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注意力不足過動症:修订间差异

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飲食的調整可能對少部份的ADHD兒童有幫助<ref name="pmid22176942">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nigg JT, Lewis K, Edinger T, Falk M | title = Meta-analysis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet, and synthetic food color additives | journal = J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry | volume = 51 | issue = 1 | pages = 86–97 | year = January 2012 | pmid = 22176942 | doi = 10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015 }}</ref>,一份2013年的[[統合分析]]針對有ADHD症狀,而且有補充[[游離脂肪酸]]或是減少食用有人工色素食品的兒童的相關研究發現,只有不到<big><big><big><big>⅓</big></big></big></big>的兒童在症狀上有改善<ref name=Sonu2013/>,這方面的助益有可能只是對有食物敏感的兒童有幫助,也有可能是這些兒童同時也在接受ADHD的治療<ref name=Sonu2013/>,這些已發表的文獻也發現目前已有的證據無法支持減少食用特定食物來治療ADHD的療法<ref name=Sonu2013/>。2014年發表的文獻也發現[[排除饮食]]在治療ADHD上的成效有限<ref name=NiggHolton2014>{{cite journal|vauthors=Nigg JT, Holton K|title=Restriction and elimination diets in ADHD treatment|journal=Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am|volume=23|issue=4|pages=937–53|date=2014-10|pmid=25220094|pmc=4322780|doi=10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.010|type=Review|quote=an elimination diet produces a small aggregate effect but may have greater benefit among some children. Very few studies enable proper evaluation of the likelihood of response in children with ADHD who are not already preselected based on prior diet response.}}</ref>,另一個2016年發表的文獻不鼓勵用[[无麸质饮食]]作為主要治療ADHD的方式<ref name="pmid26825336" />。
飲食的調整可能對少部份的ADHD兒童有幫助<ref name="pmid22176942">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nigg JT, Lewis K, Edinger T, Falk M | title = Meta-analysis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet, and synthetic food color additives | journal = J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry | volume = 51 | issue = 1 | pages = 86–97 | year = January 2012 | pmid = 22176942 | doi = 10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015 }}</ref>,一份2013年的[[統合分析]]針對有ADHD症狀,而且有補充[[游離脂肪酸]]或是減少食用有人工色素食品的兒童的相關研究發現,只有不到<big><big><big><big>⅓</big></big></big></big>的兒童在症狀上有改善<ref name=Sonu2013/>,這方面的助益有可能只是對有食物敏感的兒童有幫助,也有可能是這些兒童同時也在接受ADHD的治療<ref name=Sonu2013/>,這些已發表的文獻也發現目前已有的證據無法支持減少食用特定食物來治療ADHD的療法<ref name=Sonu2013/>。2014年發表的文獻也發現[[排除饮食]]在治療ADHD上的成效有限<ref name=NiggHolton2014>{{cite journal|vauthors=Nigg JT, Holton K|title=Restriction and elimination diets in ADHD treatment|journal=Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am|volume=23|issue=4|pages=937–53|date=2014-10|pmid=25220094|pmc=4322780|doi=10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.010|type=Review|quote=an elimination diet produces a small aggregate effect but may have greater benefit among some children. Very few studies enable proper evaluation of the likelihood of response in children with ADHD who are not already preselected based on prior diet response.}}</ref>,另一個2016年發表的文獻不鼓勵用[[无麸质饮食]]作為主要治療ADHD的方式<ref name="pmid26825336" />。


鐵、鎂及碘等礦物質的攝取也可以改善ADHD的症狀<ref name="pmid22928358">{{cite journal |vauthors=Konikowska K, Regulska-Ilow B, Rózańska D |title=The influence of components of diet on the symptoms of ADHD in children |journal=Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig|volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=127–134 |year=2012 |pmid=22928358 }}</ref>,有一些證據指出身體組織內的[[鋅]]成份過低和其ADHD症狀有關<ref name="pmid16190793">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arnold LE, DiSilvestro RA|title=Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|journal=Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology|volume=15|issue=4|pages=619–27|year=2005|pmid=16190793|doi=10.1089/cap.2005.15.619}}</ref>,不過一般不建議用補充鋅礦物質的方式來治療ADHD,只有在有{{tsl|en|zinc deficiency|鋅缺乏}}的地區(幾乎只會在[[開發中國家]])才建議補充鋅礦物質<ref name=pmid25220092>{{cite journal|last1=Bloch|first1=MH|last2=Mulqueen|first2=J|title=Nutritional supplements for the treatment of ADHD.|journal=Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America|date=2014-10|volume=23|issue=4|pages=883–97|pmid=25220092|doi=10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.002}}</ref>。不過若鋅礦物質和[[苯丙胺]]類藥物同時使用的話,會減低苯丙胺藥物的最小[[有效劑量]],也就是可以服用較少的藥物而達到相同的效果<ref name="Zinc binding sites + ADHD review">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krause J | title = SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | journal = Expert Rev. Neurother. | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 611–625 | date = 2008-04 | pmid = 18416663 | doi = 10.1586/14737175.8.4.611 | quote = Zinc binds at&nbsp;... extracellular sites of the DAT [103], serving as a DAT inhibitor. In this context, controlled double-blind studies in children are of interest, which showed positive effects of zinc [supplementation] on symptoms of ADHD [105,106]. It should be stated that at this time [supplementation] with zinc is not integrated in any ADHD treatment algorithm.}}</ref>。另有證據指出[[ω-3脂肪酸|Omega3-脂肪酸]]能提供對於病情些許的改善,不過也有證據指出其功效非常有限<ref name="birmingham.ac.uk 2018">{{cite web | title=Omega Fish oils don't improve school children's reading skills or memory, study finds | website=birmingham.ac.uk | date=2018-03-02 | url=https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/news/latest/2018/03/fish-oils-dont-improve-childrens-reading-memory-skills.aspx | access-date=2018-03-14}}</ref><ref name="Montgomery Spreckelsen Burton Burton p=e0192909">{{cite journal | last=Montgomery | first=Paul | last2=Spreckelsen | first2=Thees F. | last3=Burton | first3=Alice | last4=Burton | first4=Jennifer R. | last5=Richardson | first5=Alexandra J. | editor-last=van Wouwe | editor-first=Jacobus P. | title=Docosahexaenoic acid for reading, working memory and behavior in UK children aged 7-9: A randomized controlled trial for replication (the DOLAB II study) | journal=PLOS ONE | publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=13 | issue=2 | date=2018-02-20 | issn=1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192909 | page=e0192909}}</ref>,因此不建議用Omega3-脂肪酸來取代醫學治療<ref name="pmid21961774">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bloch MH, Qawasmi A |title=Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=10|pages=991–1000 |date=2011-10 |pmid=21961774 |pmc=3625948|doi=10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.008 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27555775">{{cite journal | vauthors = Königs A, Kiliaan AJ | title = Critical appraisal of omega-3 fatty acids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder treatment | journal = Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. | volume = 12 | issue = | pages = 1869–1882 | year = July 2016 | pmid = 27555775 | pmc = 4968854 | doi = 10.2147/NDT.S68652 | url = }}</ref>
鐵、鎂及碘等礦物質的攝取也可以改善ADHD的症狀<ref name="pmid22928358">{{cite journal |vauthors=Konikowska K, Regulska-Ilow B, Rózańska D |title=The influence of components of diet on the symptoms of ADHD in children |journal=Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig|volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=127–134 |year=2012 |pmid=22928358 }}</ref>,有一些證據指出身體組織內的[[鋅]]成份過低和其ADHD症狀有關<ref name="pmid16190793">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arnold LE, DiSilvestro RA|title=Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|journal=Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology|volume=15|issue=4|pages=619–27|year=2005|pmid=16190793|doi=10.1089/cap.2005.15.619}}</ref>,不過一般不建議用補充鋅礦物質的方式來治療ADHD,只有在有{{tsl|en|zinc deficiency|鋅缺乏}}的地區(幾乎只會在[[開發中國家]])才建議補充鋅礦物質<ref name=pmid25220092>{{cite journal|last1=Bloch|first1=MH|last2=Mulqueen|first2=J|title=Nutritional supplements for the treatment of ADHD.|journal=Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America|date=2014-10|volume=23|issue=4|pages=883–97|pmid=25220092|doi=10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.002}}</ref>。不過若鋅礦物質和[[苯丙胺]]類藥物同時使用的話,會減低苯丙胺藥物的最小[[有效劑量]],也就是可以服用較少的藥物而達到相同的效果<ref name="Zinc binding sites + ADHD review">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krause J | title = SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | journal = Expert Rev. Neurother. | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 611–625 | date = 2008-04 | pmid = 18416663 | doi = 10.1586/14737175.8.4.611 | quote = Zinc binds at&nbsp;... extracellular sites of the DAT [103], serving as a DAT inhibitor. In this context, controlled double-blind studies in children are of interest, which showed positive effects of zinc [supplementation] on symptoms of ADHD [105,106]. It should be stated that at this time [supplementation] with zinc is not integrated in any ADHD treatment algorithm.}}</ref>。另有證據指出[[ω-3脂肪酸|Omega3-脂肪酸]]能提供對於病情些許的改善<ref name="Richardson Burton Sewell Spreckelsen p=e43909">{{cite journal | last=Richardson | first=Alexandra J. | last2=Burton | first2=Jennifer R. | last3=Sewell | first3=Richard P. | last4=Spreckelsen | first4=Thees F. | last5=Montgomery | first5=Paul | editor-last=Scott | editor-first=James G. | title=Docosahexaenoic Acid for Reading, Cognition and Behavior in Children Aged 7–9 Years: A Randomized, Controlled Trial (The DOLAB Study) | journal=PLoS ONE | publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=7 | issue=9 | date=2012-09-06 | issn=1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0043909 | page=e43909}}</ref>,不過也有證據指出其功效非常有限<ref name="birmingham.ac.uk 2018">{{cite web | title=Omega Fish oils don't improve school children's reading skills or memory, study finds | website=birmingham.ac.uk | date=2018-03-02 | url=https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/news/latest/2018/03/fish-oils-dont-improve-childrens-reading-memory-skills.aspx | access-date=2018-03-14}}</ref><ref name="Montgomery Spreckelsen Burton Burton p=e0192909">{{cite journal | last=Montgomery | first=Paul | last2=Spreckelsen | first2=Thees F. | last3=Burton | first3=Alice | last4=Burton | first4=Jennifer R. | last5=Richardson | first5=Alexandra J. | editor-last=van Wouwe | editor-first=Jacobus P. | title=Docosahexaenoic acid for reading, working memory and behavior in UK children aged 7-9: A randomized controlled trial for replication (the DOLAB II study) | journal=PLOS ONE | publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=13 | issue=2 | date=2018-02-20 | issn=1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192909 | page=e0192909}}</ref>,因此不建議用Omega3-脂肪酸來取代醫學治療<ref name="pmid21961774">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bloch MH, Qawasmi A |title=Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=10|pages=991–1000 |date=2011-10 |pmid=21961774 |pmc=3625948|doi=10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.008 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27555775">{{cite journal | vauthors = Königs A, Kiliaan AJ | title = Critical appraisal of omega-3 fatty acids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder treatment | journal = Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. | volume = 12 | issue = | pages = 1869–1882 | year = July 2016 | pmid = 27555775 | pmc = 4968854 | doi = 10.2147/NDT.S68652 | url = }}</ref>
<ref name="tscap_20170503_2"/>。
<ref name="tscap_20170503_2"/>。



2018年3月14日 (三) 17:27的版本

注意力不足/過動症(AD/HD)
Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder
同义词注意力缺失症、過度活躍症、Hyperkinetic disorder (ICD-10)
An image of children
注意力不足過動症兒童患者可能比較難以專注在學校的作業,因此也不容易在期限內完成作業
症状容易分心英语attentional shift(難以把專注力放對地方)、過度的活動、 難以控制行為和衝動[1]引用错误:<ref>标签有衝突或無效的属性
起病年龄6 - 12 歲 左右[2][3]
病程多於6個月 [2]
类型特殊性发育障碍多动障碍[*]疾病神经发育障碍
病因尚不明確[4]
診斷方法根據症狀並排除其他可能的致病原因。[1]
鑑別診斷品行障碍對立反抗症學習障礙躁鬱症[5]自閉症光譜
治療心理治療、改變生活方式、藥物[1]
患病率5,110萬(2015年)[6]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科精神醫學
ICD-116A05
ICD-10F90.0
OMIM143465、​608903、​608904、​608905、​608906、​612311、​612312
DiseasesDB6158
MedlinePluswillem
eMedicine289350、​912633
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
注意力不足過動症
症状執行困難症[*]難以控制行為和衝動情緒失調[*]過度專注rejection sensitive dysphoria[*]distractibility[*]
类型特殊性发育障碍多动障碍[*]疾病神经发育障碍
分类和外部资源
醫學專科精神医学、​兒童青少年精神醫學
ICD-116A05
ICD-10F90
ICD-9-CM314.00314.01
OMIM143465
DiseasesDB6158
MedlinePlus001551
eMedicinemed/3103 ped/177
MeSHD001289
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
「ADHD」的各地常用譯名
中国大陸注意力缺陷多动障碍
臺灣注意力不足過動症
香港專注力失調/過度活躍症
澳門專注力失調/過度活躍症
日本注意欠陥・多動性障害
大韓民國注意力缺乏過多行動障礙
注意力缺乏 過剩行動 症候群
越南𦇒亂增動減注意

注意力不足過動症(英語:Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,縮寫为ADHD),涵蓋注意力缺失症(英語:Attention Deficit Disorder,縮寫为ADD),此病也译作注意力不集中/過動症(英語:Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder,簡稱AD/HD)、過度活躍症(英語:Hyperkinetic Disorder;於ICD 10中的名稱),俗称有多動症多動障礙大雄·胖虎症候群(日本)等。此病患的兒童習稱過動兒,也有醫療人士建議改稱為心動兒[7][8]。ADHD是一個與腦神經發育相關英语neurodevelopmental disorder心理疾患[9][10],也是一個與腦神經相關的疾病英语brain disorder[11][12]。它的特徵是「難以把注意力放對地方英语attention shift」、「容易分心」、「過度的活動」或「難以控制自身的言行舉止」且不符合患者年齡該有的成熟度英语Age appropriateness[1][13]。症狀通常出現在十二歲左右且持續超過六個月並在至少兩種情境中出現(例如:學校、家庭、休閒活動等)[14][3]。專注力方面的問題可能影響兒童患者的在學表現[1]

過去普遍認為注意力不足過動症是只會發生在兒童身上的腦部發展障礙,但近年發現注意力不足過動症患者的60%(包括應接受診斷卻未接受診斷的患者),其注意力不足過動症癥狀會持續至成人時期,而這60%患者中的41%,其注意力不足過動症仍對生活造成明顯的影響[15][16][17][18]。注意力不足過動症在嬰兒幼兒時期,因為孩子正在學走路和說話,所以症狀通常不易被察覺,往往要等到他們進入幼稚園或小學之後,透過遵守教室、課堂的規範及跟同學們的相處,旁人才會漸漸注意到其症狀。學校老師往往是最容易發現孩童注意力不足過動症症狀的人,因為在學校有明確的對照組;然而,不少注意力不足過動症患者(尤其是女性患者)不但沒有過動症狀,甚至是非常安靜、沒有破壞性的,惟過去對此症的認識總是集中在過動[a]症狀上,使得這類「不過動或衝動」的注意力不足過動症患者甚少能診斷出來。端視注意力不足過動症患者其腦部發展的程度與其所在環境對其執行功能要求的程度之比例,因此有些注意力不足過動症患者可能直到青少年時期甚至是成年期(特別是成年初期)才開始顯露出注意力不足過動症的症狀[19][20][21]。國際注意力不足過動症流行率[b]中位數,兒童為5-8%,成人為3-5%。研究顯示美國一年因注意力不足過動症損失高達近40億美金,其中即包括父母的工作損失[22]注意力不足過動症患者甚至其家屬可能對自身或患者的問題存有否認心理[23][24]

現時沒有任何確切證據證實任何一個或多個因素決定性地導致這種病症。研究顯示注意力不足過動症與腦部的額葉及其他構造發展相關,但詳細成因仍未得知。注意力不足過動症可能具有相當高的遺傳率。根據美国疾病控制与预防中心的研究,注意力不足過動症是一群症狀的交集。因此,要正確診斷這病症,不能依靠單一臨床方法去確定,而必須同時採用多種臨床方法配合去確認。注意力不足過動症的診斷係依據《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》的標準、門診病人對自身病情的描述症狀學、患者的歷史經歷、發展史、家族史、共病、生理評估及各種醫師評估後認為需要進一步的檢查等。[註 1][20]每年的十月為國際間訂定的注意力不足過動症意識之月(ADHD Awareness Month)。

藥物治療合併行為治療是目前證實最有效的治療方式[25][26][27][28][29][30][20]。學齡前的患者,通常僅需接受行為治療,除非症狀達到嚴重的程度且拒絕接受行為治療或無法從行為治療中獲得改善,才需考慮加入藥物治療[31] [32]。 注意力不足過動症的治療並非是要將孩子們標準化[c],而是一本教育的初衷,協助每一位孩子「發掘、發揚自己的優點、並避免缺點」。[33][34][35][36]

名稱

注意力不足過動症
子類型\核心症狀 注意力不足(分心) 過動 衝動
過動-衝動為主型 -
注意力不足為主型
又稱為注意力缺失症(Attention Deficit Disorder)
- -
混和型

注意力缺失症患者在學生時期的特徵包含:患者在上課時看起來是靜靜地聽講,但事實上患者對教師所說的內容可能茫然不知、純粹只是望著教師。[35]

世界衛生組織出版的《世界通用疾病分類手冊》第十版中(ICD-10, International Classification of Disease-10,又稱為國際通用的疾病分類表), 過度活躍症的症狀幾乎等同於《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》第五版(DSM-5)中注意力不足過動症的症狀。而「注意力不足過動症」在ICD-10中稱為「過度活躍症」[37]

定義

讲解注意力不足過動症的影片(英文)

對注意力不足過動症比較確切的定義,記載於美國精神醫學會(APA)出版的《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》(DSM)第四版之文本修改版[38]

注意力不足過動症的主要病徵是:

  1. 注意力散渙或集中困難(專注力失調、注意力缺陷)
  2. 活動量過多 (過度活躍、多動)
  3. 自制力[d]弱 (衝動

基於以上三種病徵,再把注意力不足過動症細分為以下三個分類:

  1. 注意力散渙主導型
    又稱為注意力不足(專注力失調)為主型
  2. 活動量過多或自制力弱主導型
    又稱為過動-衝動(過度活躍、多動障礙)為主型
  3. 混合型
    又稱為注意力不足(專注力失調)、過動-衝動(過度活躍、多動障礙)混和型

注意力不足(失調/缺陷)

      參見:注意力的臨床表現型[39][40]注意力不集中分心過度專心

面向 解釋
選擇性注意力
(Selective attention)
  1. 能夠維持原有的行為或認知過程,即便遇到外界的刺激或誘惑,亦复如此。
  2. 能夠將注意力凝聚於某一個重要目標,而忽略其他不相干的訊息,所以就不會分心。
分開性注意力
(Divided attention)

能夠同時專注於不同的事情上、同時接收多個指令、或者同時進行好幾件事情而不會搞混或忘記。

轉移性注意力
(Shifting/Alternating attention)
  1. 專注力可以迅速從一件事切換到另一件事,果斷地處理完眼前的事物、再隨時切換回去,不會遲疑不決或慌張混亂。
  2. 能夠在心靈上保有彈性,使自己能把注意力的焦點從一件事切換到另一件事,也能在「所需認知程度不同的」事情之間切換。
持續的注意/警覺英语Vigilance (psychology)/專注
(Sustained Attention/Vigilance/ Concentration)

可以讓專注力在「持續一段時間且內容重複」的事情中保持一段較長的時間,不會一下子就恍神或散漫。

集中的注意力(選擇地集中注意力)
(Focused attention/Selective sustained attention[41][42]

能夠一個一個,井然有序地應對來自視覺聽覺觸覺等外部刺激。

  • 備註:「一件事」在此也可為「一個想法或點子」。

注意力不足過動症的兒童,在「轉移性注意力」、「選擇性注意力」和「持續性注意力」有類似的特點,尤其是「持續性注意力」,會低於同年齡無ADHD的兒童[43]

父母常疑問:孩子在看電視或打電動時常常一坐就是幾小時,可是靜態的看書畫畫就沒有辦法,可能幾分鐘就喊無聊。不過不同活動所需的專注度原本就有差異,電視電動因為畫面不停的變換,加上各種聽覺效果視覺吸引的效果(包含時下興起的:虛擬實境),只需維持短暫的注意力就能持續進行,但孩子一旦從事要求較長專注度的工作或是活動時,其注意力就會無法持續或出現缺失。[44][33][34][45]而許多ADHD的孩子在自身感興趣的事情上可以維持長時間的專注[46][20]

好動與過動

好動 雖然活動量大,但是「神經動作、精細動作」的控制沒有問題,是故可以進行靜態的活動。
過動 過動者在靜止時容易有主觀的「不安」感覺。若患者不被允許進行大動作(走路、站立)時,其會需要透過微小幅度的動作(抖腳、敲手、轉筆)來化解坐立不安的感覺。[44][47]

除此之外,過動的孩子往往無時無刻都十分過動;過動的孩子也會顯得過於活躍、帶有攻擊性的衝動、或難以保持專注,並造成社交上和學業上的困難。[48]

衝動性

衝動是指在抑制控制上有困難,所以會在尚未深思熟慮前,就開始行動(簡言之,未能謀定而後動)。ADHD往往不會正確判斷什麼是「適當的行為」,這乃是因為ADHD的衝動性質反映在認知上所形成的特殊現象。由於 ADHD 的自我抑制能力不足,所以往往會不由自主地說出本身不願意說的話或做出本身不願意做的事情/行動。舉例來說:當非ADHD的孩子做出不適當的行為時,只要被老師或家長處罰 3 – 4 次就會修改其行為;但是 ADHD 兒童即使受到好幾次處罰後,仍持續違反紀律的情形十分普遍。然而重點是,他們這樣重蹈覆轍的行為既不是在反抗也不是故意的,而是因為他們心裡的衝動所致。具有衝動性特質的人,其反應時間英语Reaction_time(不經深思熟慮的反應),會比起同齡或同智能的人短。衝動的個性會直接反映在學業上,譬如說,衝動的人傾向在還沒閱讀完整個題幹或還沒有讀完全部的答題選項時就因不耐煩而作答,導致答錯問題的比率甚高。除此之外,曾有個性衝動的人因為沒注意到眼前的障礙物而絆倒或在沒有注意路況下就衝出去到馬路上而發生車禍的例子。[49]

