甚至包括家庭相關的工作,常常因此造成門診英语Outpatient clinic (hospital department)的時間不夠用[354][355][341]

當前之環境與方向

考科藍協作組織於2015年發表的系統性文獻回顧指出,雖然中樞神經刺激劑不會帶給服用者嚴重的副作用,但其相對不嚴重的副作用,比如說:失眠、食慾不振則較常出現在服用者身上,並衍生出長期預後的不確定因素,因此探討如何解決前述的副作用將是未來必要的研究重點。與此同時,對於「非藥物治療方式」的深入研究以及對於可能的「非藥物治療方式」之隨機對照試驗,也將是迫切需要的[356]

台灣

從學術研究的視角來探討,相較於鄰近國家對於注意力不足過動症、自閉症的研究諸如:注意力不足過動症、自閉症、孩童青少年情緒行為問題之研究、臨床醫療、校園教育、家庭的實際整合評估介入、相關因素背後的成因機轉英语Mechanism_(biology)危險因子、多元介入的成效、病程預後等研究的支持(例如:挹注特別經費,成立自閉症及注意力不足過動症研究中心,以建立本土化之基礎研究、轉譯研究、臨床研究與服務之整合模式),台灣對上述研究的支持力道仍顯不足。[229][357][358] 就臺灣的醫療層面探討:目前兒童青少年精神醫療相關專業人力(比如說:兒童青少年精神科專科醫師、臨床心理師、社工師、職能治療師等)資源仍相當缺乏,城鄉差距仍然頗大,以致許多兒童青少年的精神醫療需求(包括:注意力不足過動症的行為治療)無法被滿足。究因包括:健保結構/給付制度不夠合理、整體醫療規畫不足等問題。故合理調整兒童青少年精神醫療相關健保給付,並更進一步完善規劃兒童青少年精神醫療合理人力配置與專業人員之培育,是刻不容緩的要務。[229][357] 由於一個個案的健保給付過低,使得醫師只能增加看診人數來提高收入。因此醫師分配給每個病患的時間有限,自然難以做詳細的評估。[357][358][註 19]

教育層面而言,在校園與教育場所中,有心理衛生需求或是有嚴重行為情緒問題的學生,在校園常無法得到友善、妥善、合理的對待,究因包括:社會文化對於心理問題的負面標記[359]、教師教學不良、心理輔導相關之執行人力與經費資源不足[360]。故積極提升師生心理健康人權之正確認知與辨識能力、落實校園心理健康促進、充實校園心理輔導人力與增加相關教育經費,是迫切需要的。[229][357][358][287]

除此之外,根據衛生福利部心理與口腔衛生司的資料,台灣在精神醫療照護上存在的盲點另有:

  • 治療模式發展及處遇效能尚待精進。[361][362]
  • 社區居住與就學、就業服務需積極發展。[361]
  • 權益保障及去污名化待精進。[358][361][363][註 21][註 22]
  • 病人分級方式與連續性照護模式尚待改善。[361]
  • 精神病人的社區化照護仍需加強發展。[361]

中國大陸、香港

中國大陸地區“注意力疾病”的诊断和治疗尚不完備,很多不科学的方式和方法依然在社会上使用。[279]

香港特別行政區則遇到特教需求的識別及輪流服務的等候時間過長、資源及服務不足、教師人手不足及培訓有待改善、醫校社合作不順暢以及政府未有整體支援特教學生的政策藍圖及願景的問題。目前正在推動特殊教育進行立法,以全面保障特殊教育需要學生的權利。[365]另外,香港的一項問卷調查發現,有特殊教育需要的學生受欺凌的比率極高,在小學環境下有33%遭受欺凌,在中學環境下有47%。而於國際學生能力評估計劃的調查亦顯示,香港中學生遭到欺凌的比率為32.3%。即使家長們想尋求協助亦因資源問題,大部分服務需要自費,而基層家長較為難以負擔。另外,亦有社工指出服務缺乏系統整理,而大部分學校都缺乏動機正面處理事件[366]

美國

美國精神醫療環境持續進步中,然而注意力不足過動症患者接受行為治療的比例仍然太低。 [33]

2017年美國政府撥出一億美金用於支持兒童與青少年常見精神疾病的研究:如何提供自閉症者更好的治療、其他兒童心理精神疾病(包括ADHD在內)的病理學生理學等。[367]