特徵和症狀

因先天生理因素,未治療的注意力不足過動症患者通常比已治療/正在治療之注意力不足過動症患者及注意力不足過動症患者有著對刺激過於延遲的反應(反應包含:緊張、開心等),並造成患者過於不易分辨事情的緩急輕重等症狀。[50]

注意力不足過動症的主要特徵包括:[51][20][52]

  1. 容易忘記事情
  2. 容易分心
  3. 囉唆、多話、常打斷別人,且愛
  4. 喜歡到處走動,靜不下來。
  5. 讀寫困難,包括寫錯字(常多一畫或少一畫、拼字錯誤等)、閱讀時會跳行或無法理解文意等。
  6. 做事易拖拖拉拉,常拖至最後。
  7. 工作普遍都做不久,三心兩意英语Racing_thoughts,會一直換工作。
  8. 缺乏組織英语Organizing_(structure)規劃英语Planning力,無法把自己想說的話、想做的事具體地表達或規劃出來。
  9. 不了解注意力不足過動症的老師(對兒童患者而言)或上司(對成人患者而言)容易把注意力不足過動症患者視為患者自己不夠努力或懶惰。
  10. 逃避需要持續動腦的工作(例如:做家庭作業或學校作業)。
  11. 缺乏分辨事情緩急輕重英语Prioritization的認知。
  12. 時間管理的認知缺乏。

以上症狀隨患者年齡而有不同表現,譬如說,注意力不足過動症的孩子,其表現通常有:上課不專心、無法抑制自己的衝動以及坐立不安的情況;成人患者的主要問題則常在於無法計劃並完成好他們的日常生活每日簡單的工作英语routine

各年齡層的注意力不足過動症患者往往較容易遭遇社交技巧上的問題,例如:社交互動建立一段人際關係英语relationship forming維持一段人際關係等。這個觀察在各注意力不足過動症的三種子類型中都是成立的。大約一半(50%)的患有注意力不足過動症的兒童及青少年曾經歷過来自他人的排挤;而其同儕[註 2]被別人拒絕社交的比率約為10-15%。注意力不足的人比起對照組(非注意力不足過動症患者)更容易遭遇理解他人「口頭英语verbal非口頭」言行舉止/交際上的困難,進而對於其社交互動產生負面影響。注意力不足過動症患者也可能在對話的過程中打瞌睡並遺漏他人釋放出的社交暗示。[53]

難以管理憤怒情緒的情況則較常在兒童注意力不足過動症患者身上顯現。[54]再者,兒童注意力不足過動症患者通常有寫字的困難、言語及行動發展的遲緩英语Child_development#growth。雖然這些問題造成患者在現今社會中很大的障礙[55][56],然而許多注意力不足過動症患者在他們有興趣的事情上都能持續維持專注力,[57]甚至過度專心,成為工作狂[33]

注意力不足過動症患者遇到需要保持長時間專注的事情,比如說:讀書、寫功課、或閱讀英语Reading comprehension,就容易出現不適應的情況。[33]研究結果證實注意力不足過動症本身與低學業成就英语Academic_achievement為直接的因果關係。[58]

不少注意力不足過動症患者(尤其是女性患者)不但沒有過動症狀,甚至是非常安靜、沒有破壞性的,惟過去對此症的認識總是集中在過動(多動、過度活躍)症狀上,使得這類「不過動或衝動」的注意力不足過動症患者甚少能被診斷出來。[59][60]

正向特質

注意力不足過動症患者較為正向的特質為:[52][61]

  1. 具高度創造力,常有特別的新點子(但因組織能力差,常無法將之化為具體行動)。[52]
  2. 特立獨行、思考不隨[52]
  3. 對理想保持驚人的堅持度和毅力,甚至可說是頑固。[52]
  4. 直覺非常強,能單憑直覺深入問題核心,進而發現問題所在(但他通常無法說明如何得知)。[52]
  5. 源源不絕的活力[61]
  6. 勇於冒險,且過程十分聰明。[61]
  7. 韌性十足。[61]
  8. 活潑開朗。[33]
  9. 熱心助人且富有正義感[33]
  10. 說話風趣[33]
  11. 追求創新[33]
  12. 興趣時非常能夠堅持。[62]
  13. 若若大方且蘊含魅力/個人風格[62]
  14. 富有想像力好奇心[62]
  15. 能夠跳脫框架思考。[62]

兩性交往與婚姻

台灣精神科醫師高淑芬在《找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊》一書中指出,ADHD患者活潑開朗、熱心助人、說話風趣、勇於告白的特性對於兩性交往與婚姻來說都具有加分作用;但交往一段時間後,ADHD患者的負面特質,例如:沒耐心、容易遲到、無法專心聽人說話、交代的事情英语task (project management)老是忘記、需要幫忙的時候找不到人、生活習慣及生活作息不佳、喜歡開快車及個性很迷糊等,就可能讓對方萌生退意。[33]高淑芬亦指出,如果順利交往,共結連理,則接下來注意力不足過動症患者可能遇到的挑戰為:比起交往時期多了許多柴米油鹽醬醋茶之事,患者可能會因為忘記付帳單、照顧小孩很恍神英语absent minded、做事虎頭蛇尾/有始無終而引起夫妻間的爭吵,為婚姻生活埋下陰影。[33]

然而,高淑芬強調,只要ADHD患者可以提升專注力並且落實執行力,那麼一樣可以如同其他人一樣活出其天賦英语talent,擁有美好的人生。[33]

智力

注意力不足過動症患者的智力潛力注意力不足過動症患者相仿,然而因為注意力不足過動症的症狀,使得其智力測驗結果可能產生較大的誤差[63][64]。若能在大約九、十歲以前把握年齡較小、症狀較為單純時治療,可以避免往後病情複雜化(衍生共病)。再者,能在早期建立良好的學習及生活習慣,培養自信心責任感,對注意力不足過動症患者的未來將有深遠的影響[33][34][18]

可能與注意力不足過動症有關的疾病

在兒童注意力不足過動症患者中,大約會有23 的機率伴隨其他有關的特徵或疾病[46]。常見的特徵或共病如下:

一篇2016年發表的系統性文獻回顧發現「注意力不足過動症」與肥胖呼吸道氣管過敏(例如:氣喘過敏性鼻炎)、或睡眠障礙有著直接的關聯[101];而與偏頭痛乳糜瀉可能有點關係[101]。然而另一篇同在2016年發表的系統性文獻回顧則不認為注意力不足過動症與乳糜瀉有關連性存在,且不鼓勵注意力不足過動症患者定期追蹤乳糜瀉。[102]

雙重特殊,注意力不足過動症和資優的交互關係

雙重特殊是指兼具資賦優異身心行為障礙者,身心障礙人口中有3%至5%具有雙重特殊的特質[103]。雙重特殊學生是指在學業、智能、創造力、領導能力、視覺、空間或表演藝術等領域中,有一個項目或以上表現優異;而同時也符合顯著明確的知覺溝通障礙英语Sensory_processing_disorder學習障礙情緒障礙肢體障礙英语physical disability感官障礙自閉症、或注意力不足過動症等障礙的標準者[104]

資優注意力不足過動症兒童在學校的表現一般是名列前茅,但行為表現卻極不成熟。由於行為問題,通常學校大多數老師不認為資優注意力不足過動症兒童是資優生,也不認為他擁有什麼特殊才藝。反之,學校大部分的老師們都認為他們是暴躁易怒、叛逆、沒有禮貌的壞學生[105][106]。他們在感興趣的領域,有亮眼的表現,但在行為或人際關係上卻是常令人頭痛萬分。由於這類負面形象,不符合一般人對資優生的正面期待,往往使得老師常忽略了他們的潛能。臨床上,除了雙重特殊兒童的特質,還歸納出資優注意力不足過動症兒童可能會表現以下的行為[107][108]

  • 常在不適當的時機開玩笑或惡作劇。
  • 對於重複性的作業感到厭煩或抗拒。
  • 高度自我批判,難以接受失敗經驗。
  • 霸道。
  • 有時寧願獨處。
  • 上課時很難專心聽講。
  • 經常與人爭吵。
  • 情緒敏感。
  • 不注重細節,做事草率衝動。
  • 拒絕接受權威、不服從、固執。
  • 不能和其他人相處

資優注意力不足過動症兒童在行為問題上有許多特徵與普通注意力不足過動症兒童相類似,使得注意力不足過動症資優兒童容易因此而誤判,或忽略了其實際擁有的內在潛能。[107]

辨別資優注意力不足過動症兒童

比較項目 普通注意力不足過動症兒童 資優注意力不足過動症兒童
專注 大多數情況下無法集中注意力 缺乏興趣的情況下無法集中注意力,但對自己感興趣的事物上卻多數能表現高度專注力
工作持續力 做事多數虎頭蛇尾,常無法完成指定的工作 對有興趣的事物經常表現過人的耐心和持續力
衝動行為 大多數情況下無法自己控制衝動 思考速度太快,思考內容太多,急於分享而無法控制自己的衝動行為
遵守規範 遵守行為規範與服從指令上有困難 遵守行為規範與服從指令上有困難,但會進一步質疑權威(例如:老師、家長等)與規範的合理性與正當性,因此叛逆和好辯
活動能力 顯得精力旺盛,無的放矢的宣洩 顯得精力旺盛,但發揮得較有方向,也能計畫自己下一步要做什麼

[109]

調整方法

資優注意力不足過動症兒童體內由於資賦優異與注意力不足過動症雙重特質交互影響,使得他們不易發現,家長和老師應仔細探究兒童在不同情境下學習與行為表現,不要當兒童出現不當行為時,就予以負面標籤,影響了其潛能發展,或使得他們錯失原本可有的協助與輔導。家長應調整教導方法,給予適度與清楚的期望,也要接納他們不由己的脫軌表現。注意力不足過動症兒童的行為特質,有助於創造力的發展,例如,注意力不足過動症兒童擁有較佳的想像力。只要在發現注意力不足過動症資優兒童後,提供有效、專業的介入與輔導,會因著這不同的特質,而擁有更不一樣的人生。[110][111],有些雙重特殊學生可能在逐漸長大後會出現情緒困擾,感覺為社會所孤立,因而發展出攻擊或退縮行為。長期於人際關係上的失敗,也會導致無助感和無望感。最後,在沮喪的情況下,其可能選擇規避最起碼的學習及社會要求,以免讓自己陷入痛苦深淵。[111]

國際上通用的注意力不足過動症分類、治療策略及描述中,沒有特別將注意力不足過動症兒童中,依是否資優而進行區分[112]

診斷

  • 成人及兒童青少年的注意力不足過動症診斷標準係依據《DSM-TR精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》的標準及個案的歷史(個案史)。[38]
  • 注意力不足過動症又可細分為以下三種類型:注意力不足(專注力失調)為主型、過動-衝動為主型、或注意力不足(專注力失調)且過動-衝動的混和型。[38]
  • 過動,即為『過度』活躍。過度兩字意味著活躍的程度已經對生活造成不良的影響。即便個案並無上述『注意力不足過動症』的所有特徵,他仍有可能是ADHD患者,有無全部特徵牽涉到是否有其他共病存在且治療的主要目的在於協助患者避免缺點並發揚優點。注意力不足過動症的診斷係依據《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》的標準、門診病人的主訴症狀學、患者的歷史經歷、發展史、家族史、共病、生理評估及各種醫師評估後認為需要進一步的檢查等。[註 1][20]

精神疾病診斷與統計手冊

根據最新的精神疾病診斷與統計手冊第五版(DSM-V),以下表列之症狀必須持續至少六個月且其程度明顯高於多數同年齡層之同儕。除此之外,以下表列之症狀必須在至少兩種不同的情境下(例如:社交、課業/工作、或家庭)造成顯著的問題,且這些條件必須出現在大約十二歲以前。[113]

一個以注意力不足(專注力失調)為主的注意力不足過動症擁有以下至少六項的症狀(成人為至少五項),且非由其他醫學疾病直接造成。[113]

  1. 容易分心、粗心、忘記事情且經常從一件事情切換至另一件事情。
  2. 難以持續對於一件事情保持專注。
  3. 除非是從事自己有興趣的事情,否則很容易對於從事一件事情感到無聊。
  4. 難以對組職(規劃)事情、完成一個任務或學習新事物保持專注。
  5. 難以完成或(如期)繳交家庭作業並且經常丟失一些用以完成任務或活動的必備東西(例如:鉛筆、玩具、作業)。
  6. 當他人跟患者說話時,患者似乎沒在聽其說話。
  7. 白日夢、容易困惑、且移動遲緩。
  8. 難以和其他注意力不足過動症患者一樣精確且快速的在腦海中處理接收到的資訊。
  9. 難以遵從指示。
  10. 難以認知細微的細節。

一個以過動-衝動為主的注意力不足過動症擁有以下至少五項的症狀,且非由其他醫學疾病直接造成。[113][35][33]

  1. 坐在椅子上動來動去。
  2. 一直講話。
  3. 四處東奔西跑、碰觸或玩弄視野內的任一或每一個物體。
  4. 難以在吃飯時間、學校中、做功課的時間、及故事時間坐著。
  5. 一直在移動、動作。
  6. 難以從事安靜的任務或活動。
  7. 非常不耐煩。
  8. 脫口說出不恰當的話語、毫無掩飾地直接在表情中流露出心裡的想法、不顧後果的豪放不羈。
  9. 難以接(忍)受延遲的滿足、難耐在遊戲中因輪流所產生的等待時間。
  10. 經常打斷他人的對話或活動。

在青少年及成年的注意力不足過動症患者中,過動的症狀往往隨著社會化及年齡的增長而轉變為內在的不安寧。[114]

一位求診患者即便在過去六個月中,症狀數量較診斷準則少,但若曾經完全符合診斷準則且症狀仍導致多重情境下(例如:工作、學業及社會等)功能減損之狀態,仍可能符合注意力不足過動症的診斷。此乃注意力不足過動症的部分緩解。[33]

兒童及成人之注意力不足過動症診斷必須由受過專業訓練的醫療團隊(例如兒童精神科醫師團隊)才可,否則容易受到誤診與處方,這相當危險。[115][116][117][35][33][註 3]

世界通用疾病分類手冊

以下為2010年出版之《世界通用疾病分類手冊 第十版》(ICD-10, International Classification of Disease-10,又稱為國際通用的疾病分類表)第五章節:

心理與行為疾病(F00-F99)[註 3]

早發於青少年時期的情緒及行為疾病 (F90-F98)[118]
過度活躍症 (Hyperkinetic Disorder, F90)
  • 年紀輕輕(通常在零到五歲的時候)就出現難以持續進行一件需要動腦的活動、常常一件事情還沒做到一個段落就跳到另一個事情去,並伴隨組織與規劃能力的不足、聽從指示上的困難、過多的活動。
  • ADHD可能與其他疾病共病。
  • 患有過度活躍症的孩子通常較衝動、沒有三思而後行。因此容易發生意外。聽從指示上的困難通常起因於沒有三思而後行,刻意造反相較之下的可能性較低。
  • 患者對成人的溝通交流(相處)可能是毫無保留的,缺乏正常的戒心與保守。患者可能在群體之中不受歡迎且受到孤立。
  • 認知功能的不足是常見的,運動語言發展上的延遲、遲緩更是頻繁。
  • 次要的併發症包含「社會化」(社會無法接受)的行為以及低自尊心。

預定於2018年發行的ICD-11 (ICD 第十一版)的初始草稿中,注意力不足過動症歸類於6A06(ADHD)的類別裡,而該注意力不足過動症類別中的定義暨介紹已趨近現時之DSM-5。[119]

成年注意力不足過動症患者

成人注意力不足過動症(Adult ADHD;AADHD;Adult ADD;AADD)其實是注意力不足過動症的症狀從幼年延續到成年期,並不是成年後才出現的疾病。其症狀基本上仍未脫離分心、過動-衝動的核心概念,只是表現方式有很多(比起幼年期更為多樣),一般大眾不一定能將這些多樣的表現型式與ADHD的核心症狀相連結。[120]

兒童青少年精神疾病,例如:注意力不足過動症、 自閉症等乃至成人注意力不足過動症、成人自閉症等,為台灣兒童青少年精神科醫師培訓過程中的重點科目。[33]

世界衛生組織的《成人ADHD自填量表(ASRS)[e]症狀檢核表》就有列出成人注意力不足過動症的一些可能症狀[121]

「注意力缺損」的表現型的大致歸納

  • 當患者在從事一件令人感到無聊或困難的計畫時,可能常常粗心大意,出現無心之過。[121]
  • 患者可能有「常常無法對正在從事的無聊事或重複之事維持注意力」的困難。[121]
  • 患者常難以專注於他人跟患者講話的內容(比如說:聽演講等),甚至是當有人直接一對一對著患者說話的時候亦復如是。[121]
  • 患者一旦完成了一個計畫中具挑戰性的數個部分後,可能就會出現「無法完結該計畫的最後階段」的問題。[121]
  • 當患者必須從事需要有組織規劃性的事情時,常會發現自己難以井然有序地去做。 [121]
  • 當患者遇到一件需要動腦的事情時,患者可能常逃避或是延後開始去做。[121]
  • 患者在家裡或是在工作時,常沒有把東西物歸原位或是常找不到東西。[121]
  • 患者常因周遭的活動或聲音而分心。[121]
  • 患者可能發現自己很健忘,常忘了做該做的事、個人應盡到的義務和行事曆上的任務。[121]

「過動/衝動」的表現型的大致歸納

  • 當患者必須長時間坐著時,患者可能常出現「坐不安穩」或「扭動手腳」的情形。[121]
  • 患者可能常在開會時或在其他被認為應該坐好的場合中離開座位。[121]
  • 患者可能常覺得靜不下來或煩躁不安。[121]
  • 當患者在自己獨處的時間裡,可能常覺得讓自己保持平靜和放鬆是有困難的。[121]
  • 患者可能常常感覺到過度活躍且有一種「非找點事情做」的感覺,就像是有一個馬達裝在身上,不斷的驅動自己一樣。[121]
  • 在與別人的互動中,患者可能常常發現自己「話似乎太多了」。[121]
  • 當與他人交談時,患者可能發覺自己「常接話替對方把話講完」(或在別人還沒把話講完前就插嘴)[121]
  • 患者在需要輪流等待的情況下,可能會發現自己常常有「等待輪到我」的困難。[121]
  • 患者可能常常在別人忙碌的時候打擾人家。[121]

研究發現,兒童青少年時期的ADHD症狀若未經治療,超過六成進入成年期後仍有明顯症狀。[16]

病因學

近期的研究發現,注意力不足過動症是由一種發生於腦前額葉遺傳性的多巴胺新陳代謝失常引致。更近期的研究認為正腎上腺素新陳代謝亦會對病情有所影響 [122] [123] [124]

 絕大多數ADHD的確切成因目前並沒有定論,最有可能是基因環境交互作用導致。[33][34][125][126] 有些個案的成因可能與腦部的疾病感染和腦部創傷有關。[125][33][34]
根據研究統計,注意力不足過動症具有相當高的遺傳率。[33][34]
(詳見基因遺傳章節)

左側為非ADHD之功能性腦部核磁共振照影。顏色越接近白色表示葡萄糖利用率越高。 [127]
  • 利用核磁共振成像技術(MRI)對腦部掃描的研究顯示患有ADHD和正常孩子的圖象有分別。不少科學家認為這足以證明ADHD是和腦部創傷有關。但另一方面,根據腦部的正电子发射断层扫描顯示,這種分別很可能只說明了ADHD患者的問題:因為他們並不能專注於一件事情,所以腦部影像只說明了作為腦內燃料的葡萄糖的分佈,在兩組兒童之間的分別。在成人ADHD患者的腦掃描中,控制專注力的部份由於葡萄糖水平較低,所以顯得不太活躍(Zametkin et. al. 1990[f]。不過,沒有證據顯示低葡萄糖水平與低注意力有關連,亦無法推論兩者之間的因果關係。[127]
  • 不少人有迟到的壞習慣。英国医生在给“迟到大王”吉姆·邓巴会诊后认为,他的这种“惯常迟到”或许源自脑部问题。导致迟到的脑部区域与和ADHD相关的区域相同。这使得邓巴无法估计出自己完成一件事需要耗费的时间[128][129][130]

基因遺傳

“研究顯示ADHD會在家族中出現,所以有一定程度的遺傳影響。ADHD的病童通常都至少有一位近親亦有ADHD。患有ADHD的男童長大成為父親後,子女亦是ADHD患者的機率超過三分之一。一個更有說服力的遺傳聯繫,就是同卵雙生兒(雙胞胎),如果診斷出當中一位為ADHD患者,另一位同時亦是患者的機會非常高。”[131][132]
  1. 爸爸有『注意力不足過動症』,孩子有『注意力不足過動症』的比例(15%至45%)略高於媽媽有『注意力不足過動症』,孩子有『注意力不足過動症』的比例(14%至38%)[33]
  2. ADHD神經心理學研究發現,在ADHD的親兄弟姊妹沒有確診為ADHD的前提下,ADHD孩童的親手足與一般孩童相比,依然容易出現執行功能 (如:空間工作記憶視覺記憶[133]持續專注力時間估算[134]反應時間英语Reaction_time變異[135]) 的缺損,ADHD患者的親兄弟姊妹出現類似上述問題的機率顯著較高,是一般正常孩子的3、4倍,稱為ADHD的認知內表現型英语endophenotype(具有基因關係但未達診斷標準的症狀/特徵型)。[136][137][138][139][140]而當自己的親生兄弟姊妹之一確診是ADHD時,則自己也有ADHD的機率為25%至35%。[141][142][143][144][145]

更進一步來說,雙胞胎研究顯示ADHD通常遺傳自患者的父母。大約75%的患者的病因是基因因素。[146][147][148]
兒童青少年的手足(兄弟姊妹)比起ADHD患者的手足多上三到四倍的機率帶有ADHD的特徵或也有ADHD。[149]基因可能也與注意力不足過動症是否從幼兒延續至成人有關聯。[150]

在一般的情況下,ADHD大多與數個影響多巴胺(大腦內一種神經傳導物質)傳遞的基因有關[151][152]。這些基因分別是 多巴胺輸送元(再攝取)DAT多巴胺受体D4(DRD4)、多巴胺受體D5 (DRD5)英语DRD5TAAR1英语TAAR1MAOA英语MAOA兒茶酚-O-甲基轉移酶(COMT)、和多巴胺β羟化酶(DBH)。[152][153][154]

其他基因分別是血清素輸送元(SERT)HTR1B英语HTR1BSNAP25英语SNAP25GRIN2A英语GRIN2AADRA2A英语ADRA2ATPH2英语TPH2、和 腦源性神經營養因子(BDNF)[151][152]

大約9%的ADHD患者身上會有LPN3英语LPN3基因的變異體。而這些患者可能會對於中樞神經刺激劑特別有反應[155]

多巴胺輸送元DRD4的七個重複存在的變異體DRD4-7R與ADHD有關。因為它放大了由多巴胺觸發的抑制效果。DRD4的接收元是一個G蛋白偶聯受體,作用是抑制腺苷酸環化酶。DRD4的突變反映在許多行為表現上,包括ADHD的症狀群,例如:分心。[156]

演化可能在ADHD的盛行率中扮演一定的角色,特別是有過動-衝動症狀的男性患者。[157]

唐氏症患者可能有較高的機率出現ADHD。[158]

環境因素

除了基因外,一些環境因子也可能是注意力不足過動症的致病因素。[159]例如:在懷孕期間攝取酒精可能導致包含類似注意力不足過動症症狀的胎兒酒精譜系障礙。暴露在特定有毒物質,例如:多氯聯苯等,可能會產生類似注意力不足過動症的中毒症狀。[160]暴露在磷酸酯殺蟲劑毒死蜱(一種晶體有機磷殺蟲劑) 、烷基磷酸酯英语Alkyl phosphate 二烷基磷酸酯英语dialkyl phosphate中,將提高致病率,不過此結論尚未受到學界的廣泛認可。[161]在懷孕過程中接觸到二手煙,將不利於胚胎的腦部神經發育,並將增加罹患注意力不足過動症的機率。[162][163]

新生兒嚴重早產新生兒體重嚴重過輕英语low birth weight、兒童極端疏於照料、遭受凌虐、嚴重地缺乏與社會的互動英语social deprivaton,也可能增加往後出現注意力不足過動症的機率。[162][164]

母親在懷孕期間、兒童在出生時或成長初期遭受特定的感染都可能提高致病率。這些特定的感染包含但不限於:麻疹varicella zoster英语Varicella zoster virus腦炎風疹、德國麻疹或三日麻疹、 第71型腸病毒 (EV71)[165]

一份於2017年11月發表的研究顯示,長時間於妊娠期間使用对乙酰氨基酚與孩子出生後帶有ADHD,有統計上的相關性[166][167]

曾遭受外傷性腦損傷英语traumatic brain injury(TBI)[g][註 4]的兒童,其中至少30%將在往後的人生中發展出注意力不足過動症[168]。因外力而導致腦部受損而致注意力不足過動症大約占所有注意力不足過動症個案的5%。[169]

截至2018年1月,現有的證據無法支持減少食用特定食物來治療注意力不足過動症的療法[170]。減少食用有人工食用色素食品的兒童的相關研究,只有不到的兒童在症狀上有改善[170],這方面的助益有可能只是對有食物過敏的兒童有幫助,也有可能是這些兒童同時也在接受注意力不足過動症的治療[170]

截至2018年1月,研究並不支持注意力不足過動症是因為攝取過多的精緻糖、看太多電視、貧窮或混亂、時局/所在環境的動盪不安、吵吵鬧鬧的家庭所致。然而前述的這些項目可能會惡化一些注意力不足過動症患者的注意力不足過動症症狀。[171] (詳見飲食治療一節)

社會因素

被診斷為注意力不足過動症,不一定是受診者自身的問題,可能代表家庭功能不彰以及教育體制的僵化。[172] 曾遭受過暴力精神虐待(心理虐待、情緒霸凌)的兒童相較於未曾有類似經驗的兒童,有較高的比例出現注意力不足過動症。 [173]

鑑別診斷

以下疾病可能造成類似注意力不足過動症的相關症狀表現(鑑別診斷[174][175][101][35]

病理生理學

截至西元2018年2月底,注意力不足過動症被認為是肇因於部分腦內的神經傳導物質系統的損傷(特別是與多巴胺正腎上腺素有關的神經傳導系統),進而對患者的腦部執行功能產生不良的影響。[183][184]多巴胺與正腎上腺素的腦內神經通道英语Neural_pathway大多起源自腦內的腹側被蓋區藍斑核,並由此投射至不同的腦區且管理許多認知的流程(與認知功能相關的處理流程)。[183][185] 特別是那些投射至前額葉紋狀體英语striatum腦內多巴胺通道英语dopaminergic pathway腦內正腎上腺素通道/藍斑核系統。它們主要的工作就是負責調節執行功能(認知和行為的功能與管理)、動機、 酬賞、報償的感受能力、和運動神經的功能英语Motor_control[183][184][185]以上是目前已知在注意力不足過動症的病理生理學中扮演主要腳色的幾條腦內神經通道英语Neural_pathway。也已經有人提議,強化對於注意力不足過動症更全面的概觀以及更多可能與之相關的腦內神經通道之探究。[184][186][187]

大腦結構

在兒童注意力不足過動症患者中,普遍存有一些腦部結構(特別是左側的前額葉後頂葉皮質英语posterior parietal cortex)在體積上小於平均值的現象。[184][188]其他諸如注意力不足過動症患者的:前額 - 紋狀體-小腦和前額葉-紋狀體-丘腦迴路也被發現與注意力不足過動症患者不同。[184][186][187]

神經傳導物質的通道/路徑

目前的研究模型包含了 中腦皮質素-多巴胺通道英语mesocorticolimbic projection 及蓝斑核-去甲腎上腺素系統。[183][184][185]用於治療注意力不足過動症的中樞神經刺激劑,其療效可能是起因於它增進了神經傳導物質在這些系統中的活動。[184][185][189] 注意力不足過動症患者腦部中的 5-羥色胺能英语serotoninergic(與血清素有關)通道、 谷氨酸能英语glutamate (neurotransmitter)(一種神經傳導物質)通道、 或膽鹼能英语cholinergic通道可能也存有一些導致注意力不足過動症症狀的原因。[189][190][191]

    參見:血清素

執行功能和動機

注意力不足過動症的症狀起因於某些執行功能上的缺陷,例如:注意力/專注力的控制衝動-過動控制、及工作記憶[19][184][185][193]執行功能簡單來說就是一整群包含認知處理過程的集合[h]。而這集合必須能夠成功的幫助一個人選擇並督促自己做出得以實現他那經過深思熟慮過後的目標之行為。[19][185][193]注意力不足過動症患者先天的執行功能損傷造成以下這些症狀:難以維持有規劃的、難以有組織性的、缺乏時間觀念、過度的拖延、難以保持專注、難以把注意力放對地方、難以忽略與任務不相干的外務/誘惑、有情緒管理的困難、難以把細節記起來。[19][184][185]注意力不足過動症患者在長期記憶的表現可看出注意力不足過動症患者的長期記憶是沒有損傷的。注意力不足過動症患者在提取長期記憶時所產生的困難顯然是肇因於工作記憶[i]的受損[19][194]。 端視一個注意力不足過動症患者其腦部發展的程度與其所在環境對其執行功能要求的程度的比例,因此有些注意力不足過動症患者可能直到青少年時期甚至是成年期(特別是成年初期)才開始顯露出注意力不足過動症的症狀。[19][21]

注意力不足過動症與在兒童青少年時期缺乏動機相關。兒童青少年注意力不足過動症患者會發現自己比起眼前立即的回饋/酬賞/滿足更難以專注在長遠的目標/回報/回饋/酬賞/滿足,並展現出對於眼前立即的回饋/酬賞/滿足的衝動言行。[195]

治疗

注意力不足過動症患者甚至其家屬可能對自身或患者的問題存有否認心理,包括:高估自己的能力及低估自己的困難、並因此做出不合理的決定(為反對而反對地否認診斷,即便確實有需要仍拒絕接受學習及醫療上的協助、排斥旁人包括醫師、老師、父母與家人的幫忙等)。鼓勵患者甚至其家屬勇於面對注意力不足過動症將使注意力不足過動症的長期預後變得更為樂觀。[27]

  • 目前可用于治疗注意力不足過動症患者的数种方案包括各种医药治疗、行为治療(此節中,非「藥物治療」的療法,可視為行為治療)。
  • 國立臺灣大學醫學院附設醫院-現任基因醫學部、前精神醫學部主任高淑芬強調及早發現並接受治療,絕對是最佳策略。[33][18]
  • 本身也是注意力不足過動症患者的哈洛威爾醫師則建議治療的策略應把握發揚優點、避免缺點的原則。[35]
  • 藥物治療合併行為治療應用行為分析認知行為治療)已證實為當前最有效的注意力不足過動症治療方式。[20][25][26][27][28][29][30][196][30][197]
  • 對於那些難以著眼於長遠報酬(報償、酬賞)的注意力不足過動症患者(傾向著眼於眼前立即回饋的注意力不足過動症患者),大量且持續的正向激勵可以增進患者的任務表現。注意力不足過動症的用藥亦有相同的功效。[184][183]
  • ADHD的治療(包含藥物治療)並非是要將孩子們標準化(一致化)或是控制她們,而是一本教育的初衷,協助每一位孩子發掘、發揚自己的優點、並避免缺點。
實證治療[198][199][200]
下表中的數字為「相對比例」非「絕對比例」
治療模式 整體進步(單位:%百分比)
藥物+行為治療
68
藥物治療
56
行為治療
34
社區治療
25
  • 對於ADHD患者而言,應注意所接受的療法是否受到政府的密切監督以確保符合嚴謹的研究設計及是否奠基於嚴謹實證醫學科學證據、充分研究證據支持療效且符合台灣現行的法律規範;對於政府衛生醫療相關單位而言:應給予足夠資源,強化對弱勢家庭的支持,包括提升親職功能以及家族治療等,以便提供患者更完整有效的醫療模式。[201]
  • 對臨床醫師而言,應向患者及家屬傳達-持續藥物治療對於減少身體傷害有其重要性。研究發現,相較於從未接受藥物治療的患者,接受藥物治療超過180天的ADHD族群,其骨折風險顯著較低,低了將近23%。有接受藥物治療,但總期間不超過180天的患者,其骨折風險與未接受藥物的族群比較起來並無明顯差異,凸顯了藥物治療持續時間的影響。[202]
  • ADHD的多元介入治療包含藥物治療、親職諮商訓練、學校資源教育及社交技巧訓練等各種模式,這些治療模式的效果都有嚴謹而完整的科學研究加以證實。[201]

行為治療

行為治療被認為是對注意力不足過動症孩子進行行為介入具有實證性效果的方法。透過系統化的行為分析,了解孩子犯錯的模式,並且配合後果增強與削弱的方法,以及教導他正確的行為模式,例如:懂得等待、輪流等觀念,減少他衝動、過動而引起的人際衝突、人際互動的情緒調節英语interpersonal emotion regulation情緒管理英语emotion management

專攻注意力不足過動症的認知行為治療,對於治療年紀接近或已經是成人的注意力不足過動症患者來說是有效的。(例如:憤怒管理)、時間管理、改善執行功能(例如:記憶力、計畫能力、計畫執行能力、自我啟發能力、自我體察英语Self-monitoring......等等。)。[36][203][204]

許多ADHD支持團體的存在得以作為許多家庭的正確治療資訊來源而且能協助家庭一起管理ADHD。[205]

對於那些學齡前且僅有些微注意力不足過動症症狀的孩童,已建議「行為治療」為治療該族群的第一線療法。[206] [207] [208]

勇於對鏡自視
家族治療:環境的支持有利於注意力不足過動症的治療[209][210]
治療師會定期與家庭成員會晤以觀察進度並提供持續的支持(左對話框)在會晤中,家長現場實習從治療師那學來的技巧(右對話框)\即便療程結束,家庭成員仍能持續感受到行為的改善以及壓力的減輕(下方橫幅)
*治療師會定期與家庭成員會晤以觀察進度並提供持續的支持(左對話框)。
  • 在會晤中,家長現場實習從治療師那學來的技巧(右對話框)。
  • 即便療程結束,家庭成員仍能持續感受到行為的改善以及壓力的減輕(下方橫幅)。[211]
家長能在父母教育訓練中學到三種核心能力:正向溝通、正向激勵/強化(英语:Reinforcement#Positive_reinforcement)、結構與一致的紀律/規範/規則
家長能在父母教育訓練中學到三種核心能力:正向溝通、正向激勵/強化英语Reinforcement#Positive_reinforcement、結構與一致的紀律/規範/規則[211]
父母教育訓練的進程。
父母教育訓練的進程。[211]
行為方面的治療 簡介
心理教育 醫學實證為根據的療法,用以協助患者以及他的愛人了解疾病的資訊並提供支持,以便讓他們能更有效地面對一個疾病。[212][213]
行為治療 行为治疗家主张心理障碍中表现的异常行为如同正常行为一样是可以习得的,可以通过基本的条件作用原理英语Behaviorism#Operant conditioning学习原理而使心理障碍得到矫正的。[214]
認知行為治療 改變認知的方式,讓孩子們學會以不同的、新的正向想法,來取代原先錯誤的、舊有的負面想法。[34]

對於成人來說,認知行為治療將協助他們改善ADHD的核心症狀—執行功能不足:

  • 時間管理
  • 自我管理
    • 解決問題的能力。
  • 自我激勵/啟發、對生活懷抱樂觀進取之動機。
  • 自我克制
  • 自我情緒的調節。
  • 注意力的管理。
  • 記憶能力。
  • 計劃能力。
  • 正向思維/行為支持和社交能力。

[203]

人際取向心理治療 人際取向的心理治療 的中心思想是「既然人際關係和生活中的大小事能影響心情;那麼反過來,心情也能影響人際關係和生活中的大小事」。[215]
家庭治療英语Family therapy(也稱:家族治療) 當前的證據表明家族治療的效療效類似社區照護且優於完全不治療ADHD。[216]
學校資源介入英语school-based interventions
-
社交技巧訓練 學習與「正涉入違法行為的年輕人/同儕」交朋友對於ADHD孩子來說十分重要,因為這能顯著降低往後人生可能出現的問題,例如:憂鬱症犯罪、在學過程遇到的各種挫折和物質濫用的機率[217]
運用同儕的行為干預英语behavioral peer intervention
-
組織規劃能力與技巧的培養英语organization training
-
生活管理能力與技巧的培養英语Daily living skills training
-
父母管理訓練 父母管理訓練可能直接改善孩子的行為問題,例如:對立反抗的舉止或違抗指令的言行。 [218]
團體心理治療 一群特定人們與治療師透過團體活動達成治療目標的一種心理治療。
生理(神經、腦波)回饋英语Neurofeedback 當前腦波回饋是否有用仍然未知。[219]
行為改正英语Behavior modification 證據表明具有一定益處。[217]
語言治療 台灣的中央健保署自2014年起同意台灣的兒童青少年精神科醫師可以如同復健科醫師耳鼻喉科醫師一般開立「語言治療」的處方。[220]
應用行為分析 先釐清行為與環境之間的交互作用關係後再協助行為改變。[221][222]

 目前對於精神疾患的治療方式是基於生物-心理-社會模式,良好的精神治療模式必須結合生物醫學、心理治療,以及社會復健計畫。

例如:思覺失調症患者在疾病急性發作住院期間,給予藥物協助緩解正性症狀。病房中也會由專業人員,例如:精神科醫師、精神科護理師臨床心理師諮商心理師職能治療師、精神科社工師等,帶領團體治療,或者給予個別治療。而在急性症狀緩解後,患者、家屬和醫療團隊一同討論復健計畫,例如到復健病房、日間留院或者工作坊,透過復健計畫,有效增加病識感(患者對於自身英语self-concept以及自身疾病的認識英语self-consciousness程度)、學習獨立生活能力英语independent living、改善家庭社會關係英语social relation

藥物能幫助注意力不足過動症患者從生理上穩定情緒、增進專注力和組織規劃能力,降低不適當言行的出現。[33]

青少年及成年

對於年紀稍長的注意力不足過動症患者來說,要習得正向的情緒表達方法和社交技巧並養成良好規律且有秩序的生活習慣則有賴患者身體力行,善用認知行為治療的原理。「認知行為治療」分為「認知治療」和「行為治療」兩部分。[33]

認知治療包含:心理建設、正面回饋、衛教、和思考練習來建立正確的觀念和健康的態度、激發改變的動機、鼓舞自信和提升勇氣,遠離負面思考。 行為治療是運用「刺激-反應」的原理,把一個大目標切成許多小目標,並加上正面的酬賞作為鼓勵,幫助患者一步一步的接近小目標,一次又一次的完成小目標,整個大目標即隨之而成。 成功完成某階段的目標後,便可適度提高挑戰性,例如:從「持續做一件事達15分鐘」變成「持續做一件事達30分鐘」以此類推,逐步建立起良好的習慣。最後就可以順利達成連續做一件事情達一個小時的願景[33]。除此之外增加「環境結構」[j]、學習分辨事情的緩急輕重[35]、學習「改善ADHD症狀的實用技巧與策略」[註 6]也是行為治療的主軸,然後再輔以其他行為治療的方式。(其他的行為治療方式並非不重要)

兒童

對於年紀輕輕的小孩來說,由於自我能力有限,因此行為治療以「課堂上的行為治療」及「家中的行為治療」為主,其他的行為治療方式為輔。(其他的行為治療方式並非不重要) [34][223]

學校

學校老師可以多提供「正向動機」,包含:課前提醒和課堂中的鼓勵。而在孩子的座位安排上盡可能減少能讓他/她分心的誘因。允許孩子把作業分批次寫完並在課堂上保留小組討論的時間、與孩子共同討論規範與自由。[34]

課堂外的策略:

  1. 協助孩子找出在特定情境下出現的問題。[34]
  2. 找出孩子正確的行為。譬如說:需要排隊時,他可以乖乖地待在隊伍中;或者先讓孩子在一旁做別的事,等到快輪到孩子時,再來排隊。[34]
  3. 在教師訓練中選擇有教授ADHD相關知識和行為訓練的技巧的課程。[34]
  4. 靈活應用「獎勵制度」及「正增強」來鼓勵/舞 孩子的正向行為。[34]
  5. 與孩子一起找出問題是什麼、該怎麼解決、有哪些好方法、這些好方法中哪個方法「可能」是最好的、實際做做看、實驗結果分析探討。[34]
家庭

ADHD的孩子無論在校內或校外常屬於弱勢的一群,容易被誤會。回家後又容易因為粗心大意挨罵[224]。ADHD孩子與一般孩子一樣努力,想要有好表現,得到讚美;但卻事與願違,他們常常失敗,長期缺乏肯定與成就感。因此容易因情緒壓力而衍生出其他共病。[34] 父母與孩子溝通,彼此交換想法的過程,當如平時一般,心平氣和。憤怒會阻礙親子之間的溝通。[34][225]

運動

    參見:體能訓練 § 運動與大腦神經元的關聯
              體能鍛煉 § 機轉→ 中樞神經系統

適度且規律的運動,特別是有氧運動有助於改善許多中樞神經系統疾患的症狀,也證實為注意力不足過動症的有效附加療法英语add-on treatment[k][226][227][33][228][229][35][36]

長期規律的運動合併正規治療,將有更樂觀的預後(治療效果)-較好的行為以及運動協調性、大腦執行功能的提升(包含大腦認知領域中的:注意力、衝動克制力、和計畫組織的能力)、更快速的資訊處理速度、和更棒的記憶力[226][228][229][35][33][36]

藥物治療

      參見:ADHD的治療藥物、藥品一覽表

藥物可以減少過動、衝動、分心等核心症狀,提升孩子的自制力,讓他們有足夠的能力追尋自己的夢想。另外一方面,藥物並非控制過動症狀,而是治療腦部先天性功能缺陷。一般而言,大部分的副作用均輕微且停藥或減藥即可改善,在醫療中使用,依賴成癮機會亦低。[230] [231] [232][233][234][235][236][237]

ADHD有時可能出現忘記吃藥的情形。[238][239]

中樞神經刺激劑[l]被列為第三級別『管制藥品』的原因在於此藥的的藥理學作用是增加多巴胺在腦部中的濃度,而長期過多的多巴胺濃度將使得大腦逐漸對刺激源產生「生理依賴」。管制的目的在於限制患者能取得的中樞神經刺激劑數量。級別的制定乃考量到藥物過量的後果(例如:產生幻覺等)及相關部門的意見。請參見管制藥品

雖然個案可能常看似已興奮過頭,然而其藥物雖被歸納為興奮劑類[m],但是它們確實有幫助患者們保持平靜的效果。[240] 每個人或多或少都會有分心、過動或衝動等症狀,但這些症狀在ADHD患者上會更為頻繁的出現、症狀的嚴重度更高且影響生活、學業、工作等。一個現象是否達到疾病等級,必須考量到頻率及程度。[241]

有些家長或孩童會以為使用藥物即可解決相關問題,因此對於藥物過度依賴,卻忽略需配合藥物使用的時期,讓孩子學習與接受指導,建立起人際互動、行為管理等技巧。這也讓孩子有機會可以不靠藥物自我管理。[242]

一般來說,以藥物治療ADHD的效果相當顯著。 [29][25] [26] 使用此類藥品的患者,長期治療的預後,超過八成以上可以改善其注意力不集中、衝動與人際衝突的症狀。而且患者的社會性互動及人際關係也都會有改善。[25][26]

近年來,多項國際大型研究表明適當的注意力不足過動症藥物治療可以減少未來意外傷害的機會、降低頭部外傷的風險並且減少物質使用和濫用的機率。[28] [243] [244] [245] [246] [247] [202] [248][249]

台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會指出:「治療ADHD核心症狀時,藥物是絕對不能忽略的治療選項。[28]

ADHD藥物治療能減少ADHD患者(無論是否被診斷出來)身體受傷的發生率[250]

中樞神經刺激劑

治療注意力不足過動症的第一线药物为中樞神經兴奋剂(又名為中樞神經刺激劑),其中包括:

藥物名 藥物(主成分/有效成分)學名 作用時間 生效時間 備註
利他能 哌甲酯[n] 短:3.5小時左右 約服用後30分鐘
  • 安保美喜錠為利他能的副廠藥品。 副廠名:Apotex Incorporation
Adderall 右旋苯丙胺左旋苯丙胺 N/A N/A
Desoxyn 甲基苯丙胺 N/A N/A
  • 為安非他命产品
利他(長)能LA(Ritalin LA/利長能) 哌甲酯 中:8小時左右 約服用後30分鐘
  • 藥物之半衰期介於利他能與專思達之間。有10MG、20MG、30MG、40MG及60MG等劑型。
專思達/專注達 哌甲酯 長:12小時左右 約服用後30分鐘
  • 台灣譯作專思達,有18MG、27MG、36MG、54MG等數種劑量。
  • 中華民國中央健康保險署已經核定醫師可將此藥物作為十八歲以下患者的第一線處方。[251][252]

[253] [254] [255] [256] [33]