備註

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 心理測驗只是進一步各種測驗的一種選項,非一定選項。
  2. ^ 報載一名媽媽在洗碗時,腦中想著地板還沒擦,就跑去擦地。過程中又想到家裡沒有衛生紙了,於是趕緊奪門而出......。她想到什麼就做什麼,結果每件家事都只做一半、沒有一樣是完成的。[63]
  3. ^ 沒有ADHD的人
  4. ^ ADHD是各類成癮的高風險群。
  5. ^ 「對立反抗症」、「行為規範障礙」、「反社會」既不等同「獨立思考能力」與「批判能力」也不是「判斷能力」
  6. ^ 合併物持成癮的ADHD患者將有較高機率罹患性病[110]
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 兒童青少年精神疾病,例如:注意力不足過動症、 自閉症等乃至成人注意力不足過動症、成人自閉症等,為台灣兒童青少年精神科醫師培訓過程中的重點科目。
  8. ^ 就是美國的衛生福利部
  9. ^ *
  10. ^ 神經通道(neuro-pathway)又譯作「神經路徑」
  11. ^ 請參考教育歷程一覽表終身學習、和終身教育
  12. ^ 請參見:世界各地的精神醫學會(英文)[290]
  13. ^ 關於更多意識年月日,請參見:意識之日列表英语List_of_awareness_days紀念月列表英语List of month-long observances
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 受到質疑的當事人則在事後一個多月發布聲明稿表達個人立場。王醫師也於幾天後於個人臉書發布貼文回應該篇聲明稿。
  15. ^ 公民人權基金會的別名有:公民人權委員會
  16. ^ 例如:宣稱多用此香皂洗手可治療ADHD
  17. ^ 例如:藥物是害人的、用藥就是不愛孩子等
  18. ^ 類似理盲濫情
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 還孩子做自己行動聯盟聯盟發起人-李佳燕 是一名家庭醫學科醫師
  20. ^ 該行動聯盟主張「以孩子為主體,傾聽孩子的想法,而不是大人的認知與要求」
  21. ^ 譬如說:患者可能礙於世俗眼光而不敢承認自己有精神疾病;但是當遇上像是發燒、感冒、流鼻水、肚子痛等疾病時,就不會畏懼說出口。
  22. ^ 也有ADHD患者透過寫書評來表達希望社會不要對精神疾病患者投以主觀的「道德審判」。[364]

注释

  1. ^ 即多動、過度活躍
  2. ^ 即為一致化
  3. ^ traumatic brain injury 也稱為「創傷性腦損傷」
  4. ^ 也可當作是「團體、組織」
  5. ^ 此處的「工作記憶」等同「短期記憶」
  6. ^ 即表示可附加在現有具備科學實證且能在統計學上達到顯著意義之有效改善症狀的醫學療法。

参考文献

書目

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  118. ^ Ahmed MH, Byrne CD. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and fatty liver: association or causal link?. World J Gastroenterol. 2010, 16 (34): 4243–52. PMC 2937104可免费查阅. PMID 20818807. doi:10.3748/wjg.v16.i34.4243. 
  119. ^ Philipsen, Alexandra. Differential diagnosis and comorbidity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD) in adults. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience (Springer Nature). 2006, 256 (S1): i42–i46. ISSN 0940-1334. PMID 16977551. doi:10.1007/s00406-006-1006-2. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults and borderline personality Disorder (BPD) share some similar clinical features (e. g. impulsivity, emotional dysregulation, cognitive impairment). ADHD in childhood has been reported to be highly associated with the diagnosis of BPD in adulthood and adult ADHD often co-occurs with BPD. 
  120. ^ Asherson, Philip; Young, Allan H.; Eich-Höchli, Dominique; Moran, Paul; Porsdal, Vibeke; Deberdt, Walter. Differential diagnosis, comorbidity, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in relation to bipolar disorder or borderline personality disorder in adults. Current Medical Research and Opinion (Informa Healthcare). 2014-05-07, 30 (8): 1657–1672. ISSN 0300-7995. doi:10.1185/03007995.2014.915800. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults can resemble, and often co-occurs with, bipolar disorder (BD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD). 
  121. ^ 121.0 121.1 121.2 121.3 Instanes JT, Klungsøyr K, Halmøy A, Fasmer OB, Haavik J. Adult ADHD and Comorbid Somatic Disease: A Systematic Literature Review.. Journal Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Systematic Review). 2016. PMID 27664125. doi:10.1177/1087054716669589. (原始内容存档于2017-02-07).  开放获取
  122. ^ 122.0 122.1 Ertürk, E; Wouters, S; Imeraj, L; Lampo, A. Association of ADHD and Celiac Disease: What Is the Evidence? A Systematic Review of the Literature.. Journal of Attention Disorders (Review). 2016-01-29. PMID 26825336. doi:10.1177/1087054715611493. 
  123. ^ Hyperactivity: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. MedlinePlus. 2018-07-09 [2018-07-15]. (原始内容存档于2017-07-15). Hyperactivity is often considered more of a problem for schools and parents than it is for the child. But many hyperactive children are unhappy, or even depressed. Hyperactive behavior may make a child a target for bullying, or make it harder to connect with other children. Schoolwork may be more difficult. Kids who are hyperactive are frequently punished for their behavior. Excessive movement (hyperkinetic behavior) often decreases as the child grows older. It may disappear entirely by adolescence.  参数|quote=值左起第378位存在換行符 (帮助)
  124. ^ 124.0 124.1 124.2 NIMH » Could I Have Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)?. NIMH. [2018-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-01). A person must have at least five symptoms of either inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity.
    The symptoms must be present in two or more settings, such as at home and at work.
    There must be evidence that the symptoms interfere with the person's functioning in these settings.
      参数|quote=值左起第190位存在換行符 (帮助)
  125. ^ 125.0 125.1 125.2 Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5. Arlington, VA Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Association,American Psychiatric Association. 2013. ISBN 0-89042-555-8. OCLC 830807378. 
  126. ^ 126.00 126.01 126.02 126.03 126.04 126.05 126.06 126.07 126.08 126.09 126.10 126.11 126.12 126.13 126.14 126.15 126.16 126.17 126.18 126.19 126.20 126.21 126.22 126.23 CDC. ADHD Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017-08-31 [2018-07-15]. (原始内容存档于2014-11-07). 
  127. ^ CDC. ADHD Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017-08-31 [2018-07-15]. (原始内容存档于2014-11-07). In addition, the following conditions must be met: 
    • Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.
    • Several symptoms are present in two or more setting, (such as at home, school or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities).
    • There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning.
    • The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (such as a mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder). The symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.  参数|quote=值左起第57位存在換行符 (帮助)
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  131. ^ Barrow, Karen. Why ADHD Is a “Fuzzy Diagnosis”. ADDitude. 2014-01-14 [2017-11-22]. (原始内容存档于2017-11-27). 
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  136. ^ CDC. ADHD Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017-08-31 [2018-07-15]. (原始内容存档于2014-11-07). ADHD often lasts into adulthood. To diagnose ADHD in adults and adolescents age 17 or older, only 5 symptoms are needed instead of the 6 needed for younger children. Symptoms might look different at older ages. For example, in adults, hyperactivity may appear as extreme restlessness or wearing others out with their activity. 
  137. ^ 137.0 137.1 Irsfeld, M; Spadafore, M; Prüß, BM. β-phenylethylamine, a small molecule with a large impact. Webmedcentral. September 2013, 4 (9). PMC 3904499可免费查阅. PMID 24482732. While diagnosis of ADHD is usually done by analysis of the symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), PEA was recently described as a biomarker for ADHD 
  138. ^ 138.0 138.1 138.2 138.3 Scassellati C, Bonvicini C, Faraone SV, Gennarelli M. Biomarkers and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analyses. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry. October 2012, 51 (10): 1003–1019.e20. PMID 23021477. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.015. 
  139. ^ Berry, MD. The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases. Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials. January 2007, 2 (1): 3–19. PMID 18473983. doi:10.2174/157488707779318107. (原始内容存档于2017-02-01). Although there is little direct evidence, changes in trace amines, in particular PE, have been identified as a possible factor for the onset of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). … Further, amphetamines, which have clinical utility in ADHD, are good ligands at trace amine receptors. Of possible relevance in this aspect is modafanil, which has shown beneficial effects in ADHD patients and has been reported to enhance the activity of PE at TAAR1. Conversely, methylphenidate, …showed poor efficacy at the TAAR1 receptor. In this respect it is worth noting that the enhancement of functioning at TAAR1 seen with modafanil was not a result of a direct interaction with TAAR1. 
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  144. ^ Dresel, S; Krause, J; Krause, KH; LaFougere, C; Brinkbäumer, K; Kung, HF; Hahn, K; Tatsch, K. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: binding of [99mTc]TRODAT-1 to the dopamine transporter before and after methylphenidate treatment.. European journal of nuclear medicine. 2000, 27 (10): 1518–24. ISSN 0340-6997. PMID 11083541. 
  145. ^ Krause, KH; Dresel, SH; Krause, J; la Fougere, C; Ackenheil, M. The dopamine transporter and neuroimaging in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews. 2003, 27 (7): 605–13. ISSN 0149-7634. PMID 14624805. 
  146. ^ Bymaster, F. Atomoxetine Increases Extracellular Levels of Norepinephrine and Dopamine in Prefrontal Cortex of Rat A Potential Mechanism for Efficacy in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology (Springer Nature). 2002, 27 (5): 699–711 [2017-02-17]. doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(02)00346-9. The selective norepinephrine (NE) transporter inhibitor atomoxetine (formerly called tomoxetine or LY139603) has been shown to alleviate symptoms in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). 
  147. ^ 147.0 147.1 Cerebral Glucose Metabolism in Adults with Hyperactivity of Childhood Onset 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2017-08-02.: Zametkin AJ, Nordahl TE, Gross M, King AC, Semple WE, Rumsey J, Hamburger S, Cohen RM. (1990) Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset. New England Journal of Medicine 1990; 323(20): 1361-1366. November 15, 1990 doi:10.1056/NEJM199011153232001 Author address: Section on Clinical Brain Imaging, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892.