利他能[256]、利長能[253]、專思達[255]、安保美喜錠[257] ,所含之有效成分皆為哌甲酯,各自在藥效動力學上具有相同屬性;在藥物代謝動力學上的作用則有些微差異。[258][259][260] 常見的專思達,其12歲以下的使用者每日最大劑量上限為54毫克;13到65歲的使用者之每日最大劑量上限為72毫克。[261][262]

雖中樞神經刺激劑藥效約於服用後半小時左右開始,並不表示症狀會在服用後半小時就消失,如同其他疾病的治療一樣,病情的改善需要一定(段)時間的持續治療(時間長度因人而異)。藥物(包含:中樞神經刺激劑、非中樞神經刺激劑、......)會在這些患者的背後推他們一把,助他們一臂之力[27]。然而,即便如此,患者本身仍需認真努力地改變自己。藥物是注意力不足過動症整體治療的其中一環。[33][35][263]

根據世界反運動禁藥組織,中樞神經刺激劑在未事先申請醫療許可及醫療所需的情況下服用都將被視同違規行為。[264]

部分用來治療注意力不足過動症的藥品(例如:中樞神經刺激劑)在美国食品藥物管理局划分为二级管制藥品(Schedule II,即指有滥用可能性的药品),在台灣則列為第三級管制藥品。[265][266][267][243]

中樞神經刺激劑如同多數藥物一樣,在正確使用下,造成內臟器官受損的機率非常低,但仍建議用藥者應定期追蹤自己的體重心跳血壓[268],研究顯示中樞神經刺激劑造成的心血管作用與其攝取劑量多寡有關[269][270](中樞神經刺激劑的副作用可能有:食慾降低心跳血壓上升等;而輕度、中度的心悸高血壓可能不會被人覺察到,然而長期血壓超越正常範圍可能會導致許多健康問題;食慾降低可能不自覺地引起低血糖,導致心悸等副作用[271][272])。[273][274][275][276][277][278][279][280][281][282]患者第一次用藥前必須先進行全面的心血管功能檢查,以確保患者沒有先天性心臟病或存有任何心血管問題。[283]有研究指出ADHD用藥可能會引起血管硬化,然而尚需更多研究確認,並且也要再確認此現象是否有到臨床上界定需要治療的程度[284][285]

中樞神經刺激劑藥物可能的副作用包含口乾失眠急躁/急性子/靜不下來煩躁食慾降低、體重下降頭痛抖動抽动综合症[286][註 7][287] [288][289];而在不超量使用中樞神經刺激劑藥物的情況下,其引發幻覺偏執心血管問題等嚴重副作用的機率極低,大約千分之一到萬分之一,而且發生的機率和沒有服用藥物的人沒有差異。[290][291][292][290][291][293] 因此期刊整理過去 185個研究(達一萬兩千多人),得到的研究結論是:注意力不足過動症的治療藥物並未增加嚴重副作用風險的機會。相對而言,常被忽略的是未經治療的注意力不足過動症所衍生出的嚴重風險[249](約高達50%)。[294]不過考科藍協作組織於2015年發表的系統性文獻回顧指出,使用中樞神經刺激劑後,像失眠食慾不振等較不嚴重的副作用常出現在服用者身上,並衍生出長期預後的不確定因素[295]

所有用來治療注意力不足過動症的藥物只要依照醫師指示用藥,都是相當安全的。[265][243] [296] 而藥物成分為哌甲酯的中樞神經刺激劑,例如:利他能與專思達,可能導致:心悸、頭痛、胃痛、喪失食慾、失眠、因相對專注而變得冷淡(面無表情)等副作用,因此6歲以下的兒童不適宜將藥物當成第一線療法服用。(副作用產生與否因人而異) [297]

隨著時間推進與各方的努力,中樞神經刺激劑的相關副作用[註 8][註 9]已可藉由包括但不限於劑量調整、服藥時間、飯前飯後服用、服藥頻率等服藥模式之改變以及改變藥物組合等方式獲得相當程度的減少。[298] [299] [300] [243] [301]

於中斷使用中樞神經刺激劑後恢復使用之,可能需要重新從較低的劑量開始逐步增加至理想劑量。[302]


右旋安非他命
禮來公司思銳60毫克膠囊(Lilly Strattera 60mg Capsule)
思銳(Strattera)外盒

非中樞神經刺激劑

數種非中樞神經刺激劑,例如:阿托莫西汀可樂定安非他酮胍法辛,可與中樞神經刺激劑一起使用,也可以作為中樞神經刺激劑的替代方案。[303][304][305]

禮來公司(Eli Lilly)的思銳(Strattera),有效成份為阿托莫西汀[306],與中樞神經刺激劑同樣為治療ADHD的第一線藥物。思銳為非中樞神經刺激藥物(興奮劑),且歸類於選擇性正腎上腺素再回收抑制劑。思銳有六種劑量型,分別為:18MG、25MG、40MG、60MG、80MG和100MG。[306] 「對於年齡小於18歲且體重小於70公斤」的使用者來說「總計每天服用劑量的上限為每公斤1.4 毫克(mg/day)」;對於「年齡大於或等於18歲或年齡小於18歲且體重大於70公斤」的使用者來說「總計每天服用劑量的上限為每天100毫克(mg/day)」。[307]

思銳的副作用相較於中樞神經刺激劑來得輕微許多。思銳主要的副作用有:疲倦、口乾(唾液分泌減少)等[306]。(副作用產生與否因人而異)[306]患者如果對中樞神經刺激劑沒有反應、反應不佳或過敏,可考慮使用阿托莫西汀。患者可向醫生詢問,共同制定一個漸進的劑量法。

思銳的藥效可以持續24小時[308]。思銳從第一天服用開始約需持續服用28至56天(4週到8週)才會完全生效。[309][310] 然而患者或患者周遭的人在這期間便可能逐漸感受到藥效 [311] [312][313][314]。服用者建議定期追蹤監測心律血壓肝功能英语liver function[315],患者第一次用藥前建議先進行全面的心血管功能檢查,以確保患者沒有先天性心臟病或存有任何心血管問題[316]

縱然阿托莫西汀與中樞神經刺激劑同樣為治療ADHD的第一線藥物,然而其對特定症狀改善的程度可能與中樞神經刺激劑不同(兩類藥物各有其長處)。阿托莫西汀在改善「過動-衝動」的症狀上,略優於派甲酯;派甲酯則在改善「分心」的症狀上,略優於阿托莫西汀。[317][318] [319] [320] [321]

而阿托莫西汀與哌甲酯併服的處方尚未經美國食品藥物管理局核可,但醫師會視個案的情況(如共病、預後等)以開仿單標示外使用的方式處方之。[322][323][324][325]在臨床試驗中,並未發現兩者併服後產生加乘的心血管副作用。換言之,兩者併服之心血管作用,與單獨服用哌甲酯所產生的心血管作用相同。[326]

可樂定胍法新英语guanfacine皆為非中樞神經刺激劑、α2腎上腺素受體英语alpha-2 adrenergic receptor刺激劑/促進劑/活化劑 的一員;與哌甲酯併用或單獨服用都有顯著療效,其中兩藥物併服:可樂定或胍法新與哌甲酯或安非他命合併使用的療效優於單獨服用任意一者。[註 10] [298] [327] [328] [329] [330] [331]

請注意:

  1. 美國食品藥物管理局已證明數起曾因為併服:可樂定、胍法新、哌甲酯或安非他命而致命的個案群與四种药物本身並無關聯。[332]
  2. 美國兒童青少年精神醫學會英语American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry期刊》所刊登之論文,「可樂定或胍法新與哌甲酯或安非他命合併使用的療效優於單獨服用任意一者」的結論是立基於使用「長效可樂定或胍法新」作為臨床實驗過程中的試驗物。[329][298][327][330]
藥品學名 藥物類別(屬性) 作用時間 備註
阿托莫西汀 (思銳)[註 11] 選擇性正腎上腺素再回收抑制劑、非中樞神經刺激劑(非興奮劑) 5.2小時 [334][314][335][336]
-
可樂定 [註 12] alpha 2 腎上腺素受體刺激劑/促進劑/激動劑/激活劑/活化劑、非中樞神經刺激劑(非興奮劑) 2-4 小時 [338][339] [340][341][342]
胍法新英语guanfacine alpha 2 腎上腺素受體刺激劑/促進劑/激動劑/激活劑/活化劑、非中樞神經刺激劑(非興奮劑) 4-8 小時[338]
  • 已經可在中國大陸取得。[345]

選擇性血清素再回收抑制劑、選擇性血清素及正腎上腺素再回收抑制劑(SSNRI, Selective Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor)等俗稱抗憂鬱劑的介入可能對於某些個案病情的改善亦有幫助。[346] [84]

安非他酮國際非專利藥品名稱Bupropion[註 13])是菸鹼拮抗劑和較微弱的去甲腎上腺素-多巴胺再吸收抑制劑:一种主要作为抗抑郁药和戒烟药使用的药物、也可用作治療注意力不足過動症的第二線藥品與中樞神經刺激劑合併使用,或作為中樞神經刺激劑的替代方案。[347] [348] [349] [303] [350]

充足的睡眠

充足的睡眠能提升學習力與專注力,也能讓身體得到足夠的休養。正常的生長激素分泌有賴規律及足夠的睡眠[351][352]。研究指出,台灣孩子的睡眠時數相較其他國家,少了大約一個半小時[353][34][354]。足夠的睡眠能讓有ADHD的孩子更專注、更能自我控制 [355]。相形之下,睡眠不足連帶使得身體與精神狀況不佳,情緒較容易低落,形成惡性循環。[356][357][358] 注意力不足過動症往往直接導致患者「難以入睡」、「即便入睡,也難以持續多久」,這與注意力不足過動症所導致的「內在和外在的不安寧」[註 14]有關。研究指出,「規律」的睡眠有助於提升睡眠品質,良好的睡眠品質會有較好的精神且能改善注意力不足過動症的症狀。治療ADHD或許能改善患者的睡眠品質;同理,改善睡眠品質或許能改善ADHD的症狀。[359] [360]

飲食

健康及均衡的飲食(食物飲用水飲料)有助於病情的改善。維生素(例如:維他命B群維他命C等)對於改善病情的功效,有待更多的實驗證明。即便如此,成人注意力不足過動患者適度補充水溶性的維生素是合理的。[361][註 15]

飲食的調整可能對少部份的ADHD兒童有幫助[365],一份2013年的統合分析針對有ADHD症狀,而且有補充游離脂肪酸或是減少食用有人工色素食品的兒童的相關研究發現,只有不到的兒童在症狀上有改善[170],這方面的助益有可能只是對有食物敏感的兒童有幫助,也有可能是這些兒童同時也在接受ADHD的治療[170],這些已發表的文獻也發現目前已有的證據無法支持減少食用特定食物來治療ADHD的療法[170]。2014年發表的文獻也發現排除饮食在治療ADHD上的成效有限[366],另一個2016年發表的文獻不鼓勵用无麸质饮食作為主要治療ADHD的方式[102]

鐵、鎂及碘等礦物質的攝取也可以改善ADHD的症狀[367],有一些證據指出身體組織內的成份過低和其ADHD症狀有關[368],不過一般不建議用補充鋅礦物質的方式來治療ADHD,只有在有鋅缺乏的地區(幾乎只會在開發中國家)才建議補充鋅礦物質[369]。不過若鋅礦物質和苯丙胺類藥物同時使用的話,會減低苯丙胺藥物的最小有效劑量,也就是可以服用較少的藥物而達到相同的效果[370]。另有證據指出Omega3-脂肪酸能提供對於病情些許的改善[371],不過也有證據指出其功效非常有限[372][373],因此不建議用Omega3-脂肪酸來取代醫學治療[374][375] [200]

音樂

音樂治療或可增加注意力不足過動症及自閉症亞斯伯格症(ASD)患者的腦部特定神經連結並使得預後更加樂觀。[33][376]

教育疗法

Eric (2001)所做的一项对老师进行的调查,該調查研究了「有『哪些课堂方法』正在被实施」,并能帮助提高注意力困难儿童上课时的注意力。教师们发现活动是最有效的方法。在坐的过程中提供活动可以提供持续的活动输入,而不用频繁的离开座位。 [377]

職能治療

職能治療方面的文献建议,在教室中采用动态座位系统英语Active_sitting[註 16]是可以改善学生感觉调节和注意力的一种方法。[378][379][380]

職能治療師能協助患者運用職能治療技巧讓生活變得更有組織、規律、計畫、對於時間有更有效的管理[381]

間接醫療協助 (社會資源協助)

台灣

除了在醫療、教育場所接受直接的醫療照護外,中華民國中央政府及地方政府亦下轄衛生福利部-社會及家庭署、衛生福利部-1957福利需求諮詢評估專線[382] [383]及社會局、衛生局等 [384] [385],彙整對於弱勢者社會支持的資源,以便讓這些患者能在接受直接醫療協助時無後顧之憂。

除此之外,特殊教育學校能協助具備特殊需求的孩子們在適當的環境中成長、茁壯。[386]   民間亦有許多特殊教育的支持團體及ADHD的社群。(例如:社團法人台灣赤子心過動症協會社團法人心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會[387] [388] [389][390] [391]。於高等教育的部分,許多大學設有特殊教育學系及特殊教育中心 [392] [393] [394] [395] [396] [397]。其他與心理衛生照護相關之政府部門為:衛生福利部-護理及健康照護司、衛生福利部-心理及口腔衛生司 [398] [399]

鑒於網路世代的來臨,中華民國的教育部成立了台灣特殊教育資訊網、特殊教育通報網、身心障礙職業教育資源網站協助具有相關需求之學生。[400] [401] [402]中華民國中央政府下設之勞動部則涵蓋了各族群的勞動統計。 [403]
中華民國立法院則設立了身心障礙者權益保障法以維護相關弱勢族群的生活。 [404]

中國大陸

一群对“注意缺陷多动障碍”诊断和治疗拥有丰富经验和学识的心理咨询师、医生、教师,自愿自发的组成一个针对“注意缺陷障碍”的非盈利性的组织-“中国注意缺陷障碍组织”,为儿童及其家长提供各种信息和帮助。 [405] [406] [407]

香港

  • 一群有《專注力不足/過度活躍症》兒童的家長,為了喚起社會大眾對這些學童的認識和關注,及推動有關專業人士對《專注力不足/過度活躍症》作進一步的研究與探討,於2006年成立協會,並於2013年把協會成功註冊為非牟利慈善團體。[408]
  • 一群專業人員和熱心人士發起的非牟利組織專注力促進會,於2005年在香港成立,旨在提高公眾對專注力失調及/或者過度活躍症的關注和認識,以促進患者得到平等的教育和發展機會。[409]

澳門

專注不足過度活躍症(澳門)協會是澳門關注專注不足過度活躍症的協會,在2014年2月正式成立,協會目的是推動社會大衆對專注力失調或過度活躍症(AD/HD)學童的了解、關注、包容[410]

韓國

  • 韓國的校園精神衛生服務系統,兒童青少年精神科醫師佔有主導的角色,並且這幾年來分別建立ADHD研究中心,自閉症研究中心,及其他兒童心理健康相關的研究中心。[411][412]
  • 韓國有校園心理健康法,自2007年開始明文規定每年必須做一次全國性每一位篩選,自2013年間簡化成階段進行每年學生心理健康篩檢。[411]
  • 韓國的老師每年必須接受40小時的精神疾病繼續教育英语Continuing education[註 17],是由兒童精神科醫師規劃。[411]

台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會在2017年年會的新聞稿中表示:「韓國兩個國家級的心理衛生健康研究中心(注意力不足過動症與自閉症)為例,該中心可以完整的收集個人、家庭、學校以及生活環境中與心理、社會及生物學相關的資料,且進行長期追蹤。這些寶貴的資料,不僅可以奠定協助個人及家庭更好的基礎,更有助於醫學研究的發展暨國家政策的擬定與執行。」[411]

新加坡

  • 新加坡政府新特殊教育學生的支援計畫始於2005年,計畫內容包括在派令教師接受特殊教育訓練並在校內配置特殊教育的專業人員。[413]
  • 持續發展、執行、觀察、評估特殊教育學生的需求是否有被滿足。[414]
  • 新加坡的衛生當局曾在2014年開會討論ADHD的治療策略。[413]
    策略內容涵蓋:藥物治療、行為治療、學校支援、父母支持[413]

[註 18] (英文)

國際社會

將每年的十月訂為「ADHD意識之月(ADHD Awareness Month)」,以加強社會大眾對於注意力不足過動症的意識[416]

流行病學

國際ADHD流行率[o]中位數,兒童為6-8%,成人為3-5%。[417]研究顯示美國一年因注意力不足過動症損失高達近40億美金,其中即包括父母的工作損失[22]。ADHD是全球性的問題。[30][418]

美國的數據

截至2011年底,大約11%的4-17歲的兒童與青少年被診斷出注意力不足過動症[419]。11%換算後約為640萬的兒童與青少年。[419] 診斷出有ADHD的男童在比例上比女童約高出兩倍。對於這個性別上差異的成因,目前仍然未知確切原因。不過,有專家指有可能由於女童的病症普遍與男童不同,因此在診斷時亦同時較男童難於察覺,所以較少讓家長及老師發現而作出轉介。[59] [60]

台灣的數據

  • ADHD在台灣兒童暨青少年的患病率約為7%至7.5%。依據衛生福利部中央健保署之健保資料庫[420]的資料顯示,兒童就醫者大約是2.3%至2.5%左右。兒童及青少年ADHD的就醫比率不到一半,也就是有超過一半患有注意力不足過動症的兒童及青少年沒有接受相關治療。[33][421]
  • ADHD在台灣成人的盛行率推估為一百個成人中大約有四位(4%)左右的ADHD成人患者。根據健保資料庫的資料顯示:18歲至50歲成人,曾診斷為ADHD的比率為0.057%。[33]

中國大陸的數據

根据最新2016年中國大陸的流行病学调研(調查研究),中國大陸儿童與青少年的ADHD患病率是6.26% (95% 信賴區間: 5.36–7.22%),这意味着中國大陸有數千万小於十八歲的未成年患有多动症。[422]

ADHD在香港兒童與青少年的流行率約落在5%至7%之間。[423] ADHD在澳門的流行率與國際盛行率相仿。[424]

西班牙的數據

ADHD在西班牙未成年族群中的盛行率約為6.8%。[425]

韓國的數據

注意力不足過動症在南韓成人族群(18歲以上)的盛行率大約為 4.4%。而此症在南韓的兒童及青少年族群的盛行率與西方國家的數據大致相同。[426]

日本的數據

日本的學齡族群中(6-18歲)中,注意力不足過動症的盛行率約為7%。[427]

歷史

關於ADHD治療、診斷標準及流行率的時間軸.

1798年時蘇格蘭醫師亞歷山大·克里奇頓英语Alexander Crichton在其著作《對精神紊亂的性質和起源的探究》(An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement)中提到了精神不安[428][429],1902年,英國兒科醫生George Still英语George Frederic Still首次描述一項與注意力不足過動症近似的病徵[430][431]

不同的時期,描述注意力不足過動症的名詞也有所不同:在1952年的DSM-I稱為微細腦功能失常,在1968年的DSM-II則稱為兒童活动亢进,在1980年的DSM-III稱為注意力不足症(可能伴隨過動,也可能沒有)英文為 attention-deficit disorder (ADD) with or without hyperactivity[431],在1987年的DSM-III-R更名為注意力不足過動症,在1994年的DSM-IV將注意力不足過動症分為注意力散渙主導型英语Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive、活動量過多型以及混合型[432],在2013年的DSM-5仍延用此一分類[13]。其他的名詞有在1930年代使用的微細腦創傷[433],但因為不少病童都沒有發覺有受過任何創傷,因此後來改名為微細腦功能失常。

1937年時,神經刺激劑開始用在注意力不足過動症的治療[434]。1934年時美國許可將苯丙胺用在注意力不足過動症治療,是美國第一個許可的安非他命類藥物[435],1950年代開始使用哌甲酯(商品名稱為利他能),1970年代則開始使用对映异构右苯丙胺[431]

社會與文化

治療方式的爭議

自1970年代開始,注意力不足過動症疾病本身、其診斷及醫療在歐美就已經是有爭議性的議題。爭議和臨床醫師、教師、政策訂定者、家長及媒體有關。世界衛生組織也認可治療ADHD兒童時,先進行非藥物治療再進行藥物治療的作法[436][437],但各觀點對注意力不足過動症的認知差異很大。

有的觀點認為注意力不足過動症是正常行為的範圍內,也有的假定注意力不足過動症是一種遺傳疾病。其他有關注意力不足過動症的爭議包括對兒童用(合理劑量的)中樞神經刺激劑(俗稱興奮劑)藥物進行治療、診斷的方式,以及是否有過度診斷英语Overdiagnosis的情形。有些宗教對治療方式也會有不同的認知,例如公民人權委員會山達基在1969年成立的反精神醫學團體)曾在1980年代提出反對使用利他能的運動,目前該組織的立場仍是不主張用中樞神經刺激劑處方治療ADHD[438]

台灣

極少部分台灣的中醫師[439]、非精神科專科的醫師[註 19]、社會學派學者[440]作家[註 19]山達基教[439]及其附屬組織:新生活教育中心無毒世界基金會公民人權基金會[註 20]中華國際人權促進會等對於現有ADHD的治療策略(涵蓋藥物及非藥物治療)不以為然,認為西藥有毒又有副作用[439]、『ADHD用藥診斷是藥廠醫療的利益』、「質疑『注意力不足/過動症(AD/HD)』的存在性與真實性」、不符醫學實證比例地過度強調某些改善注意力不足過動症症狀的方式、或將疾病現象的研討訴諸以情緒性、故事性的文字而非科學的、知識性的探討,使整個對話往往失去焦點。[440] 坊間亦有商人等宣傳自費保健食品、花精皂[註 21]、人造磁鐵、自然/天然療法 、營養食譜/處方等試驗者、提倡者、成分、短中長期之安全性、有效性、科學根據、官方認證等皆不明的療法。也有人認為ADHD及其藥物在台灣有被過度診斷、過度治療與濫用之虞,然而,台灣兒童及青少年患有ADHD之盛行率約介於7%至7.5%,全世界的平均值約為7.2%(95% 信賴區間:6.7 to 7.8)[417],兩者並無顯著差異。根據健保資料庫,小於18歲之ADHD患者求診率約2.3%至2.5%,用藥率約1.6%[441],約1%的患者接受足夠時間的完整治療[20][238] 。注意力不足過動症在台灣其實反而有低度診斷的情形[442][443]