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  149. ^ Murphy, Kevin. Psychosocial treatments for ADHD in teens and adults: A practice-friendly review. Journal of Clinical Psychology (Wiley-Blackwell). 2005, 61 (5): 607–619. ISSN 0021-9762. doi:10.1002/jclp.20123. … therapy. Ado- lescents and adults who have ADHD frequently are disorganized, forgetful, and tardy; lose things; and have difficulty in planning. Generally, the more structure and routine incorporated into one's life, the better … 
  150. ^ ADHD couple and family relationships: Enhancing communication and understanding through Imago Relationship Therapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology (Wiley-Blackwell). 2005, 61 (5): 565–577. ISSN 0021-9762. doi:10.1002/jclp.20120. … stressful overscheduling. These overcommitments can intensify ADHD difficulties with time management, lateness, and forgetfulness, as well as leave no down time to recuperate from life's daily stresses. These issues illustrate … 
  151. ^ Gibbins, Christopher; Weiss, Margaret. Clinical recommendations in current practice guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in adults. Current Psychiatry Reports (Springer Nature). 2007, 9 (5): 420–426. ISSN 1523-3812. doi:10.1007/s11920-007-0055-1. … Some of the functional deficits most common in ADHD include poor organization; messiness; missed appointments; lateness; anger outbursts; marital conflict; difficulties with the instrumental tasks of parenting; impaired driving; avoidance of paperwork; and difficul- ties with … 
  152. ^ Nadeau, Kathleen G. Career choices and workplace challenges for individuals with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Psychology (Wiley-Blackwell). 2005, 61 (5): 549–563. ISSN 0021-9762. doi:10.1002/jclp.20119. … ADHD traits that may lead to interpersonal difficulties include missing nonverbal cues, interrupting, and overreactioning emotionally. Other ADHD traits can be misinterpreted by coworkers or supervisors as poor motivation, for example, chronic lateness or missing deadlines … 
  153. ^ New Data Reveal Extent of Genetic Overlap Between Major Mental Disorders, Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder Share the Most Common Genetic Variation. August 12, 2013 • Press Release. Nimh.nih.gov. [2016-12-27]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-04). 
  154. ^ Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Nimh.nih.gov. [2016-12-27]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-25). 
  155. ^ Gau, SS; Huang, WL. Rapid visual information processing as a cognitive endophenotype of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. (快速視覺訊息歷程為注意力不足過動症的內表現型). Psychological medicine. 2014, 44 (2): 435–46. ISSN 0033-2917. PMID 23561037. doi:10.1017/S0033291713000640. Compared with the controls, probands with ADHD and unaffected siblings had significantly higher total misses, lower probability of hits in the RVP task... 
  156. ^ Hwang-Gu, SL; Gau, SS. Interval timing deficits assessed by time reproduction dual tasks as cognitive endophenotypes for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.. PloS one. 2015, 10 (5): e0127157. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4436371可免费查阅. PMID 25992899. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127157. ADHD probands had higher accuracy coefficient scores than unaffected siblings (t(764) = 6.37, p< .001) and TD youths (t(764) = 4.67, p< .001) which implied that they tended to overestimate the length of duration. 
  157. ^ Lin, HY; Hwang-Gu, SL; Gau, SS. Intra-individual reaction time variability based on ex-Gaussian distribution as a potential endophenotype for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. (個體内反應時間差異做為注意力不足過動症之內表現型:ex-Gaussian研究). Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2015, 132 (1): 39–50. ISSN 0001-690X. PMID 25612058. doi:10.1111/acps.12393. Compared with unaffected siblings and controls, ADHD probands had elevated sigma value, omissions, commissions, and mean RT. Unaffected siblings formed an intermediate group in-between probands and controls in terms of tau value and RTSD...Conforming to a context-dependent nature, unaffected siblings still had an intermediate tau value in-between probands and controls across different interstimulus intervals. 
  158. ^ 高淑芬 2016. 找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 心靈工坊, 台北. 第89頁
  159. ^ Chien, YL; Chou, MC; Chiu, YN; Chou, WJ; Wu, YY; Tsai, WC; Gau, SS. ADHD-related symptoms and attention profiles in the unaffected siblings of probands with autism spectrum disorder: focus on the subtypes of autism and Asperger's disorder.. Molecular autism. 2017, 8: 37. ISSN 2040-2392. PMC 5526322可免费查阅. PMID 28770037. doi:10.1186/s13229-017-0153-9. Attention deficits are commonly associated manifestations of Autism Spectrum Disorder(ASD). Compared to typically developing controls(TD), unaffected siblings of ASD probands were more hyperactive/impulsive and oppositional, particularly unaffected siblings of Asperger(AS) probands. 
  160. ^ Yang, LK; Shang, CY; Gau, SS. Psychiatric comorbidities in adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and their siblings. ( 患有注意力不足過動症之青少年及其手足之精神共病現象). Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 2011, 56 (5): 281–92. ISSN 0706-7437. PMID 21586194. doi:10.1177/070674371105600507. Compared with the controls, adolescents with ADHD and unaffected siblings had a significantly shorter backward digit span, more extra-dimensional shift errors in the IED, shorter spatial span length in the SSP, more total errors and poorer strategy use in the SWM, and fewer problems solved in the minimum number of moves and shorter initial thinking time in the SOC. 
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  163. ^ What Causes ADHD. WebMD. 2017-10-04 [2017-10-12]. (原始内容存档于2017-10-26). If a parent has ADHD, a child has more than a 50% chance of having it. If an older sibling has it, a child has more than a 30% chance. 
  164. ^ Genetics of ADHD. ADD ADHD Blog.com. 2013-12-01 [2017-10-12]. 
  165. ^ ADDISS Common Questions. ADDISS. [2017-10-12]. (原始内容存档于2017-05-05). ADHD has a significant genetic component: most differences in severity of symptoms are due to genetic factors. For example, if a family has one ADHD child, there is a 30-40% chance that another brother/sister will also have the condition and a 45% chance (or greater) that at least one parent has the condition1. If the child with ADHD has an identical twin, the likelihood that the twin will also have the disorder is about 90%. 
  166. ^ Barkley英语Russell Barkley, Russell英语Russell Barkley. Taking charge of ADHD : the complete, authoritative guide for parents. New York: The Guilford Press. 2013: 83. ISBN 978-1-4625-0789-4. The risk is two to three times greater than the risk to one sibling if another one has the disorder (25%-35%) 
  167. ^ Selikowitz, Mark. ADHD (The Facts Series). Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. 2009: 80. ISBN 978-0-19-956503-0. If parents have had a child with ADHD, the chance of each successive child to have ADHD is 5-6 times greater than for the general population, i.e. the risk increases to one in three. 
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  180. ^ Ekstein, Sivan; Glick, Benjamin; Weill, Michal; Kay, Barrie; Berger, Itai. Down Syndrome and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Neurology. 2011-10-01, 26 (10): 1290–1295. ISSN 0883-0738. PMID 21628698. doi:10.1177/0883073811405201. (原始内容存档于2015-11-20). 
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    Action statement 5c: For adolescents (12–18 years of age), ...
    Similar to the recommendations from the previous guideline, stimulant medications are highly effective for most children in reducing core symptoms of ADHD.44 One selective norepinephrine-reuptake inhibitor (atomoxetine45,46) and 2 selective α2-adrenergic agonists (extended-release guanfacine47,48 and extended-release clonidine49) have also demonstrated efficacy in reducing core symptoms. Because norepinephrine-reuptake inhibitors and α2-adrenergic agonists ... Compared with stimulant medications that have an effect size [effect size = (treatment mean — control mean)/control SD] of approximately 1.0,50 the effects of the nonstimulants are slightly weaker; atomoxetine has an effect size of approximately 0.7, and extended-release guanfacine and extended-release clonidine also have effect sizes of approximately 0.7.
     
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  308. ^ 308.0 308.1 308.2 Romo, Lucia; Ladner, Joel; Kotbagi, Gayatri; Morvan, Yannick; Saleh, Dalia; Tavolacci, Marie Pierre; Kern, Laurence. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and addictions (substance and behavioral): Prevalence and characteristics in a multicenter study in France. Journal of behavioral addictions (Akademiai Kiado Zrt.). 2018-07-16: 1–9. ISSN 2062-5871. PMID 30010409. doi:10.1556/2006.7.2018.58. Significant differences were found as students with ADHD were less likely to succeed in their studies (repeated classes more often) than non-ADHD students, and considered their academic level to be lower. They also had significantly higher scores on substance (alcohol, cannabis, and tobacco) as well as behavioral addictions (gambling, compulsive buying disorder, eating disorders, and Internet addiction). Conclusion It seems essential to determine students' problems and propose interventions adapted to students' needs, in order to reduce the negative impact on their future academic and global successes. 
  309. ^ 309.0 309.1 Bakare, MO. Attention deficit hyperactivity symptoms and disorder (ADHD) among African children: a review of epidemiology and co-morbidities.. African Journal of Psychiatry. September 2012, 15 (5): 358–61. PMID 23044891. doi:10.4314/ajpsy.v15i5.45. 
  310. ^ Palmer ED, Finger S. An early description of ADHD (inattentive subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and 'Mental restlessness' (1798). Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2001-05, 6 (2): 66–73. doi:10.1111/1475-3588.00324. 
  311. ^ Crichton A. An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects. United Kingdom: AMS Press. 1798: 271 [2014-01017]. ISBN 9780404082123. 
  312. ^ An Early Description of ADHD (Inattentive Subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and `Mental Restlessness'(1798)Child and Adolescent Mental Health[dead link],Volume 6, Number 2, May 2001 , pp. 66–73 (8)
  313. ^ 313.0 313.1 313.2 ADHD Throughout the Years (PDF). Center For Disease Control and Prevention. [2013-08-02]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-08-07). 
  314. ^ Millichap, J. Gordon. Chapter 1: Definition and History of ADHD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. Springer Science. 2010: 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5. (原始内容存档于2017-02-20). 
  315. ^ Weiss M. ADHD in Adulthood: A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis, and Treatment. JHU Press. 2010 [2014-01-17]. ISBN 9781421401317. (原始内容存档于2016-05-07). 
  316. ^ Patrick KS, Straughn AB, Perkins JS, González MA. Evolution of stimulants to treat ADHD: transdermal methylphenidate. Human Psychopharmacology. 2009-02, 24 (1): 1–17. PMC 2629554可免费查阅. PMID 19051222. doi:10.1002/hup.992. 
  317. ^ Rasmussen N. Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950. J . Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 2006-07, 61 (3): 288–323. PMID 16492800. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrj039. 
  318. ^ WHO. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 世界衛生組織 Wolrd Health Organization. [2017-02-22]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-08) (美国英语). 
  319. ^ 世界卫生组织. 注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的药物和非药物介入/干预. 世界卫生组织. [2017-02-22]. (原始内容存档于2016-11-29) (中文(简体)). 
  320. ^ 亞洲不應使用西方精神科對於注意力不足過動症(ADHD)的診斷,及興奮劑處方的治療 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2017-09-02.
  321. ^ 321.0 321.1 321.2 321.3 用藥爭議-立法院上演大對決 ADHD用藥爭議 立法院上演大對決. 聯合報官方網站. Taipei. 2016-08 [2017-09-02]. (原始内容存档于2017-09-02) (中文(繁體)). 