「還孩子做自己行動聯盟」[註 22]則是對於注意力不足過動症的治療方式表達關切[註 23],然而過程中曾引發一些爭議[註 19]天下文化曾經在官方臉書帳號發文轉述洪蘭教授的個人意見,引起專家學者強力批判而自行撤文。[444] 許多精神科醫師為了因應一股「因為對於疾病『片面』的了解」、「患者無法接受部分醫師缺乏專業素養的對待」[197][445]、或純粹「為反對而反對」所引起的反精神病學浪潮而發文澄清 [sources 1] 。 對此,國立臺灣大學醫學院附設醫院-精神科主治醫師高淑芬及臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會回應指出,對注意力不足過動症治療想法可以很多元,但介入方式必需要有科學證據及嚴謹的研究設計,包括對象治療多久,都應受到密切監督且應正視未經治療的注意力不足過動症可能衍生出的風險[439] [448][243][294]

臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會並在其官方公告發布數篇新聞稿[28][449][450][451][452],其內容除涵蓋對於當前治療策略的明確釋疑外,亦重申有科學根據、通過臨床試驗、獲得政府安全許可的把關才是一個療法對患者人生負責任的體現。[34][294]

 參見:對於注意力不足過動症(ADHD)及其治療方式的不同論點

中國大陸

目前注意力不足過動症的治療策略(涵蓋藥物及非藥物治療)已成為中國大陸的相關醫學指南 [453],中國大陸的多动症关爱协会指出:「中國大陸对『注意力缺陷多动障碍』的诊断、治疗尚不规范,家长的认知亦不够全面,导致社会上仍有很多不科学的治疗方式和训练方法在被家长们使用。」[406]

醫病關係

許多兒童青少年精神科醫師在門診時,所做的事不只是開藥,也包括心理治療心理教育,甚至包括家庭相關的工作,常常因此造成門診英语Outpatient clinic (hospital department)的時間不夠用[454]

當前之環境與方向

考科藍協作組織於2015年發表的系統性文獻回顧指出,雖然中樞神經刺激劑不會帶給服用者嚴重的副作用,但其相對不嚴重的副作用,比如說:失眠、食慾不振則較常出現在服用者身上,並衍生出長期預後的不確定因素,因此探討如何解決前述的副作用將是未來必要的研究重點。與此同時,對於「非藥物治療方式」的深入研究以及對於可能的「非藥物治療方式」之隨機對照試驗,也將是迫切需要的。[455][295]

台灣

從學術研究的視角來探討,相較於鄰近國家對於注意力不足過動症、自閉症的研究諸如:注意力不足過動症、自閉症、孩童青少年情緒行為問題之研究、臨床醫療、校園教育、家庭的實際整合評估介入、相關因素背後的成因機轉英语Mechanism_(biology)危險因子、多元介入的成效、病程預後等研究的支持(例如:挹注特別經費,成立自閉症及注意力不足過動症研究中心,以建立本土化之基礎研究、轉譯研究、臨床研究與服務之整合模式),台灣對上述研究的支持力道仍顯不足。[201][456][457] 就臺灣的醫療層面探討:目前兒童青少年精神醫療相關專業人力(比如說:兒童青少年精神科專科醫師臨床心理師、社工師、職能治療師等)資源仍相當缺乏,城鄉差距仍然頗大,以致許多兒童青少年的精神醫療需求(包括:注意力不足過動症的行為治療)無法被滿足。究因包括:健保結構/給付制度不夠合理、整體醫療規畫不足等問題。故合理調整兒童青少年精神醫療相關健保給付,並更進一步完善規劃兒童青少年精神醫療合理人力配置與專業人員之培育,是刻不容緩的要務。[201][456] 由於一個個案的健保給付過低,使得醫師只能增加看診人數來提高收入。因此醫師分配給每個病患的時間有限,自然難以做詳細的評估。[456][457][註 22]

教育層面而言,在校園與教育場所中,有心理衛生需求或是有嚴重行為情緒問題的學生,在校園常無法得到友善、妥善、合理的對待,究因包括:社會文化對於心理問題的負面標記[458]、教師教學不良、心理輔導相關之執行人力與經費資源不足。故積極提升師生心理健康人權之正確認知與辨識能力、落實校園心理健康促進、充實校園心理輔導人力與增加相關教育經費,是迫切需要的。[201][456][457][411]

除此之外,根據衛生福利部心理與口腔衛生司的資料,台灣在精神醫療照護上存在的盲點另有:

  • 治療模式發展及處遇效能尚待精進。[459]
  • 社區居住與就學、就業服務需積極發展。[459]
  • 權益保障及去污名化待精進。[459][457][460][註 24][註 25]
  • 病人分級方式與連續性照護模式尚待改善。[459]
  • 精神病人的社區化照護仍需加強發展。[459]

中國大陸、香港

中國大陸地區“注意力疾病”的诊断和治疗尚不完備,很多不科学的方式和方法依然在社会上使用。[405]

香港特別行政區則遇到特教需求的識別及輪流服務的等候時間過長、資源及服務不足、教師人手不足及培訓有待改善、醫校社合作不順暢以及政府未有整體支援特教學生的政策藍圖及願景的問題。目前正在推動特殊教育進行立法,以全面保障特殊教育需要學生的權利。[462]

美國

美國精神醫療環境持續進步中,然而注意力不足過動症患者接受行為治療的比例仍然太低。 [31]

2017年美國政府撥出一億美金用於支持兒童與青少年常見精神疾病的研究:如何提供自閉症者更好的治療、其他兒童心理精神疾病(包括ADHD在內)的病理學生理學等。[463]

備註

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 心理測驗只是進一步各種測驗的一種選項,非一定選項。
  2. ^ 沒有ADHD的人
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 兒童青少年精神疾病,例如:注意力不足過動症、 自閉症等乃至成人注意力不足過動症、成人自閉症等,為台灣兒童青少年精神科醫師培訓過程中的重點科目。
  4. ^ *
  5. ^ 神經通道(neuro-pathway)等同 神經路徑(neuro-pathway)
  6. ^ 在《找回專注力 成人ADHD全方位自助手冊》中,「改善ADHD症狀的實用技巧與策略」涵蓋:創造有助於專注的環境與內在策略、強化記憶力的妙方、時間管理、改善衝動問題與人際關係、學習表達和傾聽、改善情緒、改善與親人與情人的關係等。[33]
  7. ^ See Obsessive–compulsive_spectrum#Tic_disorders英语Obsessive–compulsive_spectrum#Tic_disorders
  8. ^ 「常見副作用」的定義為:在臨床試驗中,實驗組中至少5%的人出現此症狀,且在實驗組中出現此反應的比例為安慰組的兩倍。
  9. ^ 「較少見的副作用」的定義為:在臨床試驗中,實驗組中至少2%的人出現此症狀,且在實驗組中出現此反應的比例多於安慰組。
  10. ^ 延伸閱讀:腎上腺素受體、α2腎上腺素受體
  11. ^ 膠囊必須整顆與開水或其他液體一起吞服。其他注意事項請詳閱藥品說明書。[333]
  12. ^ 請注意:
    • 除非經醫師評估後允許,否則在服用Clonidine期間切勿攝取酒精及其他與clonidine藥效相似皆會增加睡意的物質、藥物。
    • 不要在服用Clonidine期間駕車、操作機械或從事具危險性的活動,除非服藥者已明白且熟悉Clonidine對自己帶來的各種影響。
    • 避免讓自己脫水及中暑。

      clonidine常見的副作用為:
    1. 較低的血壓及心跳速率
    2. 想睡覺。 [337]
  13. ^ 舊名:amfebutamone
  14. ^ 或稱心理與身體無法保持安寧。 無法專心睡覺。
  15. ^ 攝取過多的維他命可能產生健康問題。[362]例如:長期且高劑量的攝取維他命B6維他命B12可能導致肺癌[363][364]
  16. ^ 參見彈性座位的教室英语flexible seating_classrooms
  17. ^ 請參考教育歷程一覽表終身學習、和終身教育
  18. ^ 請參見:世界各地的精神醫學會(英文)[415]
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 受到質疑的當事人則在事後一個多月發布聲明稿表達個人立場。王醫師也於幾天後於個人臉書發布貼文回應該篇聲明稿。
  20. ^ 公民人權基金會的別名有:公民人權委員會
  21. ^ 例如:(宣稱多搭配此香皂洗手可治療ADHD)
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 還孩子做自己行動聯盟聯盟發起人-李佳燕 是一名家庭醫學科醫師
  23. ^ 該行動聯盟主張「以孩子為主體,傾聽孩子的想法,而不是大人的認知與要求」
  24. ^ 譬如說:患者可能礙於世俗眼光而不敢承認自己有精神疾病;但是當遇上像是發燒、感冒、流鼻水、肚子痛等疾病時,就不會畏懼說出口。
  25. ^ 也有ADHD患者透過寫書評來表達希望社會不要對精神疾病患者投以主觀的道德審判。[461]

注释

  1. ^ 即多動、過度活躍
  2. ^ 就是 盛行率、患(罹)病率
  3. ^ 即為一致化
  4. ^ 又做自我管理能力
  5. ^ Adult Self-Report Survey
  6. ^ 表示該論文為Zametkin等人於1990年所發表
  7. ^ traumatic brain injury 也稱為「創傷性腦損傷」
  8. ^ 也可當作是「團體、組織」
  9. ^ 此處的「工作記憶」等同「短期記憶」
  10. ^ 減少環境中的分心誘因。
  11. ^ 即表示可附加在現有具備科學實證且能在統計學上達到顯著意義之有效改善症狀的醫學療法。
  12. ^ 又名中樞神經活化劑、中樞神經興奮劑、興奮劑
  13. ^ 也就是中樞神經刺激劑類
  14. ^ 也稱為:派醋甲酯
  15. ^ 就是 盛行率、患(罹)病率