  322. ^ 322.0 322.1 注意力不足過動症與妥瑞氏症的非藥物治療 (PDF). 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會 官方網站. 精神醫學通訊 Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Newsletter Vol.16 No 1. Spring 2017. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. 2017 [2017-06-07]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-12-13). 近年來社會在一些新興宗教團體及附屬組織,以及社會學派的學者推波助瀾下,對於兒童青少年精神疾病治療的氛圍,常訴諸以情緒性、故事性的文字而非科學的、知識性的探討,使整個對話往往失去焦點,身為臨床醫師除了溫柔而堅定地致力於消弭這些想法落差之外,我們更應該加強自己對於最新實證醫學的了解,以最多的關心、最大的善意與最新的醫療知識來提供較佳的臨床服務,使有需要的家長與孩子能有更好也更有效的治療選擇。  |volume=被忽略 (帮助); |issue=被忽略 (帮助)
  323. ^ 蕭蘋. ADHD有必要全面篩檢嗎?. 自由電子報 自由評論網. 2014-05-11 [2018-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2015-05-10) (中文). 
  324. ^ 池雅蓉. 過動藥類似安非他命? 議員籲新北市審慎篩檢. 中時電子報. 2014-10-23 [2018-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2015-01-16) (中文). 
  325. ^ 黃村杉/新北報導. 過動兒童問卷設計有爭議 劉美芳:有強迫學童用藥之虞. NOWnews 今日新聞. 2014-10-22 [2018-06-14] (中文). 
  326. ^ 陳冠廷. 新北首創學童過動兒篩檢 引發家長恐慌 - 生活. 新頭殼 Newtalk. 2014-10-23 [2018-06-14] (中文). 
  327. ^ 陳昭銘. 【民報】ADHD真的是心理疾病嗎?藥商不敢告訴您的事實!. 民報 Taiwan People News. 2014-08-26 [2018-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2017-08-06) (中文). 
  328. ^ 吳易澄. 【投書】讓「過動」爭議成為一場合作的開始. 公民行動影音紀錄資料庫. 2016-04-15 [2018-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2016-04-19) (中文). 
  329. ^ 健康醫療網/記者林怡亭報導. 藥物合併行為治療 翻轉過動兒成長路. 健康醫療網. 2017-10-12 [2018-06-27]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-28) (中文). 坊間也流傳許多花費不訾的治療方法,例如精油、整脊、排毒、清腸、能量治療、色彩治療、音樂治療、花精皂、人造磁鐵及自然療法等;然而,許維堅主任指出,這些療法多數未獲實證支持,甚至有可能延誤治療。 
  330. ^ 330.0 330.1 330.2 顏正芳 高雄醫學大學精神科. 以陳舊觀點反對現代精神醫療,意圖為何?. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會 Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. (原始内容存档于2018-06-27). 筆者在105年6月11日以「地方政府補助舉辦混亂且怪異的研討會,只是在傷害孩子和家長」為題、發表於風傳媒的文章,即已討論過「中華公民人權協會」舉辦的「家有小悟空--2016 多元整合看過動研討會」中顯現諸多怪象,例如:會中主講人和主持人對於「到底有沒有注意力不足過動症」在概念上就相互矛盾;又如:主講人和座長對於注意力不足過動症其實缺乏經驗,卻一直在推銷他們精油、整脊、排毒、清腸、能量治療、色彩治療、音樂治療、花精皂、人造磁鐵、自費檢驗、自然療法、營養處方,舉不出科學研究證明有效的證據,卻一直鼓勵聽眾不要接受現代西方醫療,直接彰顯「中華公民人權協會」的用意:他們並不是想提供家長和孩子如何處理注意力缺損過動困擾的有效方法,而是在於鼓吹民眾不要接受現代西方精神醫療,以及招募民眾掏錢嘗試昂貴的「另類療法」。 
  331. ^ 顏正芳. 顏正芳觀點:政府補助混亂且怪異的研討會,只會傷害孩子和家長. 風傳媒. 2016-06-11. (原始内容存档于2017-09-22). 
  332. ^ 332.0 332.1 顏正芳. 誰在打擊兒童青少年的精神醫療人權?. 蘋果日報. 2018-01-28 [2018-03-15]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-09) (中文).  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  333. ^ 當媽媽遇到ADHD的小孩. 康健雜誌. 2016-09-05 [2017-05-15]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-27) (中文).  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  334. ^ 健康醫療網/編輯部報導. 三人成虎! ADHD過動症須正視、勿輕信謠傳. (原始内容存档于2017-01-09). 
  335. ^ 家有頑童? 屏東醫院籲把握ADHD黃金治療期. 自由時報電子報 (中華民國台灣 屏東縣屏東市). 2016: 生活. (原始内容存档于2017-01-08) (中文(繁體)). 
  336. ^ 衛生福利部精神疾病衛教叢書 注意力不足過動症,第15頁
  337. ^ 李宜蓁. 打破過動兒的五大迷思(下). 親子天下. 2011-12-01 [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-26) (中文). 迷思四:ADHD被過度診斷,實際上沒有這麼多過動兒。正解:陳錦宏指出,國外兒童與青少年的 ADHD 盛行率在三~一○%之間,而台灣目前從小一到國三的 ADHD 盛行率有七%。但健保資料顯示,經過確診的 ADHD 人數只達預估值的一五%,這意味著還有不少 ADHD 者未被診斷,ADHD 其實是被低度診斷了。  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  338. ^ 「特殊需求兒童早期介入與服務現況: 以注意力不足過動症(ADHD)為例」 專題報告. archive.is. 2018-06-28 [2018-06-28]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-28) (中文).  无效|deadurl=bot: unknown (帮助)
  339. ^ 修瑞瑩. 孩童過動症是誤診? 名作家出書惹醫界抗議. 元氣網. 2018-01-29 [2018-02-27]. (原始内容存档于2018-03-07) (中文).  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  340. ^ 翁士恒. ADHD 臨床現場的分裂與對話:以ICF為參照的反思. 還孩子做自己行動聯盟. 2017-03-13 [2018-03-12]. (原始内容存档于2018-03-08) (中文). 在醫院中,我可能進行完一個ADHD的神經心理衡鑑評估,確認了在家庭與學校至少兩個社會情境以上的顯著過動與專注症狀,開始與家長及教師討論用藥的時間與後續行為的處理。而在另外一個面對身體暴力與侵害的社福機構中,我看著孩子飽受欺凌暴力的歷史,理解他在學校暴力的緣由,而他的醫師從不願知道孩子的受暴史,僅專心調整著藥物與爆衝的行為影響,因為理解孩子,我強烈質疑著如此重大劑量藥物對他的使用是否合適。在不同的兩個臨床現場,藥物開啟了兩個性質迥異的照顧時空,有著近乎分裂的兩種臨床敘事。這幽靈,也一直在用藥爭議的空間中遊盪。 
  341. ^ 341.0 341.1 呂苡榕. 我家小孩 ADHD:健保大餅怎麼分,決定小孩能看哪種醫生. 2017-04-25. 健保給付制度造成醫療資源分配傾斜,許多治療難符合需求。「後來我帶去給醫生鑑定,醫生說他有部分能力比較弱,」阿如的語氣裏充滿不確定,「但那時醫生跟我說,我兒子有可能是過動也有可能是學習障礙。醫生說如果吃藥後狀況有改善,就能排除是學障的機率。醫生還說他這邊開的劑量比較低,如果是在都會區學業競爭比較高的地方,劑量會開比較高。」這更讓阿如一頭霧水:醫生無法確診?還要孩子先吃藥,作為排除變項的手段?滿腹疑惑的阿如決定再找其他醫生診斷,「但是掛一次號要排好久,一排就是三、四個月。」而這中間孩子在學校的狀況卻不見改善,讓單親又自營生意的阿如焦頭爛額。 
  342. ^ 林子勤. 立委介入專業用藥 令人不安 - 即時新聞 - 20160531. 蘋果日報. 2016-05-31 [2017-06-21]. (原始内容存档于2017-10-06) (中文). 
  343. ^ 343.0 343.1 故事與知識的真實交會. 巷仔口沒有精神醫學. 2017-02-05 [2017-06-21] (中文). 
  344. ^ 顏正芳. 顏正芳專欄:穿白袍卻誤導大眾 難道無法可管. 蘋果日報. 2017-08-12 [2018-03-15]. (原始内容存档于2018-03-15) (中文).  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  345. ^ 顏正芳. 顏正芳觀點:以陳舊觀點反對現代精神醫療,意圖為何?-風傳媒. Storm.mg. 2016-07-28 [2018-03-15]. (原始内容存档于2018-03-15) (中文).  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  346. ^ Abuse, National Institute on Drug. Stimulant ADHD Medications: Methylphenidate and Amphetamines. (原始内容存档于2017-07-10). 
  347. ^ 347.0 347.1 陳錦宏. 心動家族協會理事長專文:問ADHD藥物有無風險,不如問「不治療和治療的風險哪一個高」. 心動家族協會. 2016-04-18 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-03).  |archiveurl=|archive-url=只需其一 (帮助); |accessdate=|access-date=只需其一 (帮助); |archivedate=|archive-date=只需其一 (帮助)
  348. ^ 寧花100萬讓過動兒上課 就是不看病… - 聯合報 Focus. 聯合報官方網站. 聯合報. 2016-07-04. (原始内容存档于2017-03-09). 
  349. ^ 王春惠. 投稿(時報廣場). 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. Taiwan, Republic of China.: 中國時報 China Times. 2010-01-12. (原始内容存档于2017-03-18) (中文(繁體)). 
  350. ^ 邱顯智. 臺北市立聯合醫院松德院區兒童青少年精神科990114新聞稿. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. Taiwan, Republic of China.: 臺北市立聯合醫院. 2010-01-14. (原始内容存档于2017-03-18) (中文(繁體)). 
  351. ^ 劉士愷. 正確認識注意力不足過動症的藥物治療. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. Taiwan, Republic of China.: 行政院衛生署桃園療養院. 2010-01-15. (原始内容存档于2017-03-18) (中文(繁體)). 
  352. ^ 劉士愷. 兒童青少年常見精神疾病衛教(介紹)-台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. Taiwan, Republic of China.: Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Pshcyiatry. 2010-01-20. (原始内容存档于2016-08-15) (中文(繁體)). 
  353. ^ 鄭毅; 刘靖. 《中国注意缺陷多动障碍防治指南》第二版解读. 中华精神科杂志. 2016, 0 (3): p.132–135 [2017-03-04]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-04). 
  354. ^ 王浩威. 當正義成為法西斯. 蘋果日報 (台北). 2016-05-31: 即時新聞. (原始内容存档于2017-08-19) (中文(繁體)). 
  355. ^ 王浩威. 失去愛的能力:200個曾有自殺想法孩子中,只有22個家長知道-翻轉教育-親子天下網站. 翻轉教育. 2017-07-21 [2018-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2017-08-13) (中文). 
  356. ^ Storebø, Ole Jakob; Ramstad, Erica; Krogh, Helle B.; Nilausen, Trine Danvad; Skoog, Maria; Holmskov, Mathilde; Rosendal, Susanne; Groth, Camilla; Magnusson, Frederik L; Moreira-Maia, Carlos R; Gillies, Donna; Buch Rasmussen, Kirsten; Gauci, Dorothy; Zwi, Morris; Kirubakaran, Richard; Forsbøl, Bente; Simonsen, Erik; Gluud, Christian, Storebø, Ole Jakob , 编, Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (systematic review) (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd), 2015-11-25, (11), PMID 26599576, doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009885.pub2 
  357. ^ 357.0 357.1 357.2 357.3 呂苡榕. 健保給付制度造成醫療資源分配傾斜. Republic of China (Taiwan): 端傳媒. 2017-04-25 [2017-04-25]. 健保給付制度困境令孩童就醫難\ 除了診斷的時間受到侷限,行為治療、親職教育等資源更是少得可憐。醫院的親子團體治療每一期排隊至少要排上四個月到半年才有可能有名額...... 
  358. ^ 358.0 358.1 358.2 358.3 【新聞稿】精神疾病不可怕,社會汙名與社區支持資源短缺才致命. 苦勞網. 2017-05-14 [2017-05-15]. (原始内容存档于2017-05-16) (中文). 一直以來,貧富差距、歧視與汙名、社會孤立……都是問題。任何人都有可能在受到長期壓迫、孤立的情況下,產生衝動攻擊的狀況,當我們看到傷人案件,要探究的不應是「這個人是患了什麼精神疾病?」,而應該是「這個人是怎麼長成今天這樣的?」、「他在什麼樣的社會關係裡?」並從生活、社區的理解與支持為起點,開始預防遺憾事件。
    二、社區支持的急迫性現行支持服務(如:同儕支持、家屬支持與社區支持)仰賴民間團體運作,長期下來政府忽略已身責任。同時,政府長期不願意挹注資源外,也將病患所造成的衝擊歸因至疾病與個人,忽略人與人、人與社會的互動關係,最後直接丟至醫院作為最終處理方式。顯然,在進醫院之前,少了一個環節 – 支持服務。
    三、去污名的重要性網路上,有網友說兩公約與身權公約,讓精神疾患免除死刑,是「鼓勵殺人犯動手前先去精神科掛號拿證明」,這樣的言論頗有疑慮。
    嚴重精神疾患者不見得會做出犯罪行為,若有,我們的社會可以如何在行為發生前給予支持?才是重點。切勿發生憾事後開始汙名、指責,甚至集體獵殺。此案與精神疾病相關之輿論,再再顯示了社區支持與去污名的重要性。
     