参考文献

書目

參考資料

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. National Institute of Mental Health. 2016-03 [2016-03-05]. (原始内容存档于2016-07-23). ADHD management recommendations vary by country and usually involve some combination of counseling, lifestyle changes, and medications. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Symptoms and Diagnosis. Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Division of Human Development, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014-09-29 [2014-11-03]. (原始内容存档于2014-11-07). 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Dulcan, Mina K.; Lake, MaryBeth. Axis I Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence: Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders. Concise Guide to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 4th illustrated. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2011: 34. ISBN 978-1-58562-416-4 –通过Google Books. 
  4. ^ NIMH » Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): The Basics. NIMH » Home. [2017-07-26]. (原始内容存档于2017-07-28). 
  5. ^ Ferri, Fred F. Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Mosby. 2010: Chapter A. ISBN 0323076998. 
  6. ^ GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence, Collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.. Lancet. 2016-10-08, 388 (10053): 1545–1602. PMC 5055577可免费查阅. PMID 27733282. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. 
  7. ^ 嘉義長庚精神科副教授級主治醫師、教育部部定副教授 陳錦宏 醫師. 台灣心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會理事長陳錦宏醫師 敬上. Tc-adhd.com. 2015-04-18 [2016-12-09]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-24) (中文(臺灣)). 理事長的話:在這場演講,協會提出第一個主張,我們主張將ADHD原本「過動兒」的中文稱呼改為「心動兒」,因為ADHD包含沒有過動症狀的不專心兒童,「過動兒」常令人混淆,另外過動兒文字本身即包含負面意涵,而心動兒無此字義上的問題。 
  8. ^ 康健雜誌 過動兒現象如何避免被以偏概全 陳錦宏 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2017-09-24.
  9. ^ Sroubek, A; Kelly, M; Li, X. Inattentiveness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuroscience Bulletin. 2013-02, 29 (1): 103–10. PMC 4440572可免费查阅. PMID 23299717. doi:10.1007/s12264-012-1295-6. 
  10. ^ Caroline, SC (编). Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology. Springer Science & Business Media. 2010: 133. ISBN 9780387717982. (原始内容存档于2016-05-06). 
  11. ^ Brain differences in ADHD -- ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily. 2018-03-08 [2018-03-08]. 
  12. ^ Hoogman, Martine; Bralten, Janita; Hibar, Derrek P; Mennes, Maarten; Zwiers, Marcel P; Schweren, Lizanne S J; van Hulzen, Kimm J E; Medland, Sarah E; Shumskaya, Elena; Jahanshad, Neda; Zeeuw, Patrick de; Szekely, Eszter; Sudre, Gustavo; Wolfers, Thomas; Onnink, Alberdingk M H; Dammers, Janneke T; Mostert, Jeanette C; Vives-Gilabert, Yolanda; Kohls, Gregor; Oberwelland, Eileen; Seitz, Jochen; Schulte-Rüther, Martin; Ambrosino, Sara; Doyle, Alysa E; Høvik, Marie F; Dramsdahl, Margaretha; Tamm, Leanne; van Erp, Theo G M; Dale, Anders; Schork, Andrew; Conzelmann, Annette; Zierhut, Kathrin; Baur, Ramona; McCarthy, Hazel; Yoncheva, Yuliya N; Cubillo, Ana; Chantiluke, Kaylita; Mehta, Mitul A; Paloyelis, Yannis; Hohmann, Sarah; Baumeister, Sarah; Bramati, Ivanei; Mattos, Paulo; Tovar-Moll, Fernanda; Douglas, Pamela; Banaschewski, Tobias; Brandeis, Daniel; Kuntsi, Jonna; Asherson, Philip; Rubia, Katya; Kelly, Clare; Martino, Adriana Di; Milham, Michael P; Castellanos, Francisco X; Frodl, Thomas; Zentis, Mariam; Lesch, Klaus-Peter; Reif, Andreas; Pauli, Paul; Jernigan, Terry L; Haavik, Jan; Plessen, Kerstin J; Lundervold, Astri J; Hugdahl, Kenneth; Seidman, Larry J; Biederman, Joseph; Rommelse, Nanda; Heslenfeld, Dirk J; Hartman, Catharina A; Hoekstra, Pieter J; Oosterlaan, Jaap; Polier, Georg von; Konrad, Kerstin; Vilarroya, Oscar; Ramos-Quiroga, Josep Antoni; Soliva, Joan Carles; Durston, Sarah; Buitelaar, Jan K; Faraone, Stephen V; Shaw, Philip; Thompson, Paul M; Franke, Barbara. Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: a cross-sectional mega-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2017, 4 (4): 310–319. ISSN 2215-0366. doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30049-4. 
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013: 59–65. ISBN 0890425558. 
  14. ^ Symptoms and Diagnosis. Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Division of Human Development, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014-09-29 [2014-11-03]. (原始内容存档于2014-11-07). 
  15. ^ Sibley, Margaret H.; Swanson, James M.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Hechtman, Lily T.; Owens, Elizabeth B.; Stehli, Annamarie; Abikoff, Howard; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Molina, Brooke S. G.; Mitchell, John T.; Jensen, Peter S.; Howard, Andrea L.; Lakes, Kimberley D.; Pelham, William E. Defining ADHD symptom persistence in adulthood: optimizing sensitivity and specificity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2016. ISSN 0021-9630. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12620. 
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 Margaret H. Sibley, James M. Swanson, L. Eugene Arnold, Lily T. Hechtman, Elizabeth B. Owens, Annamarie Stehli, Howard Abikoff, Stephen P. Hinshaw, Brooke S. G. Molina, John T. Mitchell, Peter S. Jensen, Andrea L. Howard, Kimberley D. Lakes & William E. Pelham. Defining ADHD symptom persistence in adulthood: optimizing sensitivity and specificity. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines. 2016-09. PMID 27642116. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12620. CONCLUSION:The interview format optimizes young adult self-reporting when parent reports are not available. However, the combination of parent and self-reports from rating scales, using an 'or' rule and a NB threshold optimized the balance between sensitivity and specificity. With this definition, 60% of the ADHD group demonstrated symptom persistence and 41% met both symptom and impairment criteria in adulthood. 
  17. ^ Signs and symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, National Institute of Mental Health.. nimh.nih.gov. National Institute of mental health. 2013-03 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-29) (英语). Many adolescents with ADHD also struggle with relationships and antisocial behaviors. Inattention, restlessness, and impulsivity tend to persist into adulthood. Symptoms of ADHD can be mistaken for emotional or disciplinary problems or missed entirely in quiet, well-behaved children, leading to a delay in diagnosis. Adults with undiagnosed ADHD may have a history of poor academic performance, problems at work, or difficult or failed relationships. 
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 蔣丙煌; 陳快樂; 國立臺灣大學醫學院附設醫院精神醫學部; 張雍敏、鄭淑心、賴淑玲、傅悅娟、張景瑞、侯育銘、郭約瑟、張君威、鄧惠文、陳嘉新、紀雪雲、黃雅文、連玉如、連盈如、吳其炘; 高淑芬&陳劭芊. 注意力不足過動症 (PDF). 衛生福利部精神疾病衛教叢書 02 First. Taipei: 中華民國衛生福利部. 2015-06: 19-20. ISBN 9789860454154. (原始内容存档于2017-02-19) (中文(臺灣)). 藉由成人 ADHD 的回顧性研究或是長期追蹤研究可發現,孩童時期的 ADHD 患者,在成年後僅有 2 成左右的人完全沒有症狀、另外有 2 成有輕微不致干擾的症狀,其餘近 6 成的人雖然症狀較孩童時期有所減輕,但仍達到生活顯著困擾程度。不只是ADHD的核心症狀,許多次發症狀或是共病,並不會隨著年紀增長而減少或是消失,甚至產生長久的負面影響(物質濫用依賴、慢性焦慮憂鬱等)。除了再度說明 ADHD 是一個長期慢性的神經發展疾病以外,也讓我們發現,如果早期了解 ADHD,給予合適的治療介入時,孩童長期的預後將會大有不同。 
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 Brown TE. ADD/ADHD and Impaired Executive Function in Clinical Practice. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2008-10, 10 (5): 407–411. PMID 18803914. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 嘉義長庚精神科副教授級主治醫師、教育部部定副教授 陳錦宏 醫師. 心動家族:注意力不足過動症ADHD的第三條路. 台灣心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會. Tc-adhd.com. 2016-12-13 [2017-02]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-24) (中文(臺灣)). 
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, course, assessment, and diagnosis. UpToDate. 2016-11-03 [2017-10-29]. (原始内容存档于2017-10-30). Some adults present with impairment in a clinical setting only later in life when they confront new and increasingly complex tasks that characterize adulthood and that cannot be managed with their existing neuropsychological repertoire. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 陳錦宏 醫師. 【誤解下的小孩】:談注意力不足/過動症 - 陳錦宏醫師. 社團法人台灣心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會. 2012-07-09 [2017-02-16]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-24). 
  23. ^ ADHD symptom persistence into adulthood estimated. Science News. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2016. 2016-10-20 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-02) (英语). There has been a lot of recent controversy over whether children with ADHD continue to experience symptoms into adulthood," said Dr. Margaret Sibley, lead author of the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry study. "This study found that the way you diagnose ADHD can lead to different conclusions about whether or not an adult still has the disorder that started in childhood. First, if you ask the adult about their continued symptoms, they will often be unaware of them; however, family members or others who know them well often confirm that they still observe significant symptoms in the adult." Dr. Sibley added that if the classic childhood definition of ADHD is used when diagnosing adults, many cases will be missed because symptom presentation changes in adulthood. "By asking a family member about the adult's symptoms and using adult-based definitions of the disorder, you typically find that around half of children with moderate to severe ADHD still show significant signs of the disorder in adulthood. 
  24. ^ 高淑芬 2016. 找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 心靈工坊, 台北. "成人ADHD的診斷"章節
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Chan, Eugenia; Fogler, Jason M.; Hammerness, Paul G. Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Adolescents. JAMA. 2016, 315 (18): 1997. ISSN 0098-7484. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.5453. Findings Sixteen randomized clinical trials and 1 meta-analysis, involving 2668 participants, of pharmacological and psychosocial treatments for ADHD in adolescents aged 12 years to 18 years were included. Evidence of efficacy was stronger for the extended-release methylphenidate and amphetamine class stimulant medications (level 1B based on Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine criteria) and atomoxetine than for the extended-release α2-adrenergic agonists guanfacine or clonidine (no studies). For the primary efficacy measure of total symptom score on the ADHD Rating Scale (score range, 0 [least symptomatic] to 54 [most symptomatic]), both stimulant and nonstimulant medications led to clinically significant reductions of 14.93 to 24.60 absolute points. The psychosocial treatments combining behavioral, cognitive behavioral, and skills training techniques demonstrated small- to medium-sized improvements (range for mean SD difference in Cohen d, 0.30-0.69) for parent-rated ADHD symptoms, co-occurring emotional or behavioral symptoms, and interpersonal functioning. Psychosocial treatments were associated with more robust (Cohen d range, 0.51-5.15) improvements in academic and organizational skills, such as homework completion and planner use. 
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Chan, Eugenia; Fogler, Jason M.; Hammerness, Paul G. Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Adolescents. JAMA. 2016, 315 (18): 1997. ISSN 0098-7484. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.5453. Conclusions and Relevance Evidence supports the use of extended-release methylphenidate and amphetamine formulations, atomoxetine, and extended-release guanfacine to improve symptoms of ADHD in adolescents. Psychosocial treatments incorporating behavior contingency management, motivational enhancement, and academic, organizational, and social skills training techniques were associated with inconsistent effects on ADHD symptoms and greater benefit for academic and organizational skills. Additional treatment studies in adolescents, including combined pharmacological and psychosocial treatments, are needed.. 
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 TSCAP. 青少年ADHD的治療-一系統性回顧. Tscap.org.tw. [2016-12-27]. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.5453. (原始内容存档于2016-11-29). 
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 TSCAP. 20160728公聽會-台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會新聞稿. Tscap.org.tw. [2016-12-27]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-05). 
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 顏正芳. 孩子和家長接受專業醫療協助的權利,是需要被維護的. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. 2016/05 [2017-02-27]. (原始内容存档于2016-11-29). 
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 TSCAP. 臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會新聞稿20160603. Tscap.org.tw. [2016-12-27]. (原始内容存档于2016-11-30). 
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 Guidelines May Have Helped Curb ADHD Diagnoses in Preschoolers. MedlinePlus.gov. HealthDay. 2016-11-15 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-25). Still, too few with disorder receive behavior therapy, child psychologist says. 
  32. ^ Behavior therapy for young children with ADHD. Central for Disease Control, United States of America. 2017-04-10 [2017-04-12]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-13). 
  33. ^ 33.00 33.01 33.02 33.03 33.04 33.05 33.06 33.07 33.08 33.09 33.10 33.11 33.12 33.13 33.14 33.15 33.16 33.17 33.18 33.19 33.20 33.21 33.22 33.23 33.24 33.25 33.26 33.27 33.28 33.29 33.30 33.31 33.32 33.33 33.34 高淑芬. 找回專注力:成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 台北: 心靈工坊. 2016-05-09 [2016-12-12]. ISBN 9789863570592 (中文(臺灣)). 
  34. ^ 34.00 34.01 34.02 34.03 34.04 34.05 34.06 34.07 34.08 34.09 34.10 34.11 34.12 34.13 34.14 34.15 34.16 34.17 高淑芬. 家有過動兒:幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長. 台北: 心靈工坊. 2013-08-28. ISBN 9789866112805. 
  35. ^ 35.00 35.01 35.02 35.03 35.04 35.05 35.06 35.07 35.08 35.09 Edward M. Hallowell & John J. Ratey. 分心不是我的錯(增訂版):正確診療ADD,重建有計畫的生活方式 Driven to Distraction. 遠流出版. 2015-09-01 [2017-06-27]. ISBN 978-957-32-7700-2. 
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    Typical behaviors may include:
    • Fidgeting or constant moving
    • Wandering
    • Talking too much
    • Difficulty participating in quiet activities (such as reading)
      ……But many hyperactive children are unhappy, or even depressed. Hyperactive behavior may make a child a target for bullying, or make it harder to connect with other children. Schoolwork may be more difficult. Kids who are hyperactive are frequently punished for their behavior.
      A child who is normally very active often responds well to specific directions and a program of regular physical activity. But, a child with a ADHD has a hard time following directions and controlling impulses.
      Call your child's health care provider if:
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    • Your child is very active, aggressive, impulsive, and has difficulty concentrating.
    • Your child's activity level is causing social difficulties, or difficulty with schoolwork.  参数|quote=值左起第198位存在換行符 (帮助)
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  129. ^ Finally, an excuse for being late! Man, 57 who misses every appointment he makes is diagnosed with a medical condition - 'CHRONIC LATENESS' - WardheerNews. 2013-08-27. (原始内容存档于2017-08-03). 
  130. ^ Finally, an excuse for being late! Man, 57 who misses every appointment he makes is diagnosed with a medical condition - 'CHRONIC LATENESS'. dailymail.co.uk. (原始内容存档于2017-10-23). 
  131. ^ New Data Reveal Extent of Genetic Overlap Between Major Mental Disorders, Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder Share the Most Common Genetic Variation. August 12, 2013 • Press Release. Nimh.nih.gov. [2016-12-27]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-04). 
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  133. ^ Gau, SS; Huang, WL. Rapid visual information processing as a cognitive endophenotype of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. (快速視覺訊息歷程為注意力不足過動症的內表現型). Psychological medicine. 2014, 44 (2): 435–46. ISSN 0033-2917. PMID 23561037. doi:10.1017/S0033291713000640. Compared with the controls, probands with ADHD and unaffected siblings had significantly higher total misses, lower probability of hits in the RVP task... 
  134. ^ Hwang-Gu, SL; Gau, SS. Interval timing deficits assessed by time reproduction dual tasks as cognitive endophenotypes for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.. PloS one. 2015, 10 (5): e0127157. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4436371可免费查阅. PMID 25992899. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127157. ADHD probands had higher accuracy coefficient scores than unaffected siblings (t(764) = 6.37, p< .001) and TD youths (t(764) = 4.67, p< .001) which implied that they tended to overestimate the length of duration. 
  135. ^ Lin, HY; Hwang-Gu, SL; Gau, SS. Intra-individual reaction time variability based on ex-Gaussian distribution as a potential endophenotype for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. (個體内反應時間差異做為注意力不足過動症之內表現型:ex-Gaussian研究). Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2015, 132 (1): 39–50. ISSN 0001-690X. PMID 25612058. doi:10.1111/acps.12393. Compared with unaffected siblings and controls, ADHD probands had elevated sigma value, omissions, commissions, and mean RT. Unaffected siblings formed an intermediate group in-between probands and controls in terms of tau value and RTSD...Conforming to a context-dependent nature, unaffected siblings still had an intermediate tau value in-between probands and controls across different interstimulus intervals. 
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  137. ^ Chien, YL; Chou, MC; Chiu, YN; Chou, WJ; Wu, YY; Tsai, WC; Gau, SS. ADHD-related symptoms and attention profiles in the unaffected siblings of probands with autism spectrum disorder: focus on the subtypes of autism and Asperger's disorder.. Molecular autism. 2017, 8: 37. ISSN 2040-2392. PMC 5526322可免费查阅. PMID 28770037. doi:10.1186/s13229-017-0153-9. Attention deficits are commonly associated manifestations of Autism Spectrum Disorder(ASD). Compared to typically developing controls(TD), unaffected siblings of ASD probands were more hyperactive/impulsive and oppositional, particularly unaffected siblings of Asperger(AS) probands. 
  138. ^ Yang, LK; Shang, CY; Gau, SS. Psychiatric comorbidities in adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and their siblings. ( 患有注意力不足過動症之青少年及其手足之精神共病現象). Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 2011, 56 (5): 281–92. ISSN 0706-7437. PMID 21586194. doi:10.1177/070674371105600507. Compared with the controls, adolescents with ADHD and unaffected siblings had a significantly shorter backward digit span, more extra-dimensional shift errors in the IED, shorter spatial span length in the SSP, more total errors and poorer strategy use in the SWM, and fewer problems solved in the minimum number of moves and shorter initial thinking time in the SOC. 
  139. ^ 台灣兒童精神醫學現況 (PDF). Psychiatry Newletter: 1 – 12. 2013. 內表現型研究發現,患有 ADHD 的兒少有較差的神經認知功能(e.g., Shang and Gau 2011),包括持續專注力、清醒度、認知衝動性、反應時間、反應時間的 ex-Gaussian 分佈、視覺空間記憶、時間知覺和多面向的執行 功能(例如工作記憶、認知彈性、計畫和問題解決)。進一步的內表現型研究發現未患 病手足也有較多的執行功能(Gau and Shang 2010)、視覺記憶(Shang and Gau 2011)、 時間複製雙重作業、注意力資源限制(Hwang and Gau 2013)、和 ex-Gaussian 分布的 τ 值之異常,因此顯示這些神經認知的功能,可成為 ADHD 之內表現型。  参数|journal=与模板{{cite web}}不匹配(建议改用{{cite journal}}|website=) (帮助); |volume=被忽略 (帮助); |issue=被忽略 (帮助)
  140. ^ Gau, Susan Shur-Fen; Shang, Chi-Yung. Executive functions as endophenotypes in ADHD: evidence from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Battery (CANTAB). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (Wiley-Blackwell). 2010-01-18, 51 (7): 838–849. ISSN 0021-9630. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02215.x. 
  141. ^ What Causes ADHD. WebMD. 2017-10-04 [2017-10-12]. (原始内容存档于2017-10-26). If a parent has ADHD, a child has more than a 50% chance of having it. If an older sibling has it, a child has more than a 30% chance. 
  142. ^ Genetics of ADHD. ADD ADHD Blog.com. 2013-12-01 [2017-10-12]. If a person has ADHD, then:
    • an identical twin has a 78-92% chance of having ADHD as well.
    • 25-35% of siblings have ADHD as well.
    • 15-20% of the mothers have ADHD as well.
    • 25-30% of the fathers have ADHD as well.
    If a parent has ADHD, there is a 20-54% chance that his/her child will get ADHD as well.
    If both parents have ADHD – well, I don’t know of any research statistics, but let’s just say that there is a very high chance of a child having ADHD as well.
    So, to answer the specific question – if you have ADHD, and you plan to have kids, each child has about a 20-54% chance of having ADD or ADHD.
      参数|quote=值左起第29位存在換行符 (帮助)
  143. ^ ADDISS Common Questions. ADDISS. [2017-10-12]. (原始内容存档于2017-05-05). ADHD has a significant genetic component: most differences in severity of symptoms are due to genetic factors. For example, if a family has one ADHD child, there is a 30-40% chance that another brother/sister will also have the condition and a 45% chance (or greater) that at least one parent has the condition1. If the child with ADHD has an identical twin, the likelihood that the twin will also have the disorder is about 90%. 
  144. ^ Barkley, Russell. Taking charge of ADHD : the complete, authoritative guide for parents. New York: The Guilford Press. 2013: 83. ISBN 978-1-4625-0789-4. The risk is two to three times greater than the risk to one sibling if another one has the disorder (25%-35%) 
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  153. ^ Berry, MD. The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases. Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials. 2007-01, 2 (1): 3–19. PMID 18473983. doi:10.2174/157488707779318107. (原始内容存档于2017-02-01). Although there is little direct evidence, changes in trace amines, in particular PE, have been identified as a possible factor for the onset of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). … Further, amphetamines, which have clinical utility in ADHD, are good ligands at trace amine receptors. Of possible relevance in this aspect is modafanil, which has shown beneficial effects in ADHD patients and has been reported to enhance the activity of PE at TAAR1. Conversely, methylphenidate, …showed poor efficacy at the TAAR1 receptor. In this respect it is worth noting that the enhancement of functioning at TAAR1 seen with modafanil was not a result of a direct interaction with TAAR1. 
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  166. ^ Ystrom, Eivind; Gustavson, Kristin; Brandlistuen, Ragnhild Eek; Knudsen, Gun Peggy; Magnus, Per; Susser, Ezra; Davey Smith, George; Stoltenberg, Camilla; Surén, Pål; Håberg, Siri E.; Hornig, Mady; Lipkin, W. Ian; Nordeng, Hedvig; Reichborn-Kjennerud, Ted. Prenatal Exposure to Acetaminophen and Risk of ADHD. Pediatrics (American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)). 2017-10-30, 140 (5): e20163840. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 29084830. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-3840. 
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  170. ^ 170.0 170.1 170.2 170.3 170.4 170.5 Sonuga-Barke EJ, Brandeis D, Cortese S, Daley D, Ferrin M, Holtmann M, Stevenson J, Danckaerts M, van der Oord S, Döpfner M, Dittmann RW, Simonoff E, Zuddas A, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, Coghill D, Hollis C, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Wong IC, Sergeant J. Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments. Am J Psychiatry. 2013-03, 170 (3): 275–289. PMID 23360949. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12070991. Free fatty acid supplementation and artificial food color exclusions appear to have beneficial effects on ADHD symptoms, although the effect of the former are small and those of the latter may be limited to ADHD patients with food sensitivities... 
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  177. ^ 177.0 177.1 Nielsen, Philip Rising; Benros, Michael Eriksen; So. Associations Between Autoimmune Diseases and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A~Nationwide Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2016 [2017-01-29]. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.12.010. Conclusion A personal history and a maternal history of autoimmune disease were associated with an increased risk of ADHD. The previously reported association between type 1 diabetes and ADHD was confirmed. In addition, specific parental autoimmune diseases were associated with ADHD in offspring. 
  178. ^ UpToDate. UpToDate. [2018-02-17]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-17). Blood delivers oxygen to the tissues, and the vast majority of oxygen delivered is bound to hemoglobin in RBCs. Thus, anemia has the potential to reduce oxygen delivery. However, most patients are able to increase tissue oxygen delivery by increasing cardiac output over a range of hemoglobin concentrations. Clinical trials are needed to establish whether anemia is merely a marker for more severe underlying disease. Of note, cognitive function measured by reaction time and immediate memory was impaired when the hemoglobin concentration was reduced to 5 to 6 g/dL [20]. 
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  184. ^ 184.00 184.01 184.02 184.03 184.04 184.05 184.06 184.07 184.08 184.09 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapters 10 and 13. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 266, 315, 318–323. ISBN 9780071481274. Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention. 
  185. ^ 185.0 185.1 185.2 185.3 185.4 185.5 185.6 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 148, 154–157. ISBN 9780071481274. DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. Cognitive control is impaired in several disorders, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control. ... it has not been shown that 5HT makes a therapeutic contribution to treatment of ADHD. 
    NOTE: DA: dopamine, LC: locus coeruleus, VTA: ventral tegmental area, 5HT: serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
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  192. ^ Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale. UpToDate. [2018-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-27). 
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  194. ^ Skodzik T, Holling H, Pedersen A. Long-Term Memory Performance in Adult ADHD: A Meta-Analysis. J. Atten. Disord. 2013-11. PMID 24232170. doi:10.1177/1087054713510561. 
  195. ^ Modesto-Lowe V, Chaplin M, Soovajian V, Meyer A. Are motivation deficits underestimated in patients with ADHD? A review of the literature. Postgrad Med. 2013, 125 (4): 47–52. PMID 23933893. doi:10.3810/pgm.2013.07.2677. Behavioral studies show altered processing of reinforcement and incentives in children with ADHD. These children respond more impulsively to rewards and choose small, immediate rewards over larger, delayed incentives. Interestingly, a high intensity of reinforcement is effective in improving task performance in children with ADHD. Pharmacotherapy may also improve task persistence in these children. ... Previous studies suggest that a clinical approach using interventions to improve motivational processes in patients with ADHD may improve outcomes as children with ADHD transition into adolescence and adulthood. 
  196. ^ TSCAP. 新聞稿20160412-回應質疑注意力不足過動症之診斷、藥物治療等議題. Tscap.org.tw. [2016-12-27]. (原始内容存档于2016-11-30). 
  197. ^ 197.0 197.1 翁士恒(國立東華大學). ADHD 臨床現場的分裂與對話:以ICF為參照的反思. 還孩子做自己行動聯盟. 2017-03-13 [2017-06-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-3-8) (中文). ADHD不只是心智功能與神經結構出現問題,還包括了病者的自我調適、家庭支持系統、鄰人功能與居家環境的功能與障礙。這些包含身體功能、活動參與與環境功能的整體,才是一個完整的疾病經驗(Lived experience of illness)。 
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  199. ^ Authors, No. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The MTA Cooperative Group. Multimodal Tr... - PubMed. NCBI. 1999-12-11 [2017-04-22]. (原始内容存档于2017-05-04). 
  200. ^ 200.0 200.1 注意力不足過動症與妥瑞氏症的非藥物治療 (PDF). 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會 官方網站. 精神醫學通訊 Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Newsletter Vol.16 No 1. Spring 2017. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. 2017 [2017-06-07]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-12-13).  |volume=被忽略 (帮助); |issue=被忽略 (帮助)
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  202. ^ 202.0 202.1 Vincent Chin-Hung Chen, Yao-Hsu Yang, Yin-To Liao, Ting-Yu Kuo, Hsin-Yi Liang, Kuo-You Huang, Yin-Cheng Huang, Yena Lee, Roger S. McIntyre & Tzu-Chin Lin. The association between methylphenidate treatment and the risk for fracture among young ADHD patients: A nationwide population-based study in Taiwan. PloS one. 2017, 12 (3): e0173762. PMID 28296941. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0173762. 
  203. ^ 203.0 203.1 Psychotherapy for adults with ADHD. UpToDate. [2018-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-24). 
  204. ^ Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents overview of treatment and prognosis. UpToDate. [2018-02-24]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-24). 
  205. ^ Turkington, Carol; Harris, Joseph. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Encyclopedia of the Brain and Brain Disorders. Infobase Publishing: 47. 2009. ISBN 978-1-4381-2703-3 –通过Google Books. 
  206. ^ Fabiano GA, Pelham WE, Coles EK, Gnagy EM, Chronis-Tuscano A, O'Connor BC. "A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder".. Clincal Psychology Rev. (systematic review). 2009-03, 29 (2): 129–140. PMID 19131150. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.11.001. 
  207. ^ Kratochvil CJ, Vaughan BS, Barker A, Corr L, Wheeler A, Madaan V. Review of pediatric attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder for the general psychiatrist. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 2009-03, 32 (1): 39–56. PMID 19248915. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.001. 
  208. ^ Guidelines May Have Helped Curb ADHD Diagnoses in Preschoolers. MedlinePlus.gov (tertiary source). HealthDay. 2016-11-15 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-25). The guidelines, issued by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), called for a standardized approach to diagnosis, and recommended behavior therapy -- not drugs -- as the first-line therapy for preschoolers. 
  209. ^ Positive Parenting. NIH News in Health. 2017-08-31 [2017-11-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-11-07). 
  210. ^ Can Adults With ADHD Really Change?. Psychology Today. 2016-06-01 [2017-11-02]. 
  211. ^ 211.0 211.1 211.2 Behavior Therapy - ADHD - NCBDDD. CDC. 2017-04-19 [2017-11-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-09). 
  212. ^ Xia J, Merinder LB, Belgamwar MR. Psychoeducation for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(6):CD002831
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  214. ^ O'Leary, K. Daniel, and G. Terence Wilson. Behaviour Therapy: Application and Outcome, 7-12. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975. Print.
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  216. ^ Bjornstad G, Montgomery P. Bjornstad GJ , 编. Family therapy for attention-deficit disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005, (2): CD005042. PMID 15846741. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005042.pub2. 
  217. ^ 217.0 217.1 Mikami, Amori Yee. The importance of friendship for youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2010-06, 13 (2): 181–98. PMC 2921569可免费查阅. PMID 20490677. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0067-y. 
  218. ^ Daley, D; Van Der Oord, S; Ferrin, M; Cortese, S; Danckaerts, M; Doepfner, M; Van den Hoofdakker, BJ; Coghill, D; Thompson, M; Asherson, P; Banaschewski, T; Brandeis, D; Buitelaar, J; Dittmann, RW; Hollis, C; Holtmann, M; Konofal, E; Lecendreux, M; Rothenberger, A; Santosh, P; Simonoff, E; Soutullo, C; Steinhausen, HC; Stringaris, A; Taylor, E; Wong, ICK; Zuddas, A; Sonuga-Barke, EJ. Practitioner Review: Current best practice in the use of parent training and other behavioural interventions in the treatment of children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines. 2017-10-30. PMID 29083042. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12825. 
  219. ^ Cortese, S; Ferrin, M; Brandeis, D; Holtmann, M; Aggensteiner, P; Daley, D; Santosh, P; Simonoff, E; Stevenson, J; Stringaris, A; Sonuga-Barke, EJ; European ADHD Guidelines Group, (EAGG). Neurofeedback for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Meta-Analysis of Clinical and Neuropsychological Outcomes From Randomized Controlled Trials.. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016-06, 55 (6): 444–55. PMID 27238063. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.03.007. 
  220. ^ 衛生福利部中央健保署 函. tscap.org.tw. 2014-02-11. (原始内容存档于2017-12-03). 
  221. ^ Baer, D.M.; Wolf, M.M. & Risley, T.R. Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 1968, 1 (1): 91–97. PMC 1310980可免费查阅. PMID 16795165. doi:10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91. 
  222. ^ See also footnote number "(1)" of [and the whole "What is ABA?" section of] «Olive, Dr. Melissa. What is ABA?. Applied Behavioral Strategies. [2015-10-06]. (原始内容存档于2015-10-06).  », where the same definition is given, (or quoted), and it credits (or mentions) both [i] the source "Baer, Wolf & Risley, 1968" and [ii] another source, called "Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991"
  223. ^ ADHD-treatment. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017-04-11 [2017-04-23]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-23). 
  224. ^ 高淑芬. 家有過動兒:幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長. 台北: 心靈工坊. 2013-08-28. ISBN 9789866112805."家庭是ADHD孩子最重要的行為治療場域,更是支撐他們好好長大的關鍵。父母的支持能幫助孩子有勇氣面對困難,度過辛苦的學習過程。 身為父母,全心全意愛孩子是最基本的態度,一定要打從心裡認定:「我無條件愛我的孩子,如果連我都不願意幫助他,還有誰能幫他?我絕對不會放棄他,也不會放棄希望。我願意陪孩子一起努力!」 唯有讓孩子們在充滿安全感和接納的環境中長大,他們才能夠好好接受治療。"
  225. ^ 高淑芬. 家有過動兒:幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長. 台北: 心靈工坊. 2013-08-28. ISBN 9789866112805."無論如何,父母必須用「愛心、同理心」對待孩子並理解孩子在面對日常生活小事時所遇到的困難。多與孩子溝通,不要自以為知道孩子們在想什麼。願意把時間投資在促進親子關係上。不應該罵人,更不應該見到孩子劈頭就罵。這些種種將阻斷與孩子溝通的路。放下責備與自以為是後,父母和孩子往往將明白彼此之間有很多的誤會與淚水,需要釐清,更需要彼此的擁抱。"
  226. ^ 226.0 226.1 Den Heijer AE, Groen Y, Tucha L, Fuermaier AB, Koerts J, Lange KW, Thome J, Tucha O. Sweat it out? The effects of physical exercise on cognition and behavior in children and adults with ADHD: a systematic literature review. J. Neural. Transm. (Vienna) (systematic review (secondary source)). 2016-07. PMID 27400928. doi:10.1007/s00702-016-1593-7. 
  227. ^ Kamp CF, Sperlich B, Holmberg HC. Exercise reduces the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and improves social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters. Acta Paediatr. 2014-07, 103 (7): 709–14. PMID 24612421. doi:10.1111/apa.12628. 
  228. ^ 228.0 228.1 Kamp, Carolin Friederike; Sperlich, Billy; Holmberg, Hans-Christer. Exercise reduces the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and improves social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters. Acta Paediatr. 2014-07-01, 103 (7): 709–714. doi:10.1111/apa.12628. (原始内容存档于2017-02-16) –通过Wiley Online Library. 
  229. ^ 229.0 229.1 Rommel, Anna-Sophie; Halperin, Jeffrey M.; Mill, Jonathan; Asherson, Philip; Kuntsi, Jonna. Protection from genetic diathesis in ADHD: Possible complementary roles of exercise. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2017-02-16, 52 (9): 900–910. PMC 4257065可免费查阅. PMID 23972692. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.018 –通过PubMed Central. 
  230. ^ Arnold, L. Eugene; Hodgkins, Paul; Caci, Hervé; Kahle, Jennifer; Young, Susan. Effect of Treatment Modality on Long-Term Outcomes in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE. [2017-05-15]. PMID 25714373. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. 
  231. ^ Millichap JG. Chapter 9: Medications for ADHD. Millichap JG (编). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. New York, USA: Springer. 2010: 112. ISBN 9781441913968.
    Table 9.2 Dextroamphetamine formulations of stimulant medication
    Dexedrine [Peak:2–3 h] [Duration:5–6 h] ...
    Adderall [Peak:2–3 h] [Duration:5–7 h]
    Dexedrine spansules [Peak:7–8 h] [Duration:12 h] ...
    Adderall XR [Peak:7–8 h] [Duration:12 h]
    Vyvanse [Peak:3–4 h] [Duration:12 h]
     