  359. ^ 翁士恒. ADHD 臨床現場的分裂與對話:以ICF為參照的反思. 還孩子做自己行動聯盟. 2017-03-13 [2017-06-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-03-08) (中文). 另外一個有趣的問題也是ICF對於臨床專家的質問,到底我們標定了孩子限制之後,可以讓孩子有多少的權力去改變他所存有的環境?孩子的注意力、過動行為與過激的情緒反應可以透過藥物與行為改變技術測改變,並可客觀測量其有效性,但是若他來自沒有愛與尊重的環境呢?是否可以「也」去改變他的環境以及他對環境的覺知?讓孩子可以去找愛,被愛;穩穩的愛人,穩穩的被愛,這不是單一專業可以站在主導的位置可以單獨完成的工作,需要跨專業的對話與合作,每個專業都一樣重要,不應落於單一專業凌駕其他專業或是宰制其他專業的狀態。 
  360. ^ 林希陶. 新北市想把「過動兒」都找出來,為什麼會是災難一場?. 良醫健康網. [2018-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2015-11-30) (中文). 
  361. ^ 361.0 361.1 361.2 361.3 361.4 諶立中. 問題評析 (PDF). 中華民國衛生福利部心理與口腔衛生司. 2016-10-13 [2017-03-05]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-03-05). 
  362. ^ 呂苡榕. 我家小孩 ADHD:健保大餅怎麼分,決定小孩能看哪種醫生. 2017-04-25. 除了診斷的時間受到侷限,行為治療、親職教育等資源更是少得可憐。醫院的親子團體治療每一期排隊至少要排上四個月到半年才有可能有名額,許多家長等不到醫院的名額......時間與收益的換算下,醫院的心理師人數遠不足需求,相關部門也很難帶進大筆營收......不過更多家庭遇到的困境是:父母的工作壓力讓家庭很難擔負起改善小孩過動症狀的功能。如今的中產階級家庭功能崩解,「父母工時那麼長、原本一個人工作就可以養家現在變成兩個人都要工作。父母只能把家庭功能外包出去。」 
  363. ^ 張詠晴. 教師帶頭霸凌 特製獎牌譏諷過動兒|天下雜誌. 天下雜誌. 2017-05-22 [2018-03-14]. (原始内容存档于2017-06-27) (中文). 
  364. ^ 家有過動兒:幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長. 博客來. 2013-08-28 [2018-03-14]. (原始内容存档于2016-11-30) (中文). ......謝謝所有投入治療ADHD的相關人員,謝謝你們幫助我們的父母,學會用科學的角度英语Point_of_view_(philosophy)看事情,讓這些天真的孩子們不再遭受主觀的道德審判。 
  365. ^ 專注不足/過度活耀協會. 《立法是否保障特殊教育需要學生的出路?》論壇. Hong Kong, China. 2015-03-29 [2017-03-15]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-05). 
  366. ^ 【校園欺凌】產後抑鬱媽媽:過度活躍的七歲兒子,最怕他自殺. 明周文化. 2018-03-19 [2018-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2018-03-29) (中文). 
  367. ^ NIH awards nearly $100 million for Autism Centers of Excellence program. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2017-09-06 [2017-11-08]. (原始内容存档于2017-11-09). Duke University, Durham, North Carolina – Understanding and potentially treating ASD-ADHD combination.
    An estimated 40 to 60 percent of people with ASD have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which encompasses such symptoms as difficulty paying attention, problems controlling behavior and hyperactivity. Co-investigators Geraldine Dawson, Ph.D., and Scott Kollins, Ph.D., aim to learn how ADHD may influence the diagnosis and treatment of autism and plan to observe children who have ASD alone, ASD and ADHD, and ADHD alone and compare them to typically developing children. They will also test whether the stimulant medication used to treat ADHD will help children with both conditions.
     

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