  232. ^ Huang YS, Tsai MH. Long-term outcomes with medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current status of knowledge. CNS Drugs. 2011-07, 25 (7): 539–554. PMID 21699268. doi:10.2165/11589380-000000000-00000. Recent studies have demonstrated that stimulants, along with the non-stimulants atomoxetine and extended-release guanfacine, are continuously effective for more than 2-year treatment periods with few and tolerable adverse effects. The effectiveness of long-term therapy includes not only the core symptoms of ADHD, but also improved quality of life and academic achievements. The most concerning short-term adverse effects of stimulants, such as elevated blood pressure and heart rate, waned in long-term follow-up studies. ... In the longest follow-up study (of more than 10 years), lifetime stimulant treatment for ADHD was effective and protective against the development of adverse psychiatric disorders. 
  233. ^ Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, Young S. Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. PLoS ONE. 2015-02, 10 (2): e0116407. PMC 4340791可免费查阅. PMID 25714373. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. The highest proportion of improved outcomes was reported with combination treatment (83% of outcomes). Among significantly improved outcomes, the largest effect sizes were found for combination treatment. The greatest improvements were associated with academic, self-esteem, or social function outcomes. 
  234. ^ Dexedrine Prescribing Information (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Amedra Pharmaceuticals LLC. 2013-10 [2013-11-04]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-03-04). 
  235. ^ Adderall IR Prescribing Information (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Teva Pharmaceuticals USA, Inc. 2015-10 [2016-05-18]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-04-18). 
  236. ^ Adderall XR Prescribing Information (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Shire US Inc. 2013-12 [2013-12-30]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-12-30). 
  237. ^ The amphetamine withdrawal syndrome. Department of Health. [2017-05-09]. (原始内容存档于2017-02-08). 
  238. ^ 238.0 238.1 家有頑童? 屏東醫院籲把握ADHD黃金治療期. 自由時報電子報 (中華民國台灣 屏東縣屏東市). 2016: 生活. (原始内容存档于2017-01-08) (中文(繁體)). 
  239. ^ FDA Asks Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Drug Manufacturers to Develop Patient Medication Guides. U S Food and Drug Administration Home Page. 2016-11-07 [2017-12-09]. 
  240. ^ Medical Encyclopedia → Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. medlineplus.gov. 2017-01-05 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26). Psychostimulants (also known as stimulants) are the most commonly used medicines. Although these drugs are called stimulants, they actually have a calming effect in people with ADHD. 
  241. ^ Signs and symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, National Institute of Mental Health.. nimh.nih.gov. National Institute of mental health. 2013-03 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-29). It is normal to have some inattention, unfocused motor activity and impulsivity, but for people with ADHD, these behaviors/are more severe, occur more often, interfere with or reduce the quality of how they functions socially, at school, or in a job. 
  242. ^ 衛生福利部精神疾病衛教叢書 注意力不足過動症,第19至20頁「反之,有些家長或孩童會以為使用藥物就像吃了「聰明藥」一切都解決了,而對於藥物過度依賴。卻忽略藥物只是提供孩子學習與接受指導的最佳時機,藉由此時建立起學習策略、人際互動、行為管理的技巧,才是孩子一生受用的能力,也有機會不靠藥物自我管理。」
  243. ^ 243.0 243.1 243.2 243.3 243.4 Abuse, National Institute on Drug. Stimulant ADHD Medications: Methylphenidate and Amphetamines. (原始内容存档于2017-07-10). 
  244. ^ Chang, Zheng; Lichtenstein, Paul; Halldner, Linda; D'Onofrio, Brian; Serlachius, Eva; Fazel, Seena; Långström, Niklas; Larsson, Henrik. Stimulant ADHD medication and risk for substance abuse. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2014, 55 (8): 878–885. ISSN 0021-9630. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12164. Results_ADHD medication was not associated with increased rate of substance abuse. Actually, the rate during 2009 was 31% lower among those prescribed ADHD medication in 2006, even after controlling for medication in 2009 and other covariates (hazard ratio: 0.69; 95% confidence interval: 0.57–0.84). Also, the longer the duration of medication, the lower the rate of substance abuse. Similar risk reductions were suggested among children and when investigating the association between stimulant ADHD medication and concomitant short-term abuse. 
  245. ^ Chang, Zheng; Lichtenstein, Paul; Halldner, Linda; D'Onofrio, Brian; Serlachius, Eva; Fazel, Seena; Långström, Niklas; Larsson, Henrik. Stimulant ADHD medication and risk for substance abuse. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2014, 55 (8): 878–885. ISSN 0021-9630. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12164. Conclusions:We found no indication of increased risks of substance abuse among individuals prescribed stimulant ADHD medication; if anything, the data suggested a long-term protective effect on substance abuse. Although stimulant ADHD medication does not seem to increase the risk for substance abuse, clinicians should remain alert to the potential problem of stimulant misuse and diversion in ADHD patients. 
  246. ^ Soren Dalsgaard, James F. Leckman, Preben Bo Mortensen, Helena Skyt Nielsen & Marianne Simonsen. Effect of drugs on the risk of injuries in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a prospective cohort study. The lancet. Psychiatry. 2015-08, 2 (8): 702–709. PMID 26249301. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00271-0. INTERPRETATION: Children with ADHD had an increased risk of injuries compared with other children. Treatment with ADHD drugs reduced the risk of injuries by up to 43% and emergency ward visits by up to 45% in children with ADHD. Taken together with previous findings of accidents being the most common cause of death in individuals with ADHD, these results are of major public health importance. 
  247. ^ Rafael Mikolajczyk, Johannes Horn, Niklas Schmedt, Ingo Langner, Christina Lindemann & Edeltraut Garbe. Injury prevention by medication among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a case-only study. JAMA pediatrics. 2015-04, 169 (4): 391–395. PMID 25686215. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.3275. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: No significant risk reduction for hospitalizations with injury diagnoses was observed during periods of ADHD medication, but there was a preventive effect on the risk of brain injuries (34% risk reduction). The effects were controlled for time-invariant characteristics of the patients by the study design. 
  248. ^ Helen Briggs; the journal JAMA Psychiatry. Vitamins ‘effective in treating ADHD symptoms’. BBC News. 2014-01-30 [2017-04-13]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-14). Scientists from the Karolinska Institute studied 17,000 individuals with ADHD over a period of four years using data from health registers. They found individuals with ADHD had a higher risk of being involved in serious transport accidents, such as car or motorcycle crashes, compared with those without ADHD. Transport accidents were lower among men with ADHD who were on medication than among men with ADHD who did not take medication. Calculations showed 41% of transport accidents involving men with ADHD could have been avoided if they had received medication and carried on taking it during the course of the study. 
  249. ^ 249.0 249.1 Cardiac evaluation of patients receiving pharmacotherapy for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. UpToDate. 2017-08-01 [2017-12-22]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-23). The aim of the cardiac evaluation is to identify underlying cardiac disease that may predispose the child to serious CV events, including sudden cardiac death. However, it is important to note that the available evidence does not suggest a causal association between CV risk and stimulant use. Furthermore, there are no specific cardiac conditions for which there is definitive evidence that the use of ADHD medications should be contraindicated. What is clear, however, is limiting or delaying children's access to effective treatment for ADHD could have serious implications (such as increased risk of adolescent substance use disorder, academic failure, and accidents) in patients who are not effectively treated. 
  250. ^ Stephen V Faraone. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and premature death. The Lancet. 2015-02-25 [2017-08-11]. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61822-5. 
  251. ^ 衛生福利部中央健康保險署 公告. 衛生福利部中央健康保險署. 衛生福利部中央健康保險署. 2017-02-06 [2017-04-10]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-10). 
  252. ^ 「藥品給付規定」修正規定 (PDF). 衛生福利部中央健康保險署. 衛生福利部中央健康保險署. 2017-02-06 [2017-04-10]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-04-10). 
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  254. ^ Label of Ritalin LA. Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation. 2017-01-05 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-26). Ritalin LA 10, 20, 30, 40, and 60 mg capsules provide in a single dose the same amount of methylphenidate as dosages of 5, 10, 15, 20, or 30 mg of Ritalin tablets given b.i.d. 
  255. ^ 255.0 255.1 Label of Concerta (PDF). concerta.net. Jassen Cilag. 2013 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-01-17). 
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  257. ^ Apotex Incorporation., 安保美喜錠 10 毫克 衛署藥輸字第 025016 號, 鴻汶醫藥實業有限公司 (编), Information for the patient (PDF), Canada, 2006-03-27 [2017-03-19], (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2009-11-22) 
  258. ^ Lopez, F; Silva, R; Pestreich, L; Muniz, R, Comparative efficacy of two once daily methylphenidate formulations (Ritalin LA and Concerta) and placebo in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder across the school day., Paediatric drugs, 2003, 5 (8): 545–55, ISSN 1174-5878, PMID 12895137, While both Ritalin LA and Concerta were shown to be effective, the different release profiles of each formulation can result in distinct differences between the effects on measures of attention and deportment. 
  259. ^ Coghill, David; Banaschewski, Tobias; Zuddas, Alessandro; Pelaz, Antonio; Gagliano, Antonella; Doepfner, Manfred. Erratum to: Long-acting methylphenidate formulations in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review of head-to-head studies. BMC Psychiatry (Springer Nature). 2015-08-25, 15 (1). ISSN 1471-244X. PMC 4549088可免费查阅. PMID 26302778. doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0581-z. 
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  261. ^ Label of Concerta. DailyMed.gov. Jassen Cilag. 2013 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-26). 14.2 Adolescents In a randomized, double-blind, multicenter, placebo-controlled trial (Study 4) involving 177 patients, CONCERTA® was demonstrated to be effective in the treatment of ADHD in adolescents aged 13 to 18 years at doses up to 72 mg/day (1.4 mg/kg/day). Of 220 patients who entered an open 4-week titration phase, 177 were titrated to an individualized dose (maximum of 72 mg/day) based on meeting specific improvement criteria on the ADHD Rating Scale and the Global Assessment of Effectiveness with acceptable tolerability. Patients who met these criteria were then randomized to receive either their individualized dose of CONCERTA® (18 – 72 mg/day, n=87) or placebo (n=90) during a two-week double-blind phase. At the end of this phase, mean scores for the investigator rating on the ADHD Rating Scale demonstrated that CONCERTA® was statistically significantly superior to placebo.  参数|quote=值左起第17位存在換行符 (帮助)
  262. ^ Label of Concerta. DailyMed.gov. Jassen Cilag. 2013 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-26). 14.2 Adolescents 14.3 Adults Two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies were conducted in 627 adults aged 18 to 65 years. The controlled studies compared CONCERTA® administered once daily and placebo in a multicenter, parallel-group, 7-week dose-titration study (Study 5) (36 to 108 mg/day) and in a multicenter, parallel-group, 5-week, fixed-dose study (Study 6) (18, 36, and 72 mg/day). Study 5 demonstrated the effectiveness of CONCERTA® in the treatment of ADHD in adults aged 18 to 65 years at doses from 36 mg/day to 108 mg/day based on the change from baseline to final study visit on the Adult ADHD Investigator Rating Scale (AISRS). Of 226 patients who entered the 7-week trial, 110 were randomized to CONCERTA® and 116 were randomized to placebo. Treatment was initiated at 36 mg/day and patients continued with incremental increases of 18 mg/day (36 to 108 mg/day) based on meeting specific improvement criteria with acceptable tolerability. At the final study visit, mean change scores (LS Mean, SEM) for the investigator rating on the AISRS demonstrated that CONCERTA® was statistically significantly superior to placebo. Study 6 was a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, dose-response study (5-week duration) with 3 fixed-dose groups (18, 36, and 72 mg). Patients were randomized to receive CONCERTA® administered at doses of 18 mg (n=101), 36 mg (n=102), 72 mg/day (n=102), or placebo (n=96). All three doses of CONCERTA® were statistically significantly more effective than placebo in improving CAARS (Conners' Adult ADHD Rating Scale) total scores at double-blind end point in adult subjects with ADHD.  参数|quote=值左起第17位存在換行符 (帮助)
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  283. ^ Cardiac evaluation of patients receiving pharmacotherapy for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. UpToDate. 2017-08-01 [2017-12-22]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-23). Evaluation of children with ADHD prior to initiation of medication should include a comprehensive, cardiovascular (CV)-focused patient history, family history, and physical examination 
  284. ^ Cardiac evaluation of patients receiving pharmacotherapy for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. UpToDate. 2017-08-01 [2017-12-22]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-23). One small study suggested that there may be evidence of arterial stiffness, but further investigation is needed to confirm and determine any clinically significant effect 
  285. ^ Kelly, Aaron S.; Rudser, Kyle D.; Dengel, Donald R.; Kaufman, Christopher L.; Reiff, Michael I.; Norris, Anne L.; Metzig, Andrea M.; Steinberger, Julia. Cardiac Autonomic Dysfunction and Arterial Stiffness among Children and Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Treated with Stimulants. The Journal of pediatrics (Elsevier BV). 2014, 165 (4): 755–759. ISSN 0022-3476. PMID 25015574. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.05.043. 
  286. ^ Pharmacotherapy-for-Adult-Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder. UpToDate. [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-27). Side effects of stimulants reported in adults treated for ADHD include dry mouth, insomnia, edginess/irritability, dysphoria, diminished appetite英语diminished appetite, weight loss, and headaches. The physician should inquire whether the patient is experiencing non-therapeutic reinforcing effects (eg, euphoria), which could place the patient at added risk of abuse. Exacerbation of existing motor and vocal tics as well as new onset of tics has occurred. These side effects have generally been mild to moderate in severity. 
  287. ^ Santosh, Paramala J.; Sattar, Sanjida; Canagaratnam, Myooran. Efficacy and Tolerability of Pharmacotherapies for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults. CNS drugs (Springer Nature). 2011-09-01, 25 (9): 737–763. ISSN 1172-7047. PMID 21870887. doi:10.2165/11593070-000000000-00000. 
  288. ^ Pharmacotherapy-for-Adult-Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder. UpToDate. [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-27). An uncontrolled follow-up of 96 adults with ADHD who experienced improvement while taking extended release methylphenidate in a randomized trial found that improvement in ADHD symptoms was sustained at 30 weeks on the medication. Only 39 subjects (40.6 percent) completed the long-term follow-up period. Participants continued to experience decreased appetite, insomnia, and jitteriness 
  289. ^ Biederman, Joseph; Mick, Eric; Surman, Craig; Doyle, Robert; Hammerness, Paul; Kotarski, Meghan; Spencer, Thomas. A Randomized, 3-Phase, 34-Week, Double-Blind, Long-Term Efficacy Study of Osmotic-Release Oral System-Methylphenidate in Adults With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of clinical psychopharmacology (Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)). 2010, 30 (5): 549–553. ISSN 0271-0749. PMID 20814332. doi:10.1097/jcp.0b013e3181ee84a7. 
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  292. ^ Shoptaw, SJ; Kao, U; Ling, W. Treatment for amphetamine psychosis.. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2009-01-21, (1): CD003026. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 19160215. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3. A minority of individuals who use amphetamines develop full-blown psychosis requiring care at emergency departments or psychiatric hospitals. In such cases, symptoms of amphetamine psychosis commonly include paranoid and persecutory delusions as well as auditory and visual hallucinations in the presence of extreme agitation. More common (about 18%) is for frequent amphetamine users to report psychotic symptoms that are sub-clinical and that do not require high-intensity intervention ... About 5–15% of the users who develop an amphetamine psychosis fail to recover completely (Hofmann 1983) ... Findings from one trial indicate use of antipsychotic medications effectively resolves symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.  参数|quote=值左起第492位存在換行符 (帮助)
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  294. ^ 294.0 294.1 294.2 嘉義長庚醫院精神科副教授級主治醫師 陳錦宏. 心動家族協會理事長專文:問ADHD藥物有無風險,不如問「不治療和治療的風險哪一個高」. 心動家族協會. 2016-04-18 [2017-01]. 
  295. ^ 295.0 295.1 Storebø, Ole Jakob; Ramstad, Erica; Krogh, Helle B.; Nilausen, Trine Danvad; Skoog, Maria; Holmskov, Mathilde; Rosendal, Susanne; Groth, Camilla; Magnusson, Frederik L; Moreira-Maia, Carlos R; Gillies, Donna; Buch Rasmussen, Kirsten; Gauci, Dorothy; Zwi, Morris; Kirubakaran, Richard; Forsbøl, Bente; Simonsen, Erik; Gluud, Christian, Storebø, Ole Jakob , 编, Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (systematic review) (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd), 2015-11-25, (11), PMID 26599576, doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009885.pub2, Within the short follow-up periods typical of the included trials, there is some evidence that methylphenidate is associated with increased risk of non-serious adverse events, such as sleep problems and decreased appetite, but no evidence that it increases risk of serious adverse events.Better designed trials are needed to assess the benefits of methylphenidate. Given the frequency of non-serious adverse events associated with methylphenidate, the particular difficulties for blinding of participants and outcome assessors point to the advantage of large, 'nocebo tablet' controlled trials. 
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  297. ^ Methylphenidate. Home of MedlinePlus → Drugs, Herbs and Supplements → Methylphenidate Methylphenidate pronounced as (meth il fen' i date). 2016-02-15 [2017-02-27]. (原始内容存档于2017-07-04). 
  298. ^ 298.0 298.1 298.2 Combining medications could offer better results for ADHD patients. Science News. Elsevier. 2016-08-01 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-02). "Three studies to be published in the August 2016 issue of the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (JAACAP) report that combining two standard medications could lead to greater clinical improvements for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than either ADHD therapy alone.", August, 2016 
  299. ^ Adults with ADHD. MedlinePlus the Magazine 9. 8600 Rockville Pike • Bethesda, MD 20894, United States of America: NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE at the NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH. 2014: 19. ISSN 1937-4712. (原始内容存档于2017-07-15) (美国英语). 
  300. ^ Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Home → Medical Encyclopedia → Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE at the NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH. 2016-05-25 [2017-02-27]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26). 
  301. ^ All Disorders. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. [February twenty seventh, 2017]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-02). 
  302. ^ Pharmacotherapy-for-Adult-Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder. UpToDate. [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-27). These side effects have generally been mild to moderate in severity. Ten percent of adults with ADHD treated with stimulant medications discontinued the medication due to adverse events in a meta-analysis of randomized trials [25]. Progressive titration, as tolerated, to an optimally effective dose is an important means of minimizing side effects. Re-titration may be necessary after drug holidays. 
  303. ^ 303.0 303.1 Wigal SB. Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults. CNS Drugs. 2009,. 23 Suppl 1: 21–31. PMID 19621975. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923000-00004. 
  304. ^ Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Casas M. Castells X , 编. Amphetamines for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2011, (6): CD007813. PMID 21678370. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub2. 
  305. ^ Childress, A. C.; Sallee, F. R. Revisiting clonidine: an innovative add-on option for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Drugs of Today (Barcelona, Spain: 1998). 2012, 48 (3): 207–217. ISSN 1699-3993. PMID 22462040. doi:10.1358/dot.2012.48.3.1750904. There are a number of non-stimulant medications, such as atomoxetine, bupropion, guanfacine, and clonidine that may be used as alternatives, or added to stimulant therapy. 
  306. ^ 306.0 306.1 306.2 306.3 DailyMed - STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride capsule STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride. DailyMed.com. Eli Lilly. 2015-06. (原始内容存档于2017-09-02). 
  307. ^ Label of Strattera consisting of atomoxetine. DailyMed.gov. Eli Lilly Company. 2015-06 [2017-02]. DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION 2.1 Acute Treatment Dosing of children and adolescents up to 70 kg body weight — STRATTERA should be initiated at a total daily dose of approximately 0.5 mg/kg and increased after a minimum of 3 days to a target total daily dose of approximately 1.2 mg/kg administered either as a single daily dose in the morning or as evenly divided doses in the morning and late afternoon/early evening. No additional benefit has been demonstrated for doses higher than 1.2 mg/kg/day [see Clinical Studies (14)]. 'The total daily dose in children and adolescents should not exceed 1.4 mg/kg or 100 mg, whichever is less'. Dosing of children and adolescents over 70 kg body weight and adults — STRATTERA should be initiated at a total daily dose of 40 mg and increased after a minimum of 3 days to a target total daily dose of approximately 80 mg administered either as a single daily dose in the morning or as evenly divided doses in the morning and late afternoon/early evening. 'After 2 to 4 additional weeks, the dose may be increased to a maximum of 100 mg in patients who have not achieved an optimal response'. There are no data that support increased effectiveness at higher doses [see Clinical Studies (14)]. The maximum recommended total daily dose in children and adolescents over 70 kg and adults is 100 mg. 
  308. ^ Atomoxetine: Drug information. UpToDate. 2017-12-28 [2017-12-28]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-28). Duration of action: Up to 24 hours (Jain 2017) 
  309. ^ Taylor, D; Paton, C; Shitij, K. The Maudsley prescribing guidelines in psychiatry. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. 2012. ISBN 978-0-470-97948-8. 
  310. ^ Kooij, JJS. Adult ADHD Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment (PDF). Springer London. 2013. ISBN 978-1-4471-4137-2. doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-4138-9. 
  311. ^ How long for Strattera to start working? (PDF). Minnesota National Allianceof Mental Illness. [2017-02]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2015-12-24). It may take 4 - 8 weeks after an effective dose is reached for atomoxetine to reach maximum effectiveness. However, improvements in some symptoms may occur sooner. 
  312. ^ Frequently Asked Questions. Official website for Strattera. Strattera-Eli Lilly. 2016-09 [2017-02]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-09). Strattera works gradually, so improvements are seen over time. When your child starts treatment with Strattera, it's important to set some small goals. Remember to be patient—some people notice small changes within 2 weeks, and by 4 to 6 weeks at target dose you should see significant improvement in your child's symptoms. 
  313. ^ Atomoxetine in adults with ADHD: two randomized, placebo-controlled studies. Biological Psychiatry. 2003-01-15, 53 (2): 112–120 [2017-12-28]. ISSN 0006-3223. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01671-2. 
  314. ^ 314.0 314.1 atomoxetine (Rx) – Strattera. Medscape Reference. WebMD. [2013-11-10]. (原始内容存档于2013-11-10). 
  315. ^ Drug information for atomoxetine. UpToDate. [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-28). Precaution and warning: • Allergic reactions: Anaphylactic reactions, angioneurotic edema, urticaria, and rash may occur (rare). • Hepatotoxicity英语Hepatotoxicity: Use may be associated with rare but severe hepatotoxicity, including hepatic failure; discontinue and do not restart if signs or symptoms of hepatotoxic reaction (eg, jaundice, pruritus, flu-like symptoms, dark urine, right upper quadrant tenderness) or laboratory evidence of liver injury are noted. The majority of reported cases occurred within 120 days of initiation of therapy. • Orthostasis英语Orthostasis: Orthostasis and subsequent syncope may occur. Use with caution in patients predisposed to hypotension, or with conditions associated with abrupt heart rate or blood pressure changes. •Priapism: Prolonged and painful erections (priapism),... • Psychiatric effects: Treatment-emergent psychotic or manic symptoms (eg, hallucinations, delusional thinking, mania) may occur in children and adolescents without a prior history of psychotic illness or mania. Consider discontinuation of treatment if symptoms occur.  参数|quote=值左起第24位存在換行符 (帮助)
  316. ^ Drug information for atomoxetine. UpToDate. [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2017-12-28). Precaution and warning:• Altered cardiac conduction: In clinical trials, at therapeutic doses, atomoxetine consistently did not prolong the QT/QTc英语QTc interval; Atomoxetine, at high concentrations ex vivo, has demonstrated hERG channel block (Scherer 2009). • Cardiovascular events: Atomoxetine should be avoided in patients with known serious structural cardiac abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, serious heart rhythm abnormalities, or other serious cardiac problems that could increase the risk of sudden death that these conditions alone carry. Patients should be carefully evaluated for cardiac disease prior to initiation of therapy. Perform a prompt cardiac evaluation in patients who develop symptoms of exertional chest pain, unexplained syncope, or other symptoms suggestive of cardiac disease during treatment.  参数|quote=值左起第796位存在換行符 (帮助)
  317. ^ Chi-Yung Shang, Yi-Lei Pan, Hsiang-Yuan Lin, Lin-Wan Huang & Susan Shur-Fen Gau. An Open-Label, Randomized Trial of Methylphenidate and Atomoxetine Treatment in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology. 2015-09, 25 (7): 566–573. PMID 26222447. doi:10.1089/cap.2015.0035. At week 24, mean changes in ADHD-RS-IV Inattention scores were 13.58 points (Cohen's d, -3.08) for OROS-methylphenidate and 12.65 points (Cohen's d, -3.05) for atomoxetine; and mean changes in ADHD-RS-IV Hyperactivity-Impulsivity scores were 10.16 points (Cohen's d, -1.75) for OROS-methylphenidate and 10.68 points (Cohen's d, -1.87) for atomoxetine. 
  318. ^ 衛生福利部精神疾病衛教叢書 注意力不足過動症,第22頁「atomoxetine,用在病情 較為複雜、或是無法忍受MPH副作用的患者,然而一般發現其對於專注度的改善沒有MPH明顯」
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  320. ^ L. Eugene Arnold, Michael G. Aman, Amelia M. Cook, Andrea N. Witwer, Kristy L. Hall, Susan Thompson & Yaser Ramadan. Atomoxetine for hyperactivity in autism spectrum disorders: placebo-controlled crossover pilot trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2006-10, 45 (10): 1196–1205. PMID 17003665. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000231976.28719.2a. 
  321. ^ Matthew Siegel, MD.,Craig Erickson, MD., MS, Jean A. Frazier, MD., Toni Ferguson, Autism Society of America., Eric Goepfert, MD., Gagan Joshi, MD., Quentin Humberd, MD., Bryan H. King, MD., Amy Lutz, EASI Foundation: Ending Aggression and Self-Injury in the Developmentally Disabled., Louis Kraus, MD., Alice Mao, MD., Adelaide Robb, MD., Jeremy Veenstra-VanderWeele, MD, PhD., Paul Wang, MD, Autism SpeaksCarmen J. Head, MPH, CHES, Director, Research, Development, & WorkforceEve, Bender, Scientific Editor. Autism_Spectrum_Disorder_Parents_Medication_Guide (PDF). 3615 Wisconsin Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20016-3007: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016: 13. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-04-11) (English). Atomoxetine (Strattera) has also been researched in controlled studies for treatment of ADHD in children with autism, and showed some improvements,particularly for hyperactivity and impulsivity. 
  322. ^ Parent's Medication Guide: ADHD. American Psychiatric Association (Guidelines (Tertiary source)). American Psychiatric Association & American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). 2013-06 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-02-02). Though not FDA-approved for combined treatment, atomoxetine (Strattera) is sometimes used in conjunction with stimulants as an off-label combination therapy. 
  323. ^ Medical Encyclopedia → Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. MedlinePlus.gov. 2017-01-05 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26). Medicine combined with behavioral treatment often works best. Different ADHD medicines can be used alone or combined with each other. The doctor will decide which medicine is right, based on the person's symptoms and needs. 
  324. ^ Treuer T, Gau SS, Méndez L, Montgomery W, Monk JA, Altin M; et al. A systematic review of combination therapy with stimulants and atomoxetine for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, including patient characteristics, treatment strategies, effectiveness, and tolerability.. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology (systematic review (Secondary source)). 2013, 23 (3): 179–93. PMC 3696926可免费查阅. PMID 23560600. doi:10.1089/cap.2012.0093. Existing evidence suggests, but does not confirm, that this drug combination may benefit some, but not all, patients who have tried several ADHD medications without success. 
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  326. ^ Label of Strattera consisting of atomoxetine. DailyMed.gov (Leaflet/label (Tertiary source)). Eli Lilly Company. 2015-06 [2017-02]. 7.7 Methylphenidate\ Coadministration of methylphenidate with STRATTERA did not increase cardiovascular effects beyond those seen with methylphenidate alone. 
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  331. ^ Combining medications could offer better results for ADHD patients. Science News. Elsevier. 2016-08-01 [2017-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-02). Summary:Three studies report that combining two standard medications could lead to greater clinical improvements for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than either ADHD therapy alone. At present, studies show that the use of several ADHD medications result in significant reductions in ADHD symptoms. However, so far there is no conclusive evidence that these standard drug treatments also improve long-term academic, social, and clinical outcomes. 
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  333. ^ LABEL: STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride capsule STRATTERA- atomoxetine hydrochloride. DailyMed. 2017-03-16 [2017-24-23]. (原始内容存档于2017-09-02). Swallow STRATTERA capsules whole with water or other liquids. 
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  337. ^ LABEL: CLONIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE EXTENDED-RELEASE- clonidine hydrochloride tablet, extended release. DailyMed. 2016-09-30 [2017-04-23]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-23). What should I avoid while taking clonidine hydrochloride extended-release tablets?
    Do not drink alcohol or take other medicines that make you sleepy or dizzy while taking clonidine hydrochloride extended-release tablets until you talk with your doctor.
    Clonidine hydrochloride extended-release tablets taken with alcohol or medicines that cause sleepiness or dizziness may make your sleepiness or dizziness worse.
    Do not drive, operate heavy machinery or do other dangerous activities until you know how clonidine hydrochloride extended-release tablets will affect you.
    Avoid becoming dehydrated or overheated.
    What are possible side effects of clonidine hydrochloride extended-release tablets?
    Clonidine hydrochloride extended-release tablets may cause serious side effects, including:
    Low blood pressure and low heart rate.
    Your doctor should check your heart rate and blood pressure before starting treatment and regularly during treatment with clonidine hydrochloride extended-release tablets.
    Sleepiness.
    Withdrawal symptoms.
    Suddenly stopping clonidine hydrochloride extended-release tablets may cause withdrawal symptoms including:
    increased blood pressure, headache, increased heart rate, lightheadedness, tightness in your chest and nervousness.
      参数|quote=值左起第88位存在換行符 (帮助)
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  419. ^ 419.0 419.1 Data & Statistics-Children with ADHD:How many children have ADHD?. Central of Disease Control and Prevention. (tertiary source). 2017-02-14 [2017-04-16]. (原始内容存档于2017-04-13). 
  420. ^ 全民健康保險研究資料庫 National Health Insurance Research Database. Taiwan, Republic of China.开放获取. [2017-03-17]. (原始内容存档于2017-02-15). (中文)(英文)
  421. ^ 注意力不足過動症ADHD的第三條路:心動家族. 康健雜誌. 2016-10-04 [2017-06-21] (中文). 「台灣對這個疾病的知識不足,網路民間常流竄1-20年前過時的資料,而真正接受過此疾病診斷及整合式治療訓練的專科醫師如兒心科醫師又少之又少。」、「ADHD全世界平均盛行率為7.2%,台灣社區研究為7.5%,而台灣健保資料庫研究顯示只有2.3%接受診斷,1.6%用藥,1%的人接受足夠時間完整的治療,所以可了解有許多人求助無門因而情況日益惡化。 」 
  422. ^ Wang, Tingting; Liu, Kaihua; Li, Zhanzhan; Xu, Yang; Liu, Yuan; Shi, Wenpei; Chen, Lizhang. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry (systematic review, meta-analysis (secondary source)). 2017, 17 (1). ISSN 1471-244X. doi:10.1186/s12888-016-1187-9. 
  423. ^ 陳國齡醫生 瑪麗醫院 精神科顧問醫生 兒童及青少年精神科主管 香港大學李嘉誠醫學院 精神科學系 榮譽臨床副教授 Dr. Chan Kwok Ling, Phyllis., Consultant Psychiatrist, Head of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry., Queen Mary Hospital., Honorary Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry LKS Medical Faculty University of Hong Kong. Child with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 認識注意力不足 /過度活躍症 (PDF). 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區政府教育局 The government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of People's Republic of China. [2017-04-22]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-03-29). 
  424. ^ Davis, J. Mark; Lao, Ian Leong. Comparison of the Level and Prevalence of ADHD Symptoms in Macao (China) and U.S. University Students. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology (Informa UK Limited). 2013, 1 (4): 269–277 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1080/21683603.2013.804469. 
  425. ^ Catalá-López, F; Peiró, S; Ridao, M; Sanfélix-Gimeno, G; Gènova-Maleras, R; Catalá, MA. Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in Spain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies.. BMC Psychiatry. 2012-10-12, 12: 168. PMID 23057832. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-12-168. 
  426. ^ Park, Subin; Cho, Maeng Je; Chang, Sung Man; Jeon, Hong Jin; Cho, Seong-Jin; Kim, Byung-Soo; Bae, Jae Nam; Wang, Hee-Ryung; Ahn, Joon Ho; Hong, Jin Pyo. Prevalence, correlates, and comorbidities of adult ADHD symptoms in Korea: Results of the Korean epidemiologic catchment area study. Psychiatry Research (Elsevier BV). 2011, 186 (2-3): 378–383 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.047. In the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, 4.4% of 3199 subjects aged 18 to 44 years met the DSM-IV criteria for ADHD (Kessler et al., 2006). The acceptance of ADHD symptoms in adults, because the prevalence rates of ADHD in Korean school-age children are similar to the rates reported in Western countries (Kim, 2002). 
  427. ^ Domenic Greco, PhD. Is Prevalence of ADD/ADHD the Same in the U.S., Europe, and Japan?. 2012-09-10 [2017-04-22]. (原始内容存档于2012-09-10). Japan reports a 7% of school-aged children have ADD/ADHD. 
  428. ^ Palmer ED, Finger S. An early description of ADHD (inattentive subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and 'Mental restlessness' (1798). Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2001-05, 6 (2): 66–73. doi:10.1111/1475-3588.00324. 
  429. ^ Crichton A. An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects. United Kingdom: AMS Press. 1798: 271 [2014-01017]. ISBN 9780404082123. 
  430. ^ An Early Description of ADHD (Inattentive Subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and `Mental Restlessness'(1798)Child and Adolescent Mental Health[dead link],Volume 6, Number 2, May 2001 , pp. 66–73 (8)
  431. ^ 431.0 431.1 431.2 ADHD Throughout the Years (PDF). Center For Disease Control and Prevention. [2013-08-02]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-08-07). 
  432. ^ Millichap, J. Gordon. Chapter 1: Definition and History of ADHD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. Springer Science. 2010: 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5. (原始内容存档于2017-02-20). 
  433. ^ Weiss M. ADHD in Adulthood: A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis, and Treatment. JHU Press. 2010 [2014-01-17]. ISBN 9781421401317. (原始内容存档于2016-05-07). 
  434. ^ Patrick KS, Straughn AB, Perkins JS, González MA. Evolution of stimulants to treat ADHD: transdermal methylphenidate. Human Psychopharmacology. 2009-02, 24 (1): 1–17. PMC 2629554可免费查阅. PMID 19051222. doi:10.1002/hup.992. 
  435. ^ Rasmussen N. Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950. J . Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 2006-07, 61 (3): 288–323. PMID 16492800. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrj039. 
  436. ^ WHO. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 世界衛生組織 Wolrd Health Organization. [2017-02-22]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-08) (美国英语). 
  437. ^ 世界卫生组织. 注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的药物和非药物介入/干预. 世界卫生组织. [2017-02-22]. (原始内容存档于2016-11-29) (中文(简体)). 
  438. ^ 亞洲不應使用西方精神科對於注意力不足過動症(ADHD)的診斷,及興奮劑處方的治療 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2017-09-02.
  439. ^ 439.0 439.1 439.2 439.3 用藥爭議-立法院上演大對決 ADHD用藥爭議 立法院上演大對決. 聯合報官方網站. Taipei. 2016-08 [2017-09-02]. (原始内容存档于2017-09-02) (中文(繁體)). 
  440. ^ 440.0 440.1 注意力不足過動症與妥瑞氏症的非藥物治療 (PDF). 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會 官方網站. 精神醫學通訊 Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Newsletter Vol.16 No 1. Spring 2017. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. 2017 [2017-06-07]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-12-13). 近年來社會在一些新興宗教團體及附屬組織,以及社會學派的學者推波助瀾下,對於兒童青少年精神疾病治療的氛圍,常訴諸以情緒性、故事性的文字而非科學的、知識性的探討,使整個對話往往失去焦點,身為臨床醫師除了溫柔而堅定地致力於消弭這些想法落差之外,我們更應該加強自己對於最新實證醫學的了解,以最多的關心、最大的善意與最新的醫療知識來提供較佳的臨床服務,使有需要的家長與孩子能有更好也更有效的治療選擇。  |volume=被忽略 (帮助); |issue=被忽略 (帮助)
  441. ^ 健康醫療網/編輯部報導. 三人成虎! ADHD過動症須正視、勿輕信謠傳. (原始内容存档于2017-01-09). 
  442. ^ 衛生福利部精神疾病衛教叢書 注意力不足過動症,第15頁
  443. ^ 李宜蓁. 打破過動兒的五大迷思(下). 親子天下. 2011-12-01 [2018-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-26) (中文). 迷思四:ADHD被過度診斷,實際上沒有這麼多過動兒。正解:陳錦宏指出,國外兒童與青少年的 ADHD 盛行率在三~一○%之間,而台灣目前從小一到國三的 ADHD 盛行率有七%。但健保資料顯示,經過確診的 ADHD 人數只達預估值的一五%,這意味著還有不少 ADHD 者未被診斷,ADHD 其實是被低度診斷了。 
  444. ^ 修瑞瑩. 孩童過動症是誤診? 名作家出書惹醫界抗議. 元氣網. 2018-01-29 [2018-02-27]. (原始内容存档于2018-03-07) (中文). 
  445. ^ 國立東華大學 翁士恒. ADHD 臨床現場的分裂與對話:以ICF為參照的反思. 還孩子做自己行動聯盟. 2017-03-13 [2018-03-12] (中文). 在醫院中,我可能進行完一個ADHD的神經心理衡鑑評估,確認了在家庭與學校至少兩個社會情境以上的顯著過動與專注症狀,開始與家長及教師討論用藥的時間與後續行為的處理。而在另外一個面對身體暴力與侵害的社福機構中,我看著孩子飽受欺凌暴力的歷史,理解他在學校暴力的緣由,而他的醫師從不願知道孩子的受暴史,僅專心調整著藥物與爆衝的行為影響,因為理解孩子,我強烈質疑著如此重大劑量藥物對他的使用是否合適。在不同的兩個臨床現場,藥物開啟了兩個性質迥異的照顧時空,有著近乎分裂的兩種臨床敘事。這幽靈,也一直在用藥爭議的空間中遊盪。 
  446. ^ 林子勤(精神科醫師). 立委介入專業用藥 令人不安 - 即時新聞 - 20160531. 蘋果日報. 2016-05-31 [2017-06-21]. (原始内容存档于2017-10-06) (中文). 
  447. ^ 447.0 447.1 故事與知識的真實交會. 巷仔口沒有精神醫學. 2017-02-05 [2017-06-21] (中文). 
  448. ^ 寧花100萬讓過動兒上課 就是不看病… - 聯合報 Focus. 聯合報官方網站. 聯合報. 2016-07-04. (原始内容存档于2017-03-09). 
  449. ^ 王春惠 醫師. 投稿(時報廣場). 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. Taiwan, Republic of China.: 中國時報 China Times. 2010-01-12. (原始内容存档于2017-03-18) (中文(繁體)). 
  450. ^ 邱顯智 醫師. 臺北市立聯合醫院松德院區兒童青少年精神科990114新聞稿. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. Taiwan, Republic of China.: 臺北市立聯合醫院. 2010-01-14 (中文(繁體)). 
  451. ^ 劉士愷 醫師. 正確認識注意力不足過動症的藥物治療. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. Taiwan, Republic of China.: 行政院衛生署桃園療養院. 2010-01-15. (原始内容存档于2017-03-18) (中文(繁體)). 
  452. ^ 劉士愷 醫師. 兒童青少年常見精神疾病衛教(介紹)-台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. 台灣兒童青少年精神醫學會. Taiwan, Republic of China.: Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Pshcyiatry. 2010-01-20. (原始内容存档于2016-08-15) (中文(繁體)). 
  453. ^ 鄭毅、刘靖. 《中国注意缺陷多动障碍防治指南》第二版解读. 中华精神科杂志. 2016, 0 (3): p.132–135 [2017-03-04]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-04). 
  454. ^ 王浩威. 當正義成為法西斯. 蘋果日報 (Apple Daily Incorporation) (Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.: Apple Daily Incorporation). 2016-05-31: 即時新聞. (原始内容存档于2017-08-19) (中文(繁體)). 
  455. ^ Storebø, Ole Jakob; Ramstad, Erica; Krogh, Helle B.; Nilausen, Trine Danvad; Skoog, Maria; Holmskov, Mathilde; Rosendal, Susanne; Groth, Camilla; Magnusson, Frederik L; Moreira-Maia, Carlos R; Gillies, Donna; Buch Rasmussen, Kirsten; Gauci, Dorothy; Zwi, Morris; Kirubakaran, Richard; Forsbøl, Bente; Simonsen, Erik; Gluud, Christian, Storebø, Ole Jakob , 编, Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (systematic review) (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd), 2015-11-25, (11), PMID 26599576, doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009885.pub2, the findings highlight the urgent need for large RCTs of non-pharmacological treatments. 
  456. ^ 456.0 456.1 456.2 456.3 呂苡榕. 健保給付制度造成醫療資源分配傾斜. Republic of China (Taiwan): 端傳媒. 2017-04-25 [2017-04-25]. 健保給付制度困境令孩童就醫難\ 除了診斷的時間受到侷限,行為治療、親職教育等資源更是少得可憐。醫院的親子團體治療每一期排隊至少要排上四個月到半年才有可能有名額...... 
  457. ^ 457.0 457.1 457.2 457.3 【新聞稿】精神疾病不可怕,社會汙名與社區支持資源短缺才致命. 苦勞網. 2017-05-14 [2017-05-15]. (原始内容存档于2017-05-16) (中文). 一直以來,貧富差距、歧視與汙名、社會孤立……都是問題。任何人都有可能在受到長期壓迫、孤立的情況下,產生衝動攻擊的狀況,當我們看到傷人案件,要探究的不應是「這個人是患了什麼精神疾病?」,而應該是「這個人是怎麼長成今天這樣的?」、「他在什麼樣的社會關係裡?」並從生活、社區的理解與支持為起點,開始預防遺憾事件。
    二、社區支持的急迫性現行支持服務(如:同儕支持、家屬支持與社區支持)仰賴民間團體運作,長期下來政府忽略已身責任。同時,政府長期不願意挹注資源外,也將病患所造成的衝擊歸因至疾病與個人,忽略人與人、人與社會的互動關係,最後直接丟至醫院作為最終處理方式。顯然,在進醫院之前,少了一個環節 – 支持服務。
    三、去污名的重要性網路上,有網友說兩公約與身權公約,讓精神疾患免除死刑,是「鼓勵殺人犯動手前先去精神科掛號拿證明」,這樣的言論頗有疑慮。
    嚴重精神疾患者不見得會做出犯罪行為,若有,我們的社會可以如何在行為發生前給予支持?才是重點。切勿發生憾事後開始汙名、指責,甚至集體獵殺。此案與精神疾病相關之輿論,再再顯示了社區支持與去污名的重要性。
     
  458. ^ 翁士恒(國立東華大學). ADHD 臨床現場的分裂與對話:以ICF為參照的反思. 還孩子做自己行動聯盟. 2017-03-13 [2017-06-24] (中文). 另外一個有趣的問題也是ICF對於臨床專家的質問,到底我們標定了孩子限制之後,可以讓孩子有多少的權力去改變他所存有的環境?孩子的注意力、過動行為與過激的情緒反應可以透過藥物與行為改變技術測改變,並可客觀測量其有效性,但是若他來自沒有愛與尊重的環境呢?是否可以「也」去改變他的環境以及他對環境的覺知?讓孩子可以去找愛,被愛;穩穩的愛人,穩穩的被愛,這不是單一專業可以站在主導的位置可以單獨完成的工作,需要跨專業的對話與合作,每個專業都一樣重要,不應落於單一專業凌駕其他專業或是宰制其他專業的狀態。 
  459. ^ 459.0 459.1 459.2 459.3 459.4 諶立中. 問題評析 (PDF). 中華民國衛生福利部心理與口腔衛生司. 2016-10-13 [2017-03-05]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-03-05). 
  460. ^ 張詠晴. 教師帶頭霸凌 特製獎牌譏諷過動兒|天下雜誌. 天下雜誌. 2017-05-22 [2018-03-14] (中文). 
  461. ^ 家有過動兒:幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長. 博客來. 2013-08-28 [2018-03-14] (中文). ......謝謝所有投入治療ADHD的相關人員,謝謝你們幫助我們的父母,學會用科學的角度英语Point_of_view_(philosophy)看事情,讓這些天真的孩子們不再遭受主觀的道德審判。 
  462. ^ 專注不足/過度活耀協會. 《立法是否保障特殊教育需要學生的出路?》論壇. Hong Kong, China. 2015-03-29- [2017-03-15]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-05). 
  463. ^ NIH awards nearly $100 million for Autism Centers of Excellence program. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2017-09-06 [2017-11-08]. (原始内容存档于2017-11-09). Duke University, Durham, North Carolina – Understanding and potentially treating ASD-ADHD combination.
    An estimated 40 to 60 percent of people with ASD have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which encompasses such symptoms as difficulty paying attention, problems controlling behavior and hyperactivity. Co-investigators Geraldine Dawson, Ph.D., and Scott Kollins, Ph.D., aim to learn how ADHD may influence the diagnosis and treatment of autism and plan to observe children who have ASD alone, ASD and ADHD, and ADHD alone and compare them to typically developing children. They will also test whether the stimulant medication used to treat ADHD will help children with both conditions.
     

